MCAT Chem/Phys
If asked to find avg translation kinetic energy of individual gas molecules and are given boltzmann's constant use:
the equation KE = 3/2kT
formation constant (Kf)
the equilibrium constant associated with reactions for the formation of complex ions The greater it is the more spontaneous the reaction as with any equilibrium constant
Lowest energy configuration is of whatever is described, so for P 3- anion it's the _________ For a phosphorous P it's the _________
the filled 3s and 3p orbitals. filled 3s and half-filled 3p orbitals.
When something is floating or still in water, then ________
the forces must be balanced out, the buoyant force on this buoy must be the same as gravitational force going the other way Sess 40 Question 12
fundamental frequency
the lowest frequency of vibration of a standing wave, so will typically have ONLY 1 node, so the bottom of the equation gets cancelled out
Chemical symbol with a number above what does the number mean?' ie 211^Pa
the mass number (atomic mass) g/mol
threshold frequency
the minimum frequency of light required to produce the photoelectric effect
The greater the bond dissociation energy
the more stable the chemical bond
The mole is
the number of amu required to yield 1 gram of mass 6.022x10^23 amu = 1 mol amu = 1 g
Concave mirrors create real images when
the object is placed outside (further) the focal length
Spherical aberration
the phenomenon by which real lenses' perfectly rounded (ie, spherical) surfaces do not produce an image at a single point, but rather at a series of focal points, most pronounced at periphery, can be corrected via reduction of thickness which will cause less difraction
Dispersion
the phenomenon of different frequencies of light having slightly different refractive indices. Light with higher frequency (such as violet light compared to red light) has a higher index of refraction in a lens and therefore refracts more. The formation of blurry images due to dispersion is known as chromatic aberration.
Spring force is always in the direction of
the starting point (equilibrium point)
If the value of your solubility product is less the ksp then
then more will dissolute
The lower the enthalpy (deltaH) the more _______ the rxn
thermodynamically favorable the reaction, so the more activity, also for *NS FL5 Q7 C/P* the individual enthalpies for each step matter more than the totals, even though the total might be similar there may be a step that is particularly unfavorable
Silica gel is
polar stationary phase typically
If a gas is created as a result of a rxn from things that were not gases then the entropy is _____
positive (increasing entropy)
Remember, unless there is an actual reaction, then transferring ______ is not possible, but transferrring _______ is
protons is not possible but transferring electrons is possible FL2 CP Q47
Remember solids are _________, liquid are _______ and gases are ________ in Keq
pure solids are excluded pure liquids are excluded, BUT aqueous are included gases are included
When you see heat and things like specific heat capacity (temp to raise 1g 1C) think this equation
q=mcDeltaT
Dielectric constant and capacitance
the dielectric constant (κ) reflects the ability of dielectrics to increase the functional capacitance beyond the capacitance in a vacuum (C0), defined as the absence of any material.
enantiomeric excess
the difference between the percentage of two enantiomers in a mixture EE = (observed optical rotation * 100) / (specific rotation)
Decay in soundwave intensity over an area cannot explain
the doppler effect which is where the frequency of the observed sound is changing, this happens because successive waveforms are emitted further away from obs or closer
Conservative force
A force, such as gravity, that performs work over a distance that is independent of the path taken, so change in distance final matters. Also, if the force doesn't dissipate heat, sound, or light, then it is conservative
Refluxing
A method for heating a reaction so that you can increase the temperature of an organic reaction to boiling without losing volatile solvents, reactants or products. Any vaporised compounds are cooled, condense and drip back into the reaction mixture.
Enthalpy, when is it negative or positive
+ energy absorbed (ie decrease temp of surrounding water) - energy released (ie increases temp of surrounding water)
ΔH positive and negative mean
+ energy absorbed, so temperature decreases (endothermic) - energy released, so temperature increase (exothermic)
Boron family oxidation number:
+3
Steps for dot structure
-Figure out # of valence electrons -Place central atom and make single bonds to begin -Then add valence to the outer atoms to make them all have octets -Then move electrons so that central atom has full octet and move as needed
How do you find components of a velocity vector?
-For an x direction you can use Vx=Vtotal * cos(theta) -For a y direction you can use the Vy=Vtotal* sin(theta) *NS7 CP Q7* Here is a good question where you find Vtotal from the kinetic energy and then find the components
Converging lens
A converging (convex) lens converges parallel rays of light toward its focal point. A real image is formed from the convergence of the refracted light rays on the side of the lens opposite the object. Real images are always inverted (upside-down with respect to the object).
Continuity equation (relate to diameter as well of circular vessel)
A1v1=A2v2 If r gets halved, then that means area is four times lower, so that means velocity is 4 times faster
LDF is exhibited by _______ molecules
ALL
Diverging lens
A diverging (concave) lens spreads parallel rays of light away from its focal point. A virtual image is formed from the apparent convergence of refracted light rays traced back to the same side of the lens as the object. The image is virtual because the light rays do not actually converge at the image. Virtual images are always upright.
Lens Power is the same as Lens strength and if you want to combine strength of lens, you have to ____
Add them
Acetylation
Addition of an acetyl group to something
Conservation of energy what happens to KE and PE (for a rocket after launch)
After the rocket moves away, the gravitational force is the only one present in the system, KE decreases in this case since there is Fgrav pulling it down, that's the only force, since gravity is a conversative force the KE lost becomes PE gained, so the change in PE is exactly opposite change in KE Sess 6 question 3
When balancing, do what before what?
Balance oxidation state before balancing coefficients, so in this one balance out the CO3 2- with the H+ instead of just having them swap constituents which would lead to an charge of -1 Sess 39 Question 7
Gas-liquid chromatography seperates by what?
Based on boiling point, so intermolecular forces determine this
How does radical formation occur?
Basically a bond splits in half and then one electron is given to each portion that leaves, oftentimes it is a hydrogen that leaves as hydrogen is fine with just one electron FL3 CP Q35 This is a good example
Glucose formula
C6H12O6
Heat capacity vs Specific Heat capacity equations
C=mc=q/deltaT q=mcdeltaT Can convert between each other, basically divide the specific heat capacity by m to get heat capacity
X-ray diffraction (crystallography)
Can be used to find three-dimensional molecular structure and packing, this happens because x-rays can't diffract through slits because they are so small
Wherever you see respiration, think bicarbonate buffer and the things in the bicarbonate buffer system
Carbonic acid is H2CO3 Bicarbonate is HCO3
Strong Lewis Bases have
Charged atoms, additional lone pairs so they more readily donate electrons and will kick off weaker Lewis bases in coordination or in other bonds
ICE Tables
For ksp, we only look at the products, but for other ICE tables, you look at everything IMPORTANT amount substracted from reactant is added to products ALSO the -x and +x amounts are based on the mole ratio
nonconservative forces
Forces that its work depends on the path. They are dissipated, you cannot recover it Eg: friction, heat
Dimensional analysis (remember to get the necessary term on the top, otherwise have to reciprocal)
From Question 7 Session 5 Chem. I tried to convert mg/ml but I got 1/250 mL which should have been flipped up to be 250 mL
From where to where do you measure to find period?
From crest to crest, or one wavelength worth, so from the starting point up and back down and then up to the starting point y position is also one period. Trust yourself man, you had this right don't second guess too hard
Nucleophilic attack example
GOOD job recognizing that OH- is a strong nucleophile
Try to think about kinematics equations, given distance and acceleration, you can figure out time since v0 is typically 0
Here you can find acceleration given mass and force, so you can plug into x=vit + 1/2at^2
Ka, pKa, and acid strength
Higher Ka means stronger acid Lower pKa means stronger acid
______ reactions tend to be under kinetic control and favor pathways that have the ______ activation energy
Irreversible reactions tend to be under kinetic control and favor pathways that have the lowest activation energy
Isolated vs closed system
Isolated no matter no energy transfer Closed no matter but yes energy transfer
A polar molecule can induce _______ in a nonpolar molecule
It can induce a dipole in a nonpolar molecule since a polar molecule has a permanent dipole
What does calibration mean in the scientific process?
It means modifying a device to match with some relevant baseline
If a substance is a certain color, then it must absorb light at what wavelength?
It must absorb light from the complimentary wavelength. So for instance, yellow would be purple and green would be red.
From what phosphate of the ATP does the phosphoryl transfer from kinases occur?
It occurs from the transfer of the γ-phosphate of ATP
What does the dehydration reaction after aldol condensation do?
It removes the OH group and adds a double bond
Negative charge on the substrate typically does what to attacking nucleophiles?
It repels them
If there is a mixture of products and one is present in a greater quantity, what does this tell us about the thermodynamic stabilities of the products?
It tells us that the one present in greater amounts is more stable
If one quantity increases by a factor (multiplied) of something and the two quantities are inversely related, then what must the other quantity do?
It will be decreased by a factor (divided) by the same magnitude
What shape is a traditional michaelis-menten kinetic graph?
It's hyperbolic
Carbamate group
It's like an ester + amide
KE of an ideal gas
KE 3/2kT = 3/2nRT
Strong Acid and Strong Base in terms of Ka and Kb Weak Acid and Weak Base in terms of Ka and Kb
Ka>>1 Strong Acid Kb>>1 Strong Base Ka<<1 Weak Acid Kb<<1 Weak Base
Keq expressions like Keq>1 and Keq<1 mean?
Keq>1 means products favored AT EQUILBRIUM Keq<1 means reactants favored AT EQUILIBRIUMS so if the deltaG is negative between the products and reactants, products are favored more, once it becomes equal, Keq is reached *Sess 25 Q17*
What happened in this reaction?
Kind of confusing, but NaBH4 is a reduction agent, so the ketone gets reduced to an alcohol and then that alcohol attacks the carbonyl on the ethyl ester to form a lactone, confusing but based on the functional group names, this becomes easier to figure out FL4 CP Q30 Look at it from the ketone to the ester that's how the ring forms
SI units for force
N (kgm/s^2)
Is a catalyzed reaction more energetically favorable?
NO, it is not since favorability is related to gibbs free energy, and only activation energy changes in a rxn
Ranking Reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives
NOTE: aldehydes and ketones are awful leaving groups
If given a ratio, you can make an assumption about the value of the concentration of one thing in said ratio
NS4 C/P Q5 The ratio of solubility given for most favorable solubility was 15:20:5, so you can say that a given number in the ratio has a concentration of 15 mg/mL
This shit is hard, try and read as best you can for this stuff
NS4 CP Q26 The only amine of the choices listed is lysine, so try to find this in passage, maybe do this untimed? C/P on nextstep is so hard
When there is no clear relationship, then likely not able to draw any predictions from the values
NS4 CP Q27 if you want to look at it
Try to slow down on reading the question even if the time is running out will prevent silly mistakes
NS4 Q51
This is an interesting graph, you have to find one dimension and then the other since there are three different labelled axes s
NS4 Q53 First look at the right and then find the X-axis value and then look at the left side value for the other colored line
Masses of protons, neutrons, and electrons
Neutron is ever so slightly more than proton, and electron is much smaller than either
This question is difficult, so when the kinetic energy is just large enough to overcome the sum of all upward forces, that means that it is at equilibrium, therefore there is no_______ at that point but there is _____
No Kinetic energy but there is maximum potential energy *Physics Mini 1 Q11* the answer is 0 J
Is water included in equilibrium equations?
No water is NOT included so in questions like this, you must bear this in mind FL2 CP Q37
Can the boiling point tell you about thermodynamic stability?
No, it can't you would have to used heats of combustion or some thermo quantity, boiling point only tells us about intermolecular interactions
Are metalloids like silicon more conductive than a metal like Ca?
No, metals are always more conductive, metalloids are in between, then nonmetals
So in an elevator accelerating downwards at -g what would apparent weight be? How would you find the fraction of true weight given a new value of -3/4g?
Normally accelerating downwards at -g it would be 0 since the forces cancel (Fg and Fn) but if the force going downward has -3/4g then it will have 1/4th less force going downwards and thereforce will experience some apparent weight, and the linear relationship means that it will be 1/4 of his normal weight (most of the way to -g so will be close to no apparent weight)
What is the observer and source in this question
Observer: ultrasound probe Source: blood flow
What is the only thing that changes the coefficient of static friction?
Only changes to the surface or a new surface
What is oxidation and reduction with respect to alcohols and carboxylic acids and the like?
Oxidation is creation of C=O so it becoming a stronger bond, reduction happens when it loses that C=O bond, REDUCED becomes weaker in this context think like that
Pyrophosphate
P2O7 4-
Pressure
P=F/A in N/m^2
Power equation of circuit
P=IV
Power equation
P=IV =I^2R =V^2/R Watts
Hydrostatic pressure equation (fluids)
P=pgh or delta p=pgdeltah if you want change in pressure
Oxidation of an alcohol by PCC makes? By KMnO4? By Na2Cr2O7?
PCC makes an aldehyde KMnO4 and Na2Cr2O7 both make carboxylic acid
phosphate group (also, what kind of bonds are in it and what kind of bonds does it usually form)
PO4 has polar covalent bonds (forms ionic bond with things that have + charge and have large EN diff, like Ca2+)
What makes water a good solvent?
Partial Negative Charge Bent Geometry Small Size
SI unit for pressure
Pascal (N/m^2)
For a fully enclosed and incompressible fluid, an external pressure will be applied to the fluid uniformly, what is this called and what is the equation?
Pascal's Law
Remember gases diffuse ______ from ______ to ______ pressure
Passively from high to low pressure, so they will increase the pressure of wherever they are moving to *Sess 26 Q1 difficult example*
Current Path
Path of least resistance typically, but it will split based on resistances at a junction, so if one side has double the resistance then it will be halved going that way. Also flows opposite to electron charge (idk what this does)
Positive formal charge means Negative formal charge means
Positive means not enough electrons Negative means too many electrons
ft*lb/s=
Power ft*lb is torque which is rF or N*m or J (work) and N*m/s is power since it is W/t
J/s = ft•lb/s = kg•m2/s3
Power measurement units
Process functions (or path functions)
Process functions (or path functions) describe the path taken by a system to transition from one equilibrium state to another.For example, the loss or gain of heat is a process function because it describes the path taken by a system from its current pressure, volume, and temperature to a different set of values.
Kb and Ka are just
Products/Reactants so the acid or base on bottom and the conjugate + OH or H3O on top can be useful to think of it as a reaction with water on the side of the reactants
Depends on means the same as
Proportional to (at least in UWorld physics)
When asked for formal charges
DRAW IT OUT quickly making sure octets are fulfilled
dehydrogenases (oxidase) vs reductase
Dehydrogenase catalyzes oxidation of substrates in hydride transfer reactions, so removal Reductaase catalyzes reduction of substrates in hydride transfer reactions, so addition
Thermal Expansion (Length and Volume)
Delta 𝐿 = a 𝐿 Delta𝑇 Delta𝑉 = b 𝑉 Delta𝑇 Mainly remember Delta L or V is linearly proportional to change in T
The difference between the reactants and the first intermediate or the final product in a free energy diagram is the __________
DeltaG, so if the the intermediate is higher than the reactant that must mean the DeltaG is positive, but if it is lower then it is negative
Ohm Law for Flow
DeltaP = Q x R CO = Q VR = R
Presbyopia (Hyperopia) and what kind of lens corrects this?
Difficulty seeing up close (farsightedness) causes image formed behind retina, so converging (convex) lens will fix this. Think about it like you need to close the rays to see more (converging)
Diffraction vs Dispersion
Diffraction is the bending of light around physical corners or very narrow gap Dispersion is the spreading of light into its different frequencies (colors) like a prism
To be able to titrate something, the analyte must be fully dissolved so you must _______
Dissolve it in an aqueous solution, and if it's too nonpolar it will not dissolve, so you must often use a base to deprotonate and cause the molecule to be more polar, but then an acid must be used for the titration
Easy way to tell alkane, alkene, or alkyne from formula
Each subsequent addition to bond order will take away 2 hydrogens from so CnH2n+2, CnH2n, CnH2n-2 for single, double, and triple bond respectively
Equation that relates charge, current and time
Q = It I=Q/t
Remember if different answers have different units, you might be able to eliminate based on what is asked
Question is asking for velocity, velocity is displacement/time not volume/time so it couldn't be cm3/s
Your logic does not matter here, only what they say matters, be mindful of this, go with the info given in the question, don't bring in outside knowledge if it says specifically to reason given said information
SB CP Q100 This is a very good piece of advice, do not assume only answer in line with the question stem. Here it tells you very explicitly that blood flows in the center of vessels in small vessels, so it would stand to reason that viscosity would go down as a result of less interactions, but you were trying to logic through it and say oh smaller vessels, more interactions, but your logic does not matter. They say "given this information" so answer given that information, do not make assumptions even in CP with questions like this
Remember in thin lens equation, the values are relative to THE LENS
SB CP Q11 So in this example, the object distance (always positive) is 12 cm and the image distance (in this case positive) is 4 cm, this is relative to the middle of the lens. So focal length would be 3 cm from 1/f = 1/12 +1/4
If you did this now, you'd get it right also
SB CP Q12 So KE of photoelectron you know is KE=hf-W and you have work (3.4eV) and the h and f values so just plug and chug
Another one you'd get now
SB CP Q13 So the most substituted, typically the more likely SN1/E1 will happen
Here, you are trying to do this by looking at which molecule is not being changed in this reaction but is still involved in the reaction
FL1 CP Q10 So here, the acidic H is going to be lost, but the hydroxyl oxygen will remain apart of the reaction, so it would be most useful to see whether it was lost or not because if it's gone then we know that it lost it but if it isn't then we know that it kept it
When multiple substituents of something assemble together, it is likely due to INTERmolecular bonds not intra such as is the case in the example
FL1 CP Q22 Here it asks why compound 2 is more structurally rigid than compound 1. From this portion of the passage, we can see that compound 1 assembles into large micelle cylinders and that oxidation of this cylindrical compound results in compound 2 that is stable to alkaline.
This is interesting because when area goes down, typically the velocity increases, but they're saying it slows down in capillaries, so there must be an explanation
FL1 CP Q26 This is because the total area of all the capillaries goes up relative to arteries so that means it actually slows down on the whole
The environment of something's binding site is just talking about that compound, stop overthinking, it's not about what it binds to, it is just about what the compound itself is
FL1 CP Q31 Here you can clearly see that the retinal is hydrophobic because it is pretty nonpolar throughout, when you were redoing it you thought that the binding site meant where it bound, that is NOT the case, it is just means the region of the molecule that binds to something else, so it is ON the retinal itself. The environment should be similar to it.
Remember pay attention to words like NET change
FL1 CP Q35 Here two basic residues are removed and two acidic residues are added, so the net change is -4
Also remember to pay attention to info in the passage about reactions, it can help you figure out what is going on
FL1 CP Q4
This question is a good exercise in keeping all the values in order and on the right tier (denominator or numerator). Also important to pay attention to what the question is asking, here it wants a RATIO
FL1 CP Q45 Find image distance and then divide by object distance since rememember -di/do = hi/ho also remember that the object distance is 3F not 1/3F stuff like that is important
Looking at this chart, how do you know what gets reduced and what gets oxidized?
FL1 CP Q53 and Q54 Fairly simple, since the metals without oxidation numbers can't gain any electrons they can't be reduced, and since the metals with oxidation numbers can't lose more electrons they can't be oxidized
This is a weird question in terms of wording, but just think what is the only real possibility here?
FL1 CP Q58 Here the only thing you can realistically do is find the volume
REMEMBER something polar will exhibit an intermolecular forces greater than something that isn't polar such as in the example
FL1 CP Q8 Here you can see that the first choice has hydrogen bonding so probably highest, then you see the two with the chlorine and bromine groups respectively, these both have pretty large EN, so they will make the molecule polar, which cause dipole attraction, which means they will be next strongest, then finally the neutral double bonded one.
Pay close attention to units mentioned like on this question
FL1 Q11 the first value is 2.0 cm NOT m
Le Chatelier's Principle is important to have in the back of your mind whenever answering questions
FL1 Q13 Here adding HCl will essentially add lots of H+ into solution (since it is strong acid) and cause there to be a lot of that in solution, so less acetic acid will be able to ionize (good to write out the ionization equation if possible)
Questions where you are told to figure out an equation in terms of variables or told to find a relationship, always look at answer choices to get an idea of what to do
FL1 Q18 Here you can see that Pp is being solved for and there is no Ps in the relationship, so likely that you must sub in for that
Remember to think in terms of the units of the questions
FL1 Q21 Here you're finding the power given 9L per 10 min from the graph, then you must find the work and power is Work/S so multiply that value by the seconds it took and you get your answer
Remember that this is a large cylindrical structure so there is likely lots of INTERMOLECULAR forces going on not just INTRA
FL1 Q22 Since it is more stable to alkaline can't be h bonding, and since it is within a micelle can't be intramolecular
Make sure you don't rush stuff like this question since it is somewhat tricky, pay attention to the wording
FL1 Q30 This passage talks about Rhodopsin mainly but the question asks what the VARIETY of OPSINs do, and the paragraph mentions other opsins are used in cone cells so color
Pay attention to details in paragraph, it specifically states what laforin is in paragraph
FL1 Q41 It says laforin is a phosphatase, so it must reduce the amount of phosphate in the mixture, don't lose points to stuff like this, also LAFORA disease and LAFORIN are different, don't get terms confused
In some cases, very simple answers might very well be correct
FL1 Q50
By convention just assume that left cell is anode and right cell is cathode for the galvanic cell here
FL1 Q54
Don't get too caught in the semantics of values mentioned in the passage, such as here where the question asks for largest CD signal but the passage talks about the change in CD, these are for the purposes of these kinds of questions the same thing.
FL2 CP Q13
This question is a bit tricky, essentially it's asking which one of these residues would be likely to be phosphorylated like threonine of serine.
FL2 CP Q19 The passage says this "mimics the HM domain (sHM) of Ser/Thr kinases with the amino acid sequence FLGFTY. Phosphorylated sHM (spHM) was also used in place of sHM" so the only one of the choices that could be phosphorylated is E since it has an -OH group
Refraction vs Reflection
Reflection happens when it exceeds critical angle and it bounces back (must be from higher n to lower n), back at source Refraction is when the light bends after it hits another surface, away from source
Equipotential lines
Regions within an electric field with equal electrical potential; movement from one point on these lines to another causes no change in the energy of the system.
How would you set up this equation given emission at 440 and excitation at 360 nm? SLOW DOWN and think about the question and what it wants before rushing into it, will help you save time in the long run
FL2 CP Q2 Here the important thing to realize is that it is asking specifically for the amount of energy that is converted to OTHER forms, so that means released between the excitation and the emission. Remember the energy released is equal to the energy absorbed when it jumps up to a higher energy level. Considering the answers, we can figure out that our equation will be E=hc/λ but it will be instead Econverted = hc(1/λ^1 -1/λ^2)
Even curves with only very slight bends are cooperative (see example)
FL2 CP Q21Z Both of these curves are sigmoidal = cooperative, even though figure 2 has only a slight bend to it, still sigmoidal and cooperative
Even if you didn't know this, you could use process of elimination
FL2 CP Q26 Here A and B do not make sense because regardless of ratios there is always gonna be the same amount pyrmidines and purines, the types may vary but the amount of those two types is always the same. Also, D does not make much sense here, why would adding more A:T cause the electrostatic repulsion of phosphates to go up? So C is the only reasonable option
Remember reduction and oxidation are about ELECTRONS, not protons, even though often when something loses or gains protons it can be oxidized or reduced respectively, it is not always the case.
FL2 CP Q31 For this question though, honestly, when you see lone pair of electrons and lewis base is a choice, it is likely that
In this one the information about the temperature of both processes can be found in the passage for things like this always consult the passage, and make sure you consult the portions associated with things mentioned, so in this case both SCY and electrode info
FL2 CP Q33
stepwise formation example
FL2 CP Q35 Using the reaction provided you can see that it seems like the H2O is removed and the NH3 is added in a 1:1 ratio
Very important pay close attention to question stem, NEVER miss stuff because you didn't close read
FL2 CP Q4 Here the question is asking specifically for sp2 hybridized CARBON atoms, so don't go picking D here instead of C
Pretty straightforward, but good job not rushing and making sure you had the right value from the graph
FL2 CP Q42 Here it asked for the LOWEST pH
You got this right, but just a reminder to not mess up on simple square roots
FL2 CP Q43 Here when you were redoing it for some reason your mind went to A, but just think about it square root of 49 is 7 so square root of 4.9 must be 0.7 and the only option is C
For charges and the direction in which they'll travel, it's easiest to just draw arrows towards unlike and away from like
FL2 CP Q46
Remember the DeltaH of a reaction is the TOTAL of the bond dissociation energies of the bonds that are broken and the formation energies of the bonds that are made
FL2 CP Q49 Here the question asks for the DeltaH of the decomposition fo nitroglycerin (the first compound), so you need to flip signs accordingly and make sure the mole values are correct
Good work here finding power
FL2 CP Q52 Here you can find the force by using mg then multiply by the distance by finding the number of steps times the height then multiply by force to get work and then divide that by the time to get Power. Also remember to pay attention to charts because there is one for females and one for males
Stinky child, you missed this because you got values from the wrong chart, always at least skim over charts and tables to get a general idea
FL2 CP Q53 Basically all you have to do here is find x and then plug in but I think you originally used the male values instead of the female which messed up your numbers.
The wording about ratio may be slightly confusing, but really whenever you hear talk of intensities just automatically assume logarithmic scale stuff
FL2 CP Q54
Remember, upright and inverted are NOT the same as enlarged and reduced
FL2 CP Q55 So here I was right that a negative focal length meant virtual, but I did not know that diverging lenses make the image smaller
Protein secondary structure is characterized by the pattern of hydrogen bonds between:
FL2 CP Q58 Between backbone amide protons and carbonyl oxygens. This is the only one that makes sense, since there may not be side chains on the amino acids so the other answers would make little sense here
In water, what happens to N-H and C-H?
FL3 CP Q10 N-H will likely get exchange it's ions for protons (that is it will get deprotonated) but C-H will not, this is because N has a lone pair that facilitates this.
Good job reasoning through this
FL3 CP Q11 The question very explicitly asks us to look at the number of particles, so we must use avogadro's number, but PV=nRT does not include this. So, we must set the equation equal to moles and then solve for it and then multiply that by Avogadro's number
What methods can you use to find the limiting reagent?
FL3 CP Q13 So the most common way is to look at mole ratios and then see how much of each exists and then place them in a ratio. Also, if you have descriptors of the rxn, you can see what's left over and what's used up, this will tell you that whichever is used up is limiting. Here it is iodine
Questions like this especially, don't overthink
FL3 CP Q16 The moment you see reduction potentials, you should be thinking REDOX so don't overthink this and pick something else
You shouldn't have missed this, was straightforward
FL3 CP Q24 It clearly states in the passage that it was a two electron oxidation, so the additional substance must be reduced since glucose is oxidized, the only one of these that can be reduced is FAD+ I think you knew this and just somehow flipped this reasoning, just breathe, you know this stuff
This is kind of confusing at first but it's not too bad once you apply henderson-hasselbalch
FL3 CP Q26 Here you are trying to change the pH of a buffer so the best way to visualize that is the H-H equation, and you'd have to pick the pKa closest to the end point to start with and then see what combo of conjugate base/acid you need to get the right value
Good working paying close attention to details of the question stem, you almost messed up, always reread question as many times as you need
FL3 CP Q27 You intially were confused and were trying to add nitrogens and oxygens to measure the mass of a peptide bond but that's insane, the question asks what is the mass of the BYPRODUCT of reaction, and peptide bond formation results in a water being produced, so you just find the amu of water
You spent a bit too much time on this, the best way for something like this is to just write it out
FL3 CP Q29 Here if you don't write it out, thinking through it in your head becomes difficult. If you write the rxn described in the passage and cancel out things, you can get the right answer
This one is confusing, very useful for understanding oxidation reduction designations in reactions
FL3 CP Q32 So the net reaction is near the top and results in H2O or perhaps you were reading the passage and assumed it was H2O2, either way, the thing that underwent reduction was not the H2O2, the thing that underwent reduction was O2, that's the thing actually being reduced, questions like this want you to pick the thing that gets reduced not the thing that has already been reduced.
Good job reasoning through this
FL3 CP Q37 Here the question asks which atom is involved in coordination with calcium and the passage says calcium has interactions with side chain and the backbones and the only commonality in these is oxygen so it must be that.
What two reactions are illustrated in this reaction scheme?
FL3 CP Q4 First a michael addition in Step 1 and then an intramolecular aldol in Step 2
Good job here realizing how to apply the gibbs free energy equation
FL3 CP Q41 Here you have to apply the RTln(Q/Keq) which you can think of as product/reactant and in this case you can think of the nucleotide unfolding as the product and the native as the reactant in this case
Your reasoning here was good
FL3 CP Q48 Here you realized that it couldn't be an inverse relationship so it had to be C or D but it also wasn't directly linear so it can't be C
What equations should be used for this question?
FL3 CP Q5 So you have capacitance and voltage, so you can find charge fairly easily using C=Q/V but to find energy you must U=1/2CV^2. Remember, anytime you see energy mentioned, always think about potential energy or whatever other equation that can give you joules as a result
Well done using the units to your advantage here
FL3 CP Q50 Here you realized you could get to the end units by multiplying, also it's just volume flow rate so Q=Av
Remember the continuity equation is A1v1=A2v2
FL3 CP Q52 This one is very hard, so basically here you have to realize that the blood vessel flow rate will equal the capillary flow rate and to do this, you basically have to set up a continuity equation. You were on the right track, but you didn't apply the idea that flow rate is equal
This one took you awhile but you got it, remember anytime you seem tubes and water and heights involved, think bernouli's equation
FL3 CP Q58 You tried a number of things before you settled on Bernouli's equation, but you finally realized that given the information you had that was the only way to solve for h. You were given the pressure and that should be equal to the mgh, so you set that equation up and then solve.
This is the only one that made sense here, so good job
FL3 CP Q59
When asked for a value, always right out the various equations for that value and the things you could you use to get that value. Especially if you're stuck, this is invaluable
FL3 CP Q7 Here they are asking you for power, so write out the power equations so there's P=W/t =IV = Fvcostheta if you did this you would have saved so much time
This is a confusing one, try to reason through it
FL3 CP Q7 So first and foremost, to keep something moving at a constant speed, you must balance the net forces out, anytime something is constant in terms of motion, ALWAYS THINK FORCES BALANCED. That means that you have to figure out the forces acting on the train at any given moment. You were using the braking force value, but that would stop it, we need the force for constant motion, the final sentence states there's a continuous decelerating force from friction, so the force must balance that.
Given the statement "the force declines linearly with speed", which of these graphs is correct?
FL3 CP Q8 So if as speed goes down the force also goes down, what happens when force decreases? Acceleration also decreases this is very important, that means that over time there is less deceleration acting on the railcar since force goes down.
Vectors are rather hard, but just think about addition as tip-to-tail and substraction as tip-to-tail flipped
FL4 CP Q12 Here the highest possible is when they are directly added together and the lowest is when they are directly opposites and are subtracted from each other, the various angles can be used for those values in between these two magnitudes.
This is an experimental reasoning question that's interesting
FL4 CP Q16 Remember, energy is directly related to temperature and radiation has a lot of energy, so it makes sense to pulse it so the heat doesn't build up too high, the others also don't make much sense.
This question took longer than it should have because you only solved for the the value of the NH3 times the Kb and not the X^2 on the other side, don't forget about the squared also remember to take into account coefficients
FL4 CP Q18 Aside from just doing this faster, it's fairly straightforward
Good job slowing down and actually thinking instead of rushing this because your mind instantly went to transition metal here
FL4 CP Q20 I was almost stupid and picked transition metal here instead of alkaline earth, but good job catching that
Always be sure to read the passage (in C/P when it asks or is needed) and also compare different cell types or values to see the major differences
FL4 CP Q21 Here the you can see in the chart that it sensitizes cancer cells but it does nothing to noncancerous fibroblast, so it is likely selective
PRACTICE UNIT CONVERSIONS, don't mess up on stuff like this
FL4 CP Q22 So essentially here, the value from the table is 0.6 nM so that means it's 0.6 x 10^-9 M not 0.6 x 10^-9 nM you dumdum. Then you can just use dimensional analysis to solve in terms of uM, so you have 0.6 x 10^-9 M times 1 uM/1x10-6 M to get in terms of uM. Just get things to the standard value and then solve for units via dimensional analysis, it makes it easier. The way you did it confused things and you choose D instead of C.
Good job here realizing that the multiplicity of the increase was the most important thing, not the values themselves
FL4 CP Q23
Didn't pay attention to the wording enough, slow down
FL4 CP Q24 you chose D but why would you put the chemotherapeutic agent (Compound 2) first, you want to sensitize it FIRST, so you have to add the sensitization agent (Compound 1). You messed up on this, spend a few seconds closely rereading if you're confused or between choices
Remember any ester (even cyclic ones like lactones) will be hydrolyzed by strong bases like OH via saponification
FL4 CP Q31 Here, if you add a base, the lactone ring will break apart.
Good job with this one, this one makes the most sense in context here
FL4 CP Q32 Also CO3- from Na2CO3 would make a good base, so it's reasonable to assume it would accept those protons from the positive ammonium salt.
Good job figuring out what carbamate was from looking at other functional groups and realizing those were just simple esters
FL4 CP Q33 Here if you actually look Step 6 the only other decent option, then you can see that's it's an ester not a carbamide
Here you didn't realize that dNTP was also a substrate, this is a prime example of why you should take a bit of time and look over the reaction scheme
FL4 CP Q35 dNTP is a substrate here, and regardless of the path, as can be seen from the previous card, the binding order is the same (the inhibitor binding is different, which indicates that it's noncompetitive
There's only one that makes sense here
FL4 CP Q36 So it says that the strongest ineractions with the substrate are due to the side chains Val and Phe so the only thing it could be out of these is hydrophobic as that's is all that exists in their side chains
Try to think of the division that can occur between different values, math tripped you up here. Also if all their values have the same first value (5 in this case) you should probably check to make sure your value is that as well
FL4 CP Q38 So here you plugged in the values and this resulted in 0.7/1367 which you rounded to 1/1367 but this confused you and make the question harder than it needed to be, step back and then look at that intial division, 0.7 is half of 1.4 so you could round 1367 to 1400 which would make this markedly easier. If all their values have 5, yours should also be that, typically they will want a specific value if all the answers are in said value. ALWAYS JUST CONVERT INTO 10^x it makes it easier so just make 7/1400 into 7/14x10^2 and it makes the division super simple
Again, you can dilute things if your tool cannot measure the values at that point
FL4 CP Q39
When they give you a nucleophile, think about what would be an electrophile for it to attack in the context of the question
FL4 CP Q41 Here it says Asp14 is a nucleophile so it must attack an electrophile. The oxygen on the phosphate group is negatively charged, so it likely not going to the be what Asp14 interacts with, try to keep this in mind in these types of reactions
Good job realizing that the more alkanes you add, the more nonpolar it becomes
FL4 CP Q47
Good job noticing the pKa values on the molecules
FL4 CP Q48 Physiological pH is 7.2 and the pKas are higher so they are protonated and remain in keto form for both G and T
So this is just for the sake of limiting any variables that could change the measured values, fairly straightforward
FL4 CP Q5
Another good process of elimination
FL4 CP Q52 Here you knew it had to be 2+ and you didn't know Zn charge but you knew Na charge so you were able to choose Na and eliminate Zn
This question was SO confusing, but you figured it out, good job
FL4 CP Q54 So here you tried a lot of the different ideas from trying to see if you could solve for Q=CV to looking at IV as a possibility. You also wrote the Q=It equation but were confused because the value they gave was A*hr which is not a current value. But then you realized I is just Amps and amps are just C/s so if you plugged into Q=It but instead subbed in Q= (C/s)*(hr converted to seconds), you could solve for C. This was very tough, but good job figuring it out.
Good work here too using newton's equations and force equation
FL4 CP Q55 So they gave you vf and vi and t so you can solve for a. Then you can plug into F=ma to find force since they gave you the mass (remember to convert to mass to kg and the speeds into meters because F= kgm/s^2
Conductors
FL4 CP Q56 Conductors cancel out external electric field by having free electrons arrange themselves on the surface of conductors
Good job noticing the values here and that you didn't need to convert
FL4 CP Q59 Also you did Q=mCdeltaT but you didn't need to, you could have just simply done dimensional analysis
Remember even in C/P skim for passage details they can be very useful, especially here where the values would be too large otherwise
FL4 CP Q7 In the passage it specifically states there is 1/30 dilution factor so the original concen must be x30. The diluted blood sample value can be found using a ratio from the table values so 0.18/4.5 = 0.20/x to solve for X which is the diluted glucose concentration
If your device cannot measure above a certain concentration, what is the best way to get more precise readings?
FL4 CP Q8 Fairly straightforward don't overthink stuff like this, basically diluting the samples further will allow for them to be measured in the device and still be valid for comparison as simple ratios could subsequently be set up
You just didn't pay enough attention here
FL4 CP Q9 Fractional distillation is for things that have BPs closer than 25C apart, and chlorobutane has no H bonding but butanol does, so butanol must have a higher boiling point, so D is the only one that makes sense, when you're confused by an answer, just slow down and reread the options. Don't freeze in situations like this. Also think about the actual structure of the molecules, better yet quickly draw. Don't try to rationalize an answer that does not make sense. Even if it doesn't match fractional distillational exactly, it's still the best choice here.
Read question stem carefully Sess 15 Question 7
FORMAL CHARGE of chlorine and OXIDATION STATE of oxygen
Farads are the NOT the same as
Faradays Farads (F) are for capacitance (C)
Bouyant force equation and understanding
Fb=pVg p=fluid density Bouyant force goes upwards and gravity goes down, so the difference between the two will be your apparent weight. (Also normal weight -apparent weight)
Cardiac output is the same as
Flow rate so it can be used as Q in Q=Av Think about it, it is essentially the amount per unit time so it has to be the same. Here you can solve for CO using the resistance and pressure and the value will be in mL/s which is the same as cm^3/s so you can take that value and divide by the area value to get cm/s *Sess 21 Q10*
Remember the density in the archimedes principle (bouyant force equation) is what?
Fluid density
Electron affinity generally increases? Which way is negative?
Left to right and going up (more negative) unless the atom is very small (oxygen fluorine) since they have lots of electrons crowded they have electron-electron repulsion
Strong Bases
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2 2SrBaCa KLiNa
Remember when a unit is written, then all the stuff under the / symbol is apart of the denominator
Like here, the unit is mol/(L*atm* not mol/L *(atm)
In a decomposition reaction, the products cannot be ______
Lone ions, they must be charge neutralized compounds or diatomic molecules such as this example in *Sess 39 Q7* (also in relation to this question, it mentions that a gas forms from the decomp and MgCl2 is likely not gonna form gases)
IR frequencies to know
Low = double triple (alkenes, alkynes, cyanide, carbonyl) High = bonded to hydrogens
Impurities do what to a compound?
Lower melting point, and increase the range
When light goes from a ___ to a ____ index of refraction, the light rays bend toward the normal (perpendicular)
Lower to higher air to water
Lens placed in series
Multiply magnifications
Here you answered a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential causes a decrease in proteasome activity from the table in *NS6 CP Q16* but if you closely analyze the chart, you can see that this is NOT the case
In the bottom row, you can see that at 0 h proteasome activity in that row is ALREADY low, so it can't have been caused by the mitochondrial membrane potential, also we can see that proteasome activity and potential go back to normal over time so it must be reversible
If two protons are on a line, where is the magnitude of the electric field zero and why?
In the middle of the horizontal line since the vectors will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction and add up to zero
Deuterium
An isotope of hydrogen with one proton and one neutron in the nucleus having an atomic weight of 2.014
Carbocation
An organic ion in which a carbon atom has a positive charge, can regarrange and shift either the hydride (H) or a methyl group and move the carbocation to elsewhere
UV-Vis spectroscopy
Indicates presence of conjugated pi system
When a torque is applied, what does the object spin about?
The center of mass or pivot point
The more the number of H's bonded to the N, O, or F the _________
The greater the amount of intermolecular forces so the greater the boiling point, look at Sess 57 Question 18 as an example
When something is a better thermal conductor
The heat transfer between two objects will be much more rapid
If person is standing upright what is true of the pressure in the leg and in the head? which is greater?
The pressure in the leg is greater since it has less potential energy so it MUST have more kinetic energy and kinetic energy translates to collisions which translates to pressure *NS6 Q27*
radius of curvature
The radius of the sphere the mirror is "cut from" so think O <-circle with lil' tiny radius. ( <- flatter curve, way bigger circle, larger radius. That's why you got this wrong FL4 CP Q13 Here when you reduce the cornea's thickness that means it's a flatter curve ergo a larger radius of curvature
Young's Modulus of Elasticity
The ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain produced in a body, the higher the value of stress/strain the stiffer the material (slope of stress vs strain graph) Also in this example, you can see that as stress goes up, slope 1 has the least strain
Remember very similar graphs may have slightly different axes and units, watch out for this
The values for Mg2+ have one more zero in between the decimal and the value
TLC Chromatography which phase is polar? Which is nonpolar? How to find Rf value?
Typically the stationary phase is polar and the mobile phase (the thing travelling up the TLC paper) is nonpolar. Rf is: distance solute traveled/distance solvent front traveled
Very good question about titration and equivalence point that took you a bit longer than it should have
SB CP Q44 So here you want to find the equivalence point of Nag3 and HEW and from the graph there is a molar ratio of 1:1 there, so you must use up all of the thing being titrated so that's the lysozyme here (1.0mL, 0.1mM) and then the molar amount of the NAG3 must be the exact same, so if you solve for that you get 1x10^-7 mol, but the values are both in 100, SO you can move it to right (remember LARS right substract) so it becomes 100x10^-9 mol which is the same thing as 100 nmol which is B. You had the right reasoning, so follow through and trust your answer and always pay attention to the final units given by the question to help you.
Potential energy of a capacitor
U=1/2CV^2 or U=1/2QV
You could have also just used the slope (rise/run) value to find the number you wanted
SB CP Q45 You just used the equation KNAG3/Kapp = 1 + KNAG[NAG] that they gave you to solve for Knag but you could have just looked at the rise over run of that graph (keeping in mind starting point values of course). Also it's in M^-1 because you divide the value by [NAG] so M is on the bottom
Fractional distillation
Used to seperate instead of simple distillation when BP are within 25C of each other
Here the way you figured it out was process of elimination because the other answers seemed dumb
SB CP Q46 Here every choice but D involves changing both titrations, but the goal here is changing just the titration for compound 2. Essentially think of it like adding a competing substrate to the intial titration, so increasing the amount of competing substrate will help it to compete and in turn cause the Kapp to get lower, which means that the first substrate is not able to bind as well since Kapp is affinity constant. Essentially the AAMC is trying to get you to think of K1 as the first trial from the passage (first curve) and Kapp the second trial (second curve).
I think this one you would get as well if given it today
SB CP Q51 So here if you go through and figure out the charges, you can see that C and D have negative charges, with D having markedly more, but don't just pick that right away. The question specifically asks which would require the lowest concentration of NaCl for elution. Basically what this means is, which will require less positive Na+ ions and in turn elute later because it doesn't have as many negative charges holding on. That would be C, always reread the question stem before choosing the answer.
This one is kind of hard, but reasoning through it can likely get you to the right answer
SB CP Q52 The passage states that compound 2 is yellow, that means it must absorb light, so you can narrow it down to A or B, but A isn't visible light, so I decided to pick B because it is.
formal charge equation
Valence - dots (nonbonding) - sticks (bonding so each level of bond order equals 1 stick)
Remember right hand rule for magnetic force
Very Bad Finger Velocity Magnetic field Force
Viscosity
Viscosity is an intrinsic property of a fluid that characterizes the amount of friction resisting motion inside the fluid itself. So if stirring and stop, the viscosity will oppose turbulent flow
Work of Gas
W= PDeltaV so expansion is work done by the gas and compression is work done on the gas
If you push a block down a ramp and then back up a ramp what will the work done be
W=Fd so W=F(2d) d is the length of ramp here
entropic penalty
When hydrophobic aa is in a hydrophilic area, and vice versa -increases the amount of entropy in the area To decrease entropic penalty: put hydrophobic aa in hydrophobic area, hydrophilic aa in hydrophilic area
Total internal reflection
When light enters a medium with a lower refractive index, it will deflect back the into the medium
When is a system unable to perform work?
When the free energy change is 0 deltaG = 0
This one you way overthought it, go for the simpler answer, don't try to reason away the right answer because you have some assumption in your head
SB CP Q53 So the passage states "Then, Glu-1 deprotonates water, and the resulting hydroxide ion acts as a nucleophile to liberate β-D-galactose and regenerate the enzyme" The resulting hydroxide acts as a nucleophile and as you should know, nucleophile sticks around whereever they attack, they typically don't leave, and if it's attacking galactose, then it is probably gonna be attached to galactose. Don't just assume that in water involved cleavage, the water goes away, it gets added to the substrate remember that. You somehow reasoned yourself away from the most obvious answer, oftentimes it is the most obvious answer, don't second guess so hard.
Think about the implications of certain processes, so if NADH upregulated then what would happen?
Since that would mean less NAD+ that would mean less formation of pyruvate, which means less gluconeogenesis
Types of reactions
Single Replacements and Double Replacements Combination reaction (synthesis) two elements combined to form one new stable compound Decomposition is breaking down into two or more compounds or elements
State functions
State functions (or state quantities) describe the equilibrium state of a system as a relationship between various thermodynamic variables and are independent of the path taken by the system to arrive at its present state. State functions include a system's pressure, volume, and temperature.
Vibrational active modes result from
a net change in dipole
isopeptide bond
a peptide bond formed between the side chain of one polypeptide and the backbone of another such as between lysine amine group and the carbonyl of another amino acid
ionic salt
a salt, a solid containing cations and anions that dissolve in H20 such as NaCl or MgCl2 typically fairly stable
Benedict's test
a simple biochemical reaction to detect the presence of reducing sugars. Bases can be useful in displacing and replacing with an OH to make it reducing
amu and molecular weight are the same number but they mean different things, explain
amu is amount of mass in ONE MOLECULE and molecular weight is the amount of mass in ONE MOLE
Inclusion of what can help to make sure there is not a confounding variable?
an alternative procedure that is minimally invasive or noninvasive but measures similar values
Electrolysis means it is an
an electrolytic cell
Electron excitation (excited state) is when
an electron jumps from a lower energy orbital to a vacant higher energy (absorbs energy equal to energy diff between the two) so it can go from 3s1 to a 3p1 for instance like in Sess 57 Question 5
Dielectric material
an insulating material used to increase capacitance, it works by seperating charge positive charges are displaced in the direction of the field (+ to -) and negative charges shift in the direction opposite of the field (- to +)
pH and pOH are
analogous, so low pH means High H+ and low pOH means High OH-
Equilibrium constants are not affected by ______ except _______
anything except temperature
Ultrasound is
anything greater than what humans can hear
Bouyant force equation can be rearranged into _____
mg = pVg
Remember Molarity (concentration) can be rewritten as ______ so when given questions asking for this, try to think in these terms
mol/L *Sess 30 Q12 is a good example of this*
Leaving groups
molecular fragments that retain e- after heterolysis Weak bases are more stable w/ extra electrons -->good leaving groups
Static friction or kinetic friction forces ALWAYS oppose
motion Sess 49 Question 11, so the component vectors, this question is REALLY hard
Rules for resonance structures
move only electrons and generally only to adjacent atoms, keep the number of valence electrons constant, obey the octet rule, do not break sigma bonds, and keep the overall charge of the molecule constant.
To combine magnification of lenses, you have to _____
multiply them
index of refraction
n=c/v c=speed of light in vacuum v=speed of light in medium *Sess 21 Q4 it can be used to figure out velocity light travels in a given medium*
Typically, to increase frictional force, you must increase
normal force
Something with lots of hydrogen bonding is typically _____ to alkaline solutions
not stable
time of flight
not that common but might be useful
4n+2 pi electrons means 4n pi electrons means
aromatic (remember lone pairs can participate in conjugated systems) antiaromatric
The pKa of the buffer should be
as close to the pH at which the experiment will take place to be effective
When the object and the fluid have the same density
at rest, no net force but if fnet is applied then there will be an acceleration and then it will lose it but still keep constant velocity (ignoring frictional force)
Expanded Octet Rule
atoms from period 3 and below can use d-subshell for bonding and can have more than 8 electrons, only period 2 and below elements cannot exceed octet
Remember, carbonyls typically get _______
attacked by nucleophiles (carbonyls are electrophiles)
dipole-dipole forces
attractions between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules, so anything with polarity will have this
Bicarbonate is a common
base HCO3-
Ionization constant is the same thing as
base or acid dissociation constant, in this case I thought of it like ksp, if it has low kIonization then it likely can't ionize much so it has low number, low means weak acid, high means strong since they dissociate into ions very readily (sess 34 question 6)
Freezing point and boiling point are determined by
basically ONLY intermolecular forces
For a human or a body to maintain equilbrium, the center of mass must ______
be above their feet or the contact point, otherwise it would create a torque since so much of the weight would be leaning to one side that would be opposing the motion upwards FL2 CP Q12
If a molecule has two sides with the same molecule (protonated or deprotonated) typically the dipole will be
be cancelled, so having one deprotonated and one protonated will make a stronger dipole
Nonionizing radiation does not _______
break bonds or denature (basically anything before UV vis so Visible, infrared, etc)
Esters are hydrolyzed by _____ into _____
by water to form carboxylic acids and alcohols
Glucongeogenesis involves enzymes that _______ glycolysis enzymes
bypass and push the equilibrium toward rxns that favor gluconeogenesis
speed of light and wave velocity equation
c=λf v=λf
Remember, chiral centers are most often the _______
carbon, so when something says for instance chiral amine, that means that the amine is attached to chiral carbon, which A in this question is *NS7 CP Q25*
Cysteine is NOT affected by changes in pH, at least for the purposes of this test mainly ______ amino acids are affected by changes in pH
charged For example FL1 Q25 This means D on this is wrong, because it is not pH-dependent self-assembly, the only one that would make sense is C. Always be wary of what EXACTLY the question is asking
Amphiphile and amphipathic
chemical compound containing hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions
When is entropy maximized?
equilibrium
Check to see if there is a low or high EN in a molecule to see what kinds of bonds it has
high EN will mean ionic bond, calcium phosphate, Ca and Phosphate (or rather the O in the phosphate) have very different EN
Gases behave most ideally at
high temperature and low pressure *NS7 CP Q28* Here the temperature is much higher in choice C than it is in choice A
The index of refraction has to go from ___ to ___ for total internal reflection to occur
high to low water to air is a good example
Shorter bond length means
higher bond energy, also this means atoms with smaller radii tend to have stronger bonds
What happens to frequency when it passes through a medium?
it remains UNCHANGED Wave speed, amplitude, and wavelength may all change, but frequency does not
Remember to square the coefficient in [2x]^2 ksp or other equilibrium problems
it should 4x^2 in this case, don't mess up simple stuff like this
If the value of your solubility product is greater the ksp then
it will be precipitated out
When you dissolve something, it splits into
its constituent components, so write a balanced equation like in Sess 57 Question 10
Wavelenght of light absorbed by a molecule depends on ______
its structure so for instance in FL1 CP Q30 a variety of opsins allow for detection of different colors
Collision theory (using Ea, temp, gas constant) is what equation
k=Ae^(-Ea/RT) Arrehenius equation A=collision frequency k=rate constant (proportional to rxn rate)
coefficient of static friction is always _________ than the coefficient of kinetic friction
larger
High surface tension leads to
less surface area
Very large compounds that are hydrophobic like in Altius Mini 1 C/P Q13 have ______ in many solutions
limited solubility in acidic, alkaline, and neutral solutions
dB scale is
logarithmic so every 10 increase is twice as loud
Low pitch and high pitch mean
low frequency and high frequency
Mechanical advantage of pulley system
mechanical advantage of pulley systems is related to the number of load-sharing pulleys but unrelated to the number of fixed pulleys that redirect forces, so if you have two pulleys redirecting the work needed is halved
Vibrations or anyhing energy associated with motion and position is _______
mechanical energy (kinetic and potential energy)
If something has a plane of symmetry between chiral centers, then it is a ______ compound
meso compound, this means that this is achiral, so that only counts as one stereoisomer in the 2n calculation (kind of insane but okay) *NS7 CP Q23*
Remember the cell potential E^o of concentration cell is always
0.00 since the same half rxn happens at both electrodes
hydronium ion
H3O+ or H+
Bicarbonate
HCO3- (it is a base)
Trust yourself, you may have second guessed yourself in a more stressful situation, but you a nice guy cool guy and you know this
SB CP Q89 So we know glutamic acid is negatively charged, so it probably is fine at low pH but at high pH when the pH>pI then the protein is deprotonated, and there is a decrease in activity higher, so D must be it
This graph is stupid, I don't like it
SB CP Q90 Also I guess the lowest activity is classfied as being at pH 8 but to me the highest activity looks like its closer to 7 than it is 6 so that's why I got this wrong.
Don't get stuff like this wrong because you mess up on numbering, which one is glycerol-3-phosphate?
SB CP Q91 The 3 position is at either end of the glycerol, not in the middle, number only applies to carbons, so it can only be A.
Good question to test understanding of Native PAGE and SDS PAGE
SB CP Q92 Note: GK is a homodimer without cysteine residues. Bearing that in mind, you picked one band in native and two bands in SDS that makes the most sense, but actually, remember, the question is asking very specifically about the number of bands formed, so in a homodimer, the bands would be equivalent, this means that there would be just one band but that it would be kind of chonky.
Tough one about passage interpretation and amino acids
SB CP Q94 So here the activity of replacing H232R makes it similar if not higher than phosphorylated GK-P. The passage also "the activation loop also contains His232, which is subject to phosphorylation by another kinase to form phosphorylated GK (GK-P)" So when reviewing you thought it would A, but think about the implications of that, Arg has a guanidium group and histidine is a ring structure, it unlikely that arginine would get phosphorylated since the kinases are specific, but it is possible that it causes similar changes in GK structure as compared to the changes observed in GK-P this is broader and explains it better than saying arginine gets phosphorylated. Arg = + Phosphorylated His = -
Log values above 1 are _____ and log values below 1 are _____ and log values below 0 are _____
above 1 are positive below 1 are negative below 0 are undefined
Total hydrostatic pressure is the same thing as
absolute pressure (Ptotal) P0 + Pgauge (pgh) Side note: good to know that gauge pressure comes from pVg/A
STP for gas laws
0C (273K) and 1 atm
in air the index of refraction is
1
If you a compound with multiple amino acids, or things that look like amino acids, it's probably a _______
dipeptide
Compression are __ for the spring force x value Expansions are __ for the spring force x value
compression is negative value for x expansion is positive value fox x
For a buffer to work best, the acid and conjugate base (salt) should have equal _____ and ______
concentration and equivalents so for 0.10M acetic acid (CH3COOH), 0.10M CH3COOLi Also, review molecule names
Electrolytic solutions are
conductive in the absence of freely moving electrons. The conductivity of electrolytic solutions is related to the concentration of ions because the motion of these charge carriers throughout the fluid generates current.
Faraday
constant representing the charge on one mole of electrons; 96,485 coulombs 1 faraday = 1 mole of e-
A negative latent heat implies that the phase change that is occuring is _______
consuming energy, so it must be melting, evaporation, or sublimation
In a complex ion, the bonds to the central atom are _______
coordinate covalent
Fraction Submerged
density object/density fluid
For kinetic energy equations of photoelectron being ejected, you must first find the __________ to get the electron frequency
different between the two photon frequencies *NS7 CP Q48* This is where you messed up on this question, everything else you did right
Deltax in kinematics is the same thing as _______
displacement, it is basically the same as a line drawn from one place to another, this means that if you plug it in the d=vot + 1/2at^2 equation you will get the distance it has fallen
buffered solution
A buffered solution consists of a mixture of a weak acid (HA) and a salt of its conjugate base (A−) or a mixture of a weak base and its conjugate acid.
meso compound
A compound with chirality centers and an internal plane of symmetry causing it to be an achiral molecule
When sound crosses from one medium to another
A portion of wave's energy is reflected and lost, so intensity decreases
stereospecific
A reaction that preferentially yields a specific conformation of product, such as SN2 reactions. So if there is a compound formed along with its isomer like in the example (FL1 CP Q4), that means the rxn is NOT stereospecific
Amphiprotic vs Amphipathic vs Amphoteric
Amphiprotic species that can either accept or donate a proton. Amphiphatic species that is both hydrophobic and hydrophillic Amphoteric species tha can act as both base and acid
What is the normal?
An imaginary line that's perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence, SO 90degrees typically speaking *NS7 CP Q8* Here the passage says greater angles between the bone and the NORMAL lead to greater break frequency, you choose 40degrees instead of 80degrees when it asked the least susceptible
Acids with negative charge are less likely to ______
dissociate think about an acid that has been deprotonated already before, it will be harder to deprotonate again such as HPO4 2- since it does not want more electron density, it wants to donate it
Henry's Law of solubility
C is concentration of dissolved gas, Kh is solubility coefficient specific to gas and solution at a certain temperature. Pgas is pressure *Sess 40 Q11 for example*
4.2 = log K how to solve for K
remember any log is base 10 unless otherwise stated, so you can make it 10^4.2 = k
Arrows going forward and back can tell you that binding or a reaction is ______
reversible
If you move decimal to right or left what happens to exponent?
right -1 left +1 LARS
In an electric field, a dipole will
rotate
When two charged side chains bond, a ________ forms
salt bridge, a type of ionic bond
Inversely and directly proportional from an equation
same tier inverse different tiers directly bear in mind this only applies when it is just one side of the equation
If mass shifts in a direction, then center of mass must _____
shift in the same direction
Velocity is slowest in and fastest in, nonexistent in
slowest in gases, fastest in solids, nonexistent in a vacuum
Small Ksp means High Ksp means
small means very low solubility in water high means high solubility in water
Emission from the highest level to the lowest will result in an emission with a ________ wavelength compared to a slightly lower level going to the same lowest
smaller wavelength since the lower the wavelength the more energy released
Specific rotations of R and S molecules are opposite in sign
so if R had +50 then S would -50, so 0 would mean racemic
Photons all travel at the ________, what can change a photons energy
speed of light since they are massless, they are not influenced by energy Use the E=hf equation to visualize since c will always be the same
Gas-liquid Chromatography (GC)
splits things up by boiling point, so think about intermolecular forces, hydrogen bonding > dipole-dipole > LDF for BP so of these the alkene only has LDF, so fastest to elute
Acidity is determined by
stability of the conjugate base, so when something stabilizes the conj base (negative charge), it will make it a stronger acid, and this molecule has delocalization of pi electrons that can help stabilize, also EWG on anion can help stabilize as well
The Aufbau principle
states that low energy orbitals are filled first. The periodic table can be used as a guide to orbital filling. Sidenote: remember that highest energy level is removed first in ionization, so 4s before 3d even though 3d is filled after. Before 3d has any electrons 4s is lower in energy, but once 3d has an electron 4s is higher
Density of Water (IMPORTANT)
1 g/mL or 1 g/cm³ or 1000 kg/m³
The law of mass action
states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the molar amount of each reaction component raised to the power of its reaction order
Concentrations in batteries typically do not
stay the same if they are involved in the reaction, in this one water is produced which will dilute the end solution Sess 39 Question 14
If no other force acting on something in motion, then frictional force will
stop it
electron withdrawing groups
strongly electronegative and pull electron density away from rest of the molecule, and stabilize negative charge since it takes electron density they don't want and it MAKE ACIDS MORE ACIDIC since it takes electron density and makes it even reactive
Huckel's Rule
1. The molecule is cyclic (a ring of atoms) 2. The molecule is planar (all atoms in the molecule lie in the same plane) 3. The molecule is fully conjugated (p orbitals at every atom in the ring, so too much angle strain would prevent this) 4. The molecule has 4n+2 π electrons (n=0 or any positive integer)
Ideal Fluids
1. have no viscosity 2. are incompressible, with uniform density 3. lack turbulence; experience laminar flow -so all fluid flowing through any fixed point has the same velocity Bernouli's equation is in effect so changing speed WILL change its pressure
activated complex
the same as transition state, so the peak
Disproportionation reaction
the same element is simultaneously oxidized and reduced, can be on different molecules just needs to be same element
thin lens equation
1/f = 1/di + 1/do
pi stacking Do GC or AT form stronger pi-stacking interactions
tryptophan and other aromatic compounds including DNA can undergo pi stacking (noncovalent attractive) interactions with each other that increases stability (so higher melting T) GC forms stronger pi-stacking interactions
An atom or molecule can only absorb energy exactly equal to the difference between __________
two energy levels, so from the groud state to the excited state so here (sess 53 Question 17) it is getting excited to 297 nm and that is it only that energy is absorbed in that transition, you could add another if it made another jump afterwards but in this case it only made one
Pascal's Law means that pressure will be transmitted ______ throughout the system
undiminished F1/A1 = F2/A2
In instances where index of refraction relies heavily on wavelength of light, this can cause ________
unfocused image (chromatic aberration) since diff light rays will have different focal lenghts
As energy goes up, the temperature goes ?
up
Photon Energy
E=hf
______ not mass determines how much space a molecule takes up, so just because they have the same mass does not mean they take up the same _____
volume for both blanks remember volume and moles are directly proportional
Remember Q is ________ flow rate
volumetric flow rate so (m3/s)
Energy of a photon equation, what does it tell us?
E=hf E=hc/wavelength this essentially tells us that frequency and energy are directly related and that wavelength and energy are inversely related
Mass defect and energy
E=mc^2 m= mass defect = mass of protons and neutrons individually- mass of the element Then convert it to kg instead of amu and you can find the Energy
Relativity Equation
E=mc^2 can be used for E=hf equations
electron withdrawing groups vs. electron donating groups
EWG makes acids stronger by stabilizing conjugate base, think about it, it takes away electrons so it wants its hydrogen to be removed even more EDG makes bases stronger by stabilizing conjugate base, it adds electrons so it wants to hold onto them and attract even more
E^o is the _____ and the n in the Keq equations for gibbs and cell potential is the _____
E^o is Standard reduction potential and the n is the number of electrons transferred in the redox
Open tubes (open on both ends)
λ=2L/n first is fundamental frequency, points that don't oscillate are nodes
Closed tube (open on one end)
λ=4L/n first is fundamental frequency, also only n=1,3,5..
Distinct H NMR signals result from
distinct protons so here there is only 5 since the other hydrogens on the same atom do not count
This one is kind of confusing but you got it
SB CP Q96 So it says it's an ordered process in the passage but I was not sure if there was a ternary complex, which just means that there are two substrates in the active site, and it says "ATP and glycerol both occupy the catalytic cleft" so if I knew what this meant, I would have known 100% to pick A, but still got it right
SN stands for 1 and 2 stand for
SN stands for nucleophilic substitution 1 and 2 stand for unimolecular and dimolecular respectively
SN1, SN2, E1, E2 competition
SN1 competes with E1 SN2 competes with E2 SN1 does not compete with SN2 or E1 does not compete with E2 a 3' carbon must react via SN1 or E1 mechanism ALWAYS
SN1 vs SN2 what are the products or what do they do to the products
SN1 makes a racemic mix SN2 inverts stereochem
SN1 vs SN2 vs E1 vs E2 what kinds of solvents, what kinds of substitution, and what kinds of attacking species
SN2 (strong nucleophile) vs E2 (strong base) SN1 (weak nucleophile) vs E2 (weak base) Important SN2 inverts stereochem SN1 and E1 do not
Remember photons are not protons
do not get this mixed up like in NS FL5 Q31 C/P where you thought gamma rays had charge
Remember when something is inversely proportional, to get the inverse you must ______
do the reciprocal, so one of the values increases by 1/2 then the other has to decrease by 2, or in this case one increased by 1.5 so the other has to decrease by 1/1.5 or 2/3 *Sess 21 Q2*
If the reaction has a lot of steric hinderance and nucleophilic attack is possible, just rule out _____ and ______
SN2 and E2 such as in the example, here SN1 or E1 would be much more feasible (also would lead to non-stereospecific rxn, so could have dash or wedge of Cl for FL1 CP Q7)
Remember 22.4 L per mole of gas is at _______ not _______
STP (0C) NOT standard conditions (25C)
Remember to find frequency from period, the T value must be in
Seconds such as in the example
Serine vs Threonine
Serine on left, threonine on right, know THESE
Remember, a valid lewis structure will have the same amount of valence electrons and charge as is in its formula
Sess 10 Q16 SO2 is the formula, there is no charge, so a valid lewis structure should not have charge. Also, remember if one atom has a positive and another has a negative, the overall charge is still neutral, keep that in mind in lewis structures (Look at this Q for example) So neither of these work here
To figure out spotaneity of the reaction at various temperatures, only the signs of deltaH and deltaS are needed
Sess 10 Q3 From the equation in the passage, one can see that deltaH and deltaS are both positive, so this can be determined
Pay attention to details like this phase transition, this can help figure out the answer
Sess 11 Q 5 Here the water is ice, and before the temperature of something can start increase, it has to first get past the plateau that occurs at a phase transition and then it can continue reacting
Hydrostatic Pressure
Sess 11 Q14 P=pgh h=height of fluid above the point of interest its useful to think of it like depth
Acetate
Sess 15 Q13 it asks us to look at acetate ion of the molecule provided, which includes a Cu 2+, so this tells us that each acetate has a -1 charge
When asked for a value, and you can't figure out how to get to it, try and solve for the end unit from an equation and then see if cancelling is possible.
Sess 16 Q12 Here it is asking for the acceleration, but not enough values were given intially so there must be some cancelling involved
Typically when solving for a certain quantity and you don't know the exact method to cancel out, set things equal to that variable
Sess 16 Question 12 Plug in the value for kinetic friction into the Force variable for a=F/m
Pay attention to question stems for important details and qualifiers
Sess 20 Question 19, how much is ADDED, NOT the total
READ QUESTIONS PROPERLY
Sess 21 Question 20, you looked at time from 0 to 20 seconds instead of what was asked
Remember to look at the all the equations and terms associated with the passage, since one that you didn't look at may help, also look at the relationships between variables might help
Sess 26 Question 1, This equation tells us that as concentration goes up partial pressure of the gas also goes up since Kh is a constant
Again, keep thinking about equations and what the values themselves mean
Sess 26 Question 6 Low concentration likely means low Kh which measures solubility
If there is no acceleration, then the sum of forces must be 0, so create a force diagram and set things equal to each other
Sess 26 Question 7 means essentially that the torques are balanced against each other, you have torque of arm and the ball going down and bicep opposed to them so set the torques equal (remember to account for distance from the pivot point).
Total ions and/or moles of something can be found from the individual component of that thing in the solution mixture See example
Sess 34 Q18 Here we have a value for a mixture but the question is asking us to find how many La3+ ions present so that means we have to find the number of moles first using the 9mL and 0.1M, then use the mole ratio from the dissociation of LaCl3 to find the moles of La3+, then you can multiple moles by avogadro's number (6x10^23) to find the number of ions
Given Ka think of the acid dissociation equation you can set up
Sess 34 Question 12 can use the Ka here to find the value of the H+ from the dissociation since they give you HCN value
Don't do the problem right and then mess up on math, SMH
Sess 34 Question 20 Found the molarity using chart, then solved for moles then molar mass, just messed up on calc 25 x 40 = 100 not 90 idiot boy
Try not to miss equations in the passage
Sess 34 Question 21 I guess you didn't have time but when you can't find any indication of a value or thing (like CO3 in this case) look elsewhere might find somewhere else in passage
Remember to think about substitutions
Sess 35 Question object distance equals 2f so you can plug in and solve for i
Convert units first if possible, it can make things less confusing
Sess 35 Question 19 Were confused because the values you used were odd, also lens equation 1/i and 1/o you can just add those for lens strength since it is 1/f
If given a velocity and a time for how long the impact lasted, then you can find the acceleration. Also when told to look at one figure, don't ignore the other one
Sess 35 Question 7
Pay close attention to tricky wording
Sess 35 question 8 asking for the difference between the minimum and maximum velocities between them, so find the max diff and the min diff and then find the diff of both
I don't really get this equation
Sess 39 Question 12
electron donating groups
donate electrons and thus stabilize positive charge since it would mean that positive charge would get some of the electrons that it wants and also MAKE BASES MORE BASIC think about it gives them more charge that they want to offload
Doubly ionized means the charge will be
double the charge of an electron
This question is essentially asking how to go from a carboxylic acid down to something with a _________ so that it can _________ with an amide
down to an acid chloride (GOOD LG) so that it can then engage in nucleophilic attack. Also important to realize that the question *NS6 CP Q6* is asking about the first step in the process
Polyprotic tiration (weak acid with strong base)
each buffer zone is a pka value so at an equiv point, the pH is between those two. Each equivalence point would be equivalent of the base for each acidic proton.
For oxidation state, look at
each individual molecule, ie K2 in K2MNO4 has an oxidation of +1 for each K since there are two of them it is +2 total
Pay attention to the wording of the question and relate it to table
Sess 39 Question 21 the question asks what could reduce the risk of uric acid stones, and the table specifically mentions uric acid, but I glossed over it. So you would want to INCREASE pH here to increase solubility so you would want to reduce the hydronium concentration
Idiot boy remember to get units in the right values
Sess 39 Question 9 you didn't convert the mg to g
This question is interesting, requires a lot of thinking
Sess 39, Question 20 Was given mol values of the first two reactants and molar mass of the first product. So we had to balance the equation, then see which one is limiting reactant, then we must use the mole ratio of the first product to the the limiting reactant then find the molar mass based on how many moles we have. A lot of this is keeping your work clean and organized.
Pay close attention details again, wording is very specific
Sess 40 Question 18 The deltap is the difference between ITS pressure and pressure of the NEXT vessel, so it should have been arterial arcade not venous arcade
When you see a graph try to look at what the value of the slope would be in terms of variables since it may be useful
Sess 40 Question 6 F=-kx so rearrange since you have F and x
Remember to convert to the same units, DeltaH and DeltaS are in kJ and J respectively j
Sess 44 Question 13
This one is confusing, but remember to read the passage when you are lacking in info
Sess 44 Question 20 It says "along with the four nitrogen ligands, His F8 also binds to Fe2+ and the other position is open to bind oxygen, that makes six bonds so it has to be sp3d2 like D
Important to pay attention what the specifics of the question are, here it says "under the same atmospheric conditions"
Sess 48 Q15 Here this means that pressure is the same, so if you lower the vapor pressure that means for the same pressure, you now have to put in greater temperature
Remember to always consider alternative answer choices because here there was HUGE relative increase in Asp compared to Thr even though Thr increase looks large
Sess 48 Q21
This question says that EACH of the following are all in solution, so that's what the 20 atm is about, just solve for osmotic pressure in terms of variables to see which is lowest.
Sess 48 Q7
Good job noticing this!
Sess 48 Question 11 Water having a high surface tension is probably not as important to bonding as it being fairly small
This was a good catch
Sess 48 Question 18 Phosphate here cannot have a d hybridized orbital because it doesn't have any d orbitals, also here rememberr alcohol groups are sp3 since they have two sets of lone pairs attached which gives them more e- density
Always think about common ion effect in questions
Sess 48 Question 4 Adding HCl here will likely react with the OH near the end of the reaction of MgOH2 and cause there to be more dissolution than was expected, which would tamper with the results of the experiments
Think about how adding something would affect a reaction
Sess 48 Question 4 (continued) if you add HCl the constituents will likely react, so it will skew results
Again, common ion effect is important (remember to account for pH as well)
Sess 48 Question 5 changing the pH of solution can also alter the equilibrium of reactions, here increasing pH would add more hydroxide to the mix which would in turn cause the reaction to move back
This one requires a lot of free body diagrams and understanding of directions of forces
Sess 49 Q11 Here you have a tension force that you split into component vectors using cos60 for the x and sin60 for the y and then you have to realized that this Tx value is opposing the friction force and is equal to it since the whole thing is in equilibrium. You also have to realize that the Ty value pulling up means that the normal force has to be lower to compensate for this addition of force so as to maintain equilibrium. From this we can then solve for the static friction value
If a block is attached to a pulley and the other side of the pulley is attached to a block which direction is the tension force going?
Sess 49 Q11 The tension will go in the direction same as the falling block since the weight of the block that is falling will pull the other block upwards, so that's the tension that you have to split into component vectors
Here just setup up the equation for P=pg(h/2) and then solve for the 2P=pgh which will get you the value at the base
Sess 49 Q13 Also realize that since the final answer is in mm Hg you should probably convert yours into that as well
Vector components (x and y) of projectile motion
Sess 49 Q20 Good example of this
The way you did it overcomplicated the whole process
Sess 49 Question 13 You essentially double the pressure since the height of fluid doubled
When looking at things placed on a board with masses and distances from the fulcrum, you must balance the torques on either side
Sess 49 Question 19 I used center of mass and then broke it down mentally that the weights and distances on either side of the fulcrum would have to equalize to keep it at rest
For this one you were on the right track but COMPARE means to place in a ratio in this case
Sess 49 Question 7 you set up the conservation of energy for each one, then you solve for the velocities and then find the ratio
IDIOT don't do the calculation right and then miss the problem, CHECK YOUR MATH
Sess 53 Question 15 So you found the mass then you found the percentage then you tried to find molarity, but you didn't divide properly, 0.1/0.100 is 1
This question is rather hard, try to visualize in terms of coordination bonds to the central atom
Sess 53 Question 19 so you start with an Fe bonded to six things and that means it shells are full, no more bonds can happen with it, so the coordination number would not be able to go up from that. So when it says two new coordinate bonds forming, it means displacing old ones and you visualize this with the reaction provided. Also, since you can see from the rxn that 2h2o are displaced per c2o4 so it wouldnt make much sense for one step of the rxn to add two c2o4 molecules since that would mean the second step to get to the final molecule would only involve one addition and that wouldn't make much sense. Typically when you see stuff like this assume stepwise addition
This question is interesting, so pay attention to it
Sess 57 Question 16 So here they ask you to find Ksp and you have pH of solution and you can find pOH or rather the [OH-] for the equation, the value you get is the value for ALL the OH- in solution so the [2OH-] equals = the concentration you found, SO the M2+ must be equal to half that value since it must always be half of the OH- concen value
In a redox reaction or any reaction, make sure you only look at the actual constituents of the molecule and not the coefficient to figure out oxidation state
Sess 57 Question 3 For instance here you thought that there was two Mn in the MnO4 but in reality it was only one and it had an oxidation state of +7 so remember to pay attention to this kind of thing
Remember to take into account the units that the answers are in, it might make things easier for you s
Sess 59 Question 10 You could have kept these values in grams and mL instead of trying to find things in Kg and L j
Don't get overwhelmed when the question seems a bit confusing or you don't know it exactly, deep breaths
Sess 59 Question 11 Which is the most dissimilar to the others, HNO3 is an acid whereas all the others are bases so it makes sense to pick it, don't get too stressed and pick the wrong thing
Remember to read slowly and not trip up on words
Sess 59 Question 14 Its says which would produce a SIMILAR not SMALLER curve, so you read it wrong. Also, it states what would be TITRATED not the titrant itself, it would still be sodium hydroxide
Read questions a bit slower, you missed this entirely because you didn't read what it was asking properly S
Sess 59 Question 4 It asks about Alkaline-earth metals not alkali metals
The overall hydrophobic or hydrophillic character of a compound depends on the relative number of each type of bond present, also on the number of H bonds that can form, H bonds increase hydrophillicity
Sess 59 Question 9
Good catch realizing that these reactions were reversible
Sess 62 Q10 Here you can see that the only one that accepts electrons but does not lose H+ is NO2+ in the reverse reaction
Good reasoning here
Sess 62 Q14 Here if you were to pick C then the reaction would still go to completion, part of it would just revert back, the eq point would not change, but if there was something else being oxidized that would use up the Ce4+ and make it so that more is needed. Also A and B make no sense because the question specifically says they are constant
Remember to pay attention to what the answers are referring to, here it's talking specifically about reaction quotient, so right out the equation for Q
Sess 62 Q15 Here you were meant to look at the reaction quotient, that means the products/reactants don't mess up to things like this
Law of mass action example and reminder about changing concentrations in rxn
Sess 62 Q15 The law of mass action basically looks at the coefficients from the general reaction, remember THESE DO NOT CHANGE, you are just changing concentration, so only the thing INSIDE the parentheses changes here when you double molarity of O2, not the power outside so it's [2x]^4. The coefficients are a function of the equation itself not the concentrations.
Even if the question seems like it doesn't need the passage look at the passage quickly for equations
Session 25 Question 12, needed to balance the equation before figuring out how many moles per mole of hydrogen gas, so two moles, so double the final amount. The passage explicitly gives you a reaction equation you can plug the calcium into that makes it very easy
Remember to raise things to the coefficient when putting it into an equilibrium equation or something, also it says a container not this container
Session 5 Question 19
Remember everything before the Kcat reaction is a part of the enzyme substrate complex
So here everything before the kcat --> RT/P is a substrate or an inhibitor
If the rxn is the same, then even if it has negative reduction potential, the rxn is STILL a reduction
So here in *NS6 CP Q21* you can see that Pyruvate is going to lactate, in the table of reduction potentials that same rxn is listed as negative potential, but it is still happening so it is reduced
Thought Process for Sess 34 Q13 (thought process)
So the Ka for HCN same as KCN so find Kb then set up an ICE Table using the dissociation equation CN -> OH + HCN where the 0.001 M - x is the value for [CN], then you can find x^2 value to get [OH] then you can find pOH and then finally pH from that
Surface residues are less likely to be _________ compared to core resiudes
Surface residues are less likely to be integral
For seperating out a mixture, it is useful to get them to a point where their solubilities are _____
far apart so it is easier to precipitate one out *Sess 20 Q15*
Good job on NS FL5 C/P Q36
first found the 10 M then found the values for the Ka and then subtracted from Kw to find Kb
Second harmonic may also be referred to as _____
first overtone and so for later harmonics
eluent
fluid entering the column, so it's the mobile phase typically such as in this example from FL2 CP Q10
Doppler effect
fo = f (v+/- vo)/(v-/+ vs) top towards
Lowest energy config for Zinc vs Copper
for zinc it's when both 4s and 3d are both filled for copper it's when 4s is half-filled and 3d is filled (this happens because the 4s donates one electron to the 3d to make it more stable)
Index of refraction of a light increases with said lights _____
frequency, ROYGBIV where violet is highest
If the wavelength goes up , the energy must _____
go down
Tension typically opposes
gravity or some other pull, so it is the opposite of those values, but if the tension is only experience by half an object (like the dumb body lumbar question) then half it, but this is few and far between
Lowest-energy configuration
ground state electron configuration, so not excited Zn instead of Zn2+
Oxidation state calculation
group valence - nonbonding - assigned bonding electrons (so if UNEQUAL, the more EN will get 2 assigned, if EXACTLY EQUAL, each will get 1 assigned in a single bond)
Latent heat of fusion Remember, if ice is still there in the water and it is not melting, then._____ it will start changing when _____
The phase transition from a solid to a liquid requires heat (energy) to break the bonds between molecules; this energy is the latent heat of fusion. the temperature of the water is still 0 C The ice melts
Try and look closely at the Figures that are indicated and you can find something you missed
*Altius Mini 1 C/P Q11* Here you can see the CO2 in the rxn you didn't notice that, that could have told you that opening rxn vessel to environment would allow more alcohol to form because it would affect the Equilibrium
This question was confusing, so I will try and reword it
*Altius Mini 1 C/P* Essentialy it is asking about the two oxidation processes one that turns methane into methanol and one that combusts the methanol, SO basically what this means is that they want the product from the first one, but it gets used up in the second reaction before it can be isolated and they are asking why
PAY ATTENTION to graph axes and at least skim over them for any signficant results
*Altius Mini C/P 1 Q2* You were confused what they were referring to, but on the axis of figure 3 there is Sodium sulfite which is one of the answer choices, pay attention to stuff like this, especially if the words are turned, don't gloss over them
So here, look at what value the question is asking about and then look at the graphs to see if that value is anywhere to be found.
*Chem Mini 2 Q10* Here the question mentions 10 uM there is only one instance of 10 uM on the graphs so look at that.
Here it is saying hydroxide is lewis base, SO it donates an electron pair, so PICK THAT ANSWER
*Chem Mini 2 Q15* Choice D here means that it is attacking a bond on H3O and forming H2O, don't overthink pick the question that makes the most sense given what YOU know
Don't rush and mess up things like this
*NS FL5 Q35 C/P* Here it was asking which will have the strongest conjugate base, so you have to find the weakest acid NOT the strongest, so that means the highest pKa
Reduction is the gain of electrons and in context that means in a redox reaction, the thing that is across from the thing being oxidized will be reduced
*NS FL5 Q44 C/P* This is an example of this at work, also remember that the H+ not attached to the FADH is not received by the FAD it is just a free proton
DON'T FORGET THE EQUATION, WHAT IS BERNOULIS?
*NS Sess #4 C/P* Here you set it up correctly but had it as pgh = pv2, it's pgh = 1/2pv2, DON'T forget simple things like this and mess up
Elevator problems visualized
*NS Sess #4 Q 17 for example*
A weaker nucleophile can't kick out a stronger one
*NS Sess #6 C/P*
Good job picking up on this
*NS Sess 1 Q11* Any of them could have had n=6 because the jump down determines what is released, so they could have all started at n=6, not possible to know from given info
READ carefully, this was simple and fast if you read properly
*NS6 C/P Q13* Here you didn't realize it was asking for DeltaH of rxn 2
Think about what typically happens in an oxidation reaction for this question
*NS6 CP Q28* Oxidation typically involves bonding to oxygen, which of these is least likely to form more bonds to oxygen, that would be SO4 2- Also you can look at oxidation states by taking the charge of the overall compound and the known molecule and finding the unknown (in example). The higher the oxidation state the less electrons, so this would mean that sulfur cannot be further oxidized (loss of electrons)
READ CAREFULLY, here you glossed over the end of the question, that is IMPORTANT. Also just reread questions, it is a good habit
*NS6 CP Q41* Here it specifically focuses on the COLON, so GLUT4 would not be there since it is muscle and adipose
This question is essentially asking two seperate questions, it's not asking their relationship, it is just asking for how each individual factor differs
*NS6 CP Q47* Here you assumed that since the frequency changed, something else had to go change in response but that is not how speed of light works
Remember to pay attention to mention of things like phosphorylation and other reactions and properties in the passage
*NS7 CP Q15* Here you can see that it mentions that monomers near the edges are capable of phosphorylation and you almost missed this detail and subsequently, the question
How do you figure out from a titration curve whether the compound being titrated is acidic or basic?
*NS7 CP Q2* So first realize that ANY flattened portion of a titration curve is a pKa, then depending on the number of pKas and whether more are acidic or basic (or both for neutral) you can find pKa, good for predicting basicity. Here there are three pKas with two being basic, this means that the pKa is the avg of those two basic ones.
This question has strange wording that you have to find an explanation for in the passage
*NS7 CP Q21* Here the question says the image produced by the eyepiece is erect, there is one mention of erect in the bottom passage, but there is another mention of erect previously that states that this means the image is virtual and upright, so for a convex lens to have this kind of image, object must smaller than focal lenght
This is kind of insane, but it had an equation written out in words, I guess this is possible but seems really hard
*NS7 CP Q22*
What is Terra prefix? Giga? Mega?
10^12 Terra 10^9 Giga 10^6 Mega REMEMBER KILO is 10^3, don't mess up on this stuff
For two products to be enantiomers, ALL the R and S designations must be flipped, if they are not then it is a diastereomer
*NS7 CP Q24* Like here, the first S and first R are flipped for the two, but the others are not, so not enantiomers
Don't overthink it, here pick the thing that seems least like a base, don't try to rationalize that methyl acetate
*NS7 CP Q26* Here sodium carbonate is a strong base, and methyl acetate is just an ester, not an anion like you thought
The less electronegative the bond in a hydrogen bond pairing, the weaker it is, so the greater partial positive characeter on the hydrogen the stronger it will be since it will donate H bonds more readily
*NS7 CP Q29* Here you can see that N-H ---- O has the least electronegative bonds exhibited due to the nitrogen, again don't overthink this stuff
Don't get tricked by units (even though NS graphs are way too small) try to keep this in mind
*NS7 CP Q32* So essentially, here you were supposed to look at the Vmax of the reaction, but the value they give for substrate concentration is mM not uM, so the value given in the question is very large and would ensure vmax
Remember, 22.4L equals 1 mole of gas at STP, useful to figure out masses
*NS7 CP Q39* Here you can see that 224mL of each gas at 1 atm, so you figure out moles for each gas, but it is asking for mass ratio so figure out mass of each gas using the moles and then compare the two
When you exhale into something, what happens? Also what does aqueous imply about a solution?
*NS7 CP Q4* When you exhale you release CO2, and when something is aqueous that means the solvent is H2O, remember what happens when H2O and CO2 react? Bicarbonate buffer system will make acid (in this example, turns solution yellow)
Kind of a lot to expect, but they wanted you to balance the equation and then solve the mole ratios here
*NS7 CP Q40* Here it says that soda lime and silica gel were added to eliminate H2O and CO3, and I guess they want you to know that H2O and silica aren't in this equation but a seperate one? Then you find mole ratios of balanced eq and solve, probably too hard, but might as well look at it.
You were on the right track here, just perhaps a calculation misstep
*NS7 CP Q46* Here they are asking you for how much is left after 3 half lives, so you took the mole value and then half it thrice and you get 0.625 moles then you can find the molar mass of the chloromethyl methyl ester and then multiply the two to find mass in grams, then you can convert that into mg
Don't mess up on unit conversions
*NS7 CP Q47* Here you intially used U=mgh as you should have, and then instead of making 2 g into 0.002 you made it 0.02 and then thought it couldn't be right, don't second guess too hard, check for units
So, oftentimes, it is useful in kinematics equations to find time if you can. This question was a difficult one with multiple kinematics
*NS7 CP Q6* Here first to do was find the time using the d= vit +1/2at^2 so that you could then plug t into vf= vi + at to figure out vf, then I divided the vf by the time it took to decelerate to find the deceleration (also you could have just done vf^2=vi^2 + 2ad to find vf but I did not use that)
So here, try to use the graph and your own intuition, what happens when the same force is spread out over s smaller area?
*NS7 CP Q9* It is reasonable to assume that this would lead to greater stress being put on that contact point, and the graph corroborates this saying that as force per sq cm increase, so do breaks, SO that means a runner with a smaller contact point is MORE liable to injury than those who aren't
Don't set up the problem correctly and then mess up the relationship between variables
*Physics Mini 1 Q1* Here you realized the question related to PV=nRT but that means they are directly proportional to each other, so as temp goes down like it says in the question (NOT UP), then the pressure must also go down
For graphs like this, READ the legend, it can help you understand, also this is a good reference for a graph that has TWO variables being demonstrated on one axis, also when you see "and" on an axis it might be a clue about multiple variables
*Physics Mini 1 Q10* Here the legend has different trendlines for CC and RMSE so it shows that when CC is high, RMSE is low
Good Example of Le Chatelier's Principle Problem
*Sess 20 Q11* *This entire passage is good for this type of thing*
Pay close attention to what is being changed and where that changing is occuring
*Sess 25 Q21* Missed this one because you did not notice the temperature was being DECREASED and did not notice that the solution in the GLASS CYLINDER was being changd in terms of density
Remember to make sure to give the value the question is specifically asking for
*Sess 26 Q7 Here it asks for force, the value you answered was the torque, these are different values!!!* Also here remember the radii and the force at each point to balance it out. Also for torque, at least in this case, not necessary to make it meters instead of centimeters. You set the torques equal and then you will see only force from biceps is missing, solve for this
Pay attention to the question because in this case, the ball in lowered a greater vertical distance d2, so the work done can't be 0
*Sess 26 Q8* This one has an up and down motion if it went up and down to the same position, it would be 0, but it went lower, so there was a NET displacement, so W=mg(d2-d1)
Remember you can change the units of something by multiplying top and bottom as needed, here is an example
*Sess 26 Q9* Here you have 7x10^6 g*cm/s^2 for forece so you first turn this into pressure, so divide it by cm^2 which will get you g/cm* s^2 and from there multiply top by cm and bottom by g and cancel out. Remember, N/m^2 is the same as kg/m*s^2
If you increase the amount of something in a space, you are effectively increasing its area
*Sess 35 Q2* This is essentially increasing the amount of cells in between so it means you will increase the area, if area goes up a factor then capacitance will also go up by that factor
So when you have to find a certain value such as acceleration in this case, you were right to think about the units and how you can find an acceleration value and then see how to that relates to figure 1
*Sess 35 Q7* You can find the acceleration here from the 10ms impact and the 10m/s velocity given, find acceleration and then look at the close and open TBI
Think about a compound like this in context of the overall reaction
*Sess 39 Q14* Here it is asking if H2SO4 remains constant as the lead storage battery is discharged, and from the rxns it can be seen that water is formed, this would likely react with an acid like H2SO4 so the concentration would not remain constant.
Think about reactions like the the one here, and try to eliminate possibilities
*Sess 39 Q21* It says that as pH goes up the solubility of uric acid, so you must figure out which can increase pH, it has to be either removing hydronium or adding hydroxide, but adding potassium does not increase hydroxide concentration since it has positive charge and will not deprotonate H2O but citrate can react with hydronium since it has a negative charge, and in turn reduce how much H+ there effectively increasing pH
Think about questions in context, that sounds dumb, but look at example
*Sess 39 Q6* Here it asks why electron affinity is lowest for oxygen in its group, so break it down, electron affinity is likelihood to get another electron, so which of the answers explain why that would be harder for oxygen compared to another element in group 6a? The electron-electron repulsion is the only one that explains this discrepancy
Remember when creating a net reaction, you should eliminate all the electrons in it first by multiplying by the coefficient needed to neutralize it (See example)
*Sess 39 Q8* Here you need to multiply Reaction 2 by 4 so you get 4e- in the reactants and can eliminate the 4e- in the products
This is a good example of a multistep dimensional analysis and of making sure the units are correct
*Sess 39 Q9* Here you first have to convert the 2 mL into liters then you can find mg, but then you have to convert that into grams since all the answers are in grams. Also it's good to start with the single value and then multiply by the two unit values rather than the other way around VERY IMPORTANT CHECK THE UNITS OF THE POSSIBLE ANSWERS
Don't get tripped up on word, what does this mean?
*Sess 40 Q1* Here the question is asking what waves it will release, the EM waves something releases are dependent on its frequency and wavelength, this is NOT asking about photoelectrons, those aren't EM waves per say, so don't mix this up
When you see pressure and a liquid mentioned, immediately think of the hydrostatic pressure equation
*Sess 40 Q10*
This is a difficult equation plug in, requires you use variables from two equations and flip values
*Sess 40 Q17* The answer is Pa * s. You have to set the bottom equation equal to n and then plug in the R from the previous equation and then make sure to arrange the values properly on top and bottom. They should cancel to get F*s/m^2 which can simplified to Pa*s
Remember, it is important to realize when an equation has a delta in it since the questions answer may change markedly
*Sess 40 Q18* Here it asked for the greatest resistance and you were meant to look at the graph and the equation DeltaP =QR BUT it could easily be mistaken for just P and not the change in it which would lead to incorrect answer. Also here it tells you how to understand the deltaP numerically "pressure difference between one vessel and the next deltaP"
Remember, important to know units for stuff like and how to manipulate formulas
*Sess 40 Q3* Here B and D are easy but W V^-1 is tougher, this is the power equation since thats the only thing that relates current, work, and voltage, also C makes little sense here
This one is a bit confusing since it is relating temperature of the reaction mixture and enthalpy
*Sess 44 Q10* So intially I thought that since the reaction had negative enthalpy that it was releasing heat and that the reaction mixture was losing heat, but actually since enthalpy affects surroundings, that means that reaction mixture heated up as the energy was released. Don't overthink, just think enthalpy negative, temp increase around it
Remember to always flip values when the reaction is the opposite of the value listed, so for instance for entropy of formation, if that compound is being broken, then it would be flipped
*Sess 44 Q12* Here NH3 is being broken not formed so it would have to be -190J/molK
Don't get confused by wording like this, also remember to CORRECTLY identify molecules involved in rxn if the written name is given
*Sess 44 Q12* Here it asks for the order of the SYSTEM, and it mentions dichloramine, think about that name, it can't be NH3, NH3 is ammonia, DO not make mistakes like this
Here the question asks you about finding T when given DeltaG = 0, DeltaH, and DeltaS, how do you do it?
*Sess 44 Q13* DO NOT FALL for stuff like this, remember units, always remember units, these are different units so you must convert them
What explains why hemoglobin is red when it binds O2?
*Sess 44 Q17* O2 interaction with iron's d orbitals determines the color since the energy of the orbitals determines wavelengths absorbed
What is charge of heme group in hemoglobin?
*Sess 44 Q18* The charge here is 2+ since in coordinate covalent bonds the metal ion is usually charged and everything around it is neutral
Which of these samples required less energy to excite ZPP excited at 425nm or PPIX excited at 407 nm?
*Sess 44 Q21* Here the ZPP required less energy to excite, think E=hc/wavelength. If wavelength is higher, then the energy must be lower
Interesting question, if engines with different rxn rates all carry out one complete reaction, what would occur?
*Sess 44 Q6* This basically means that there would all carry out only one reaction so the end product is all the same regardless of how fast they got there, don't conflate reaction rate with a greater equilibrium amount
Which weights more, proton or neutron?
They are VERY similar but neutron weighs slightly more
What class of enzymes are kinases?
They are transferases SB CP Q28
Convex (converging) lenses make enlarged or reduced image when outside the focal length? Inside focal length?
They make enlarged images outside the focal length and inside the focal length. So convex means bigger
Concave (diverging) lenses make enlarged or reduced image when outside the focal length? Inside focal length?
They make reduced images in both instances. So concave means smaller
Bernouli's and the continuity equation both assume the relevant fluid is _______
ideal, continuity equation will be off if the compressibility is not ideal Bernouli's will be off if the viscosity is not ideal
Energy conversions in engine and in battery
in engine: chem -> therm + kinetic in battery: chem -> electric -> thermal (kinetic if motorized)
Resistors in parallel what is identical, resistors in series what is identical?
in parallel ,voltage drop across each resistor is identical in series, the current passing through each resistor is identical
Grinding a catalyst will _______, but if particle size decreases, then _____
increase surface area and increase catalytic rate the more you grind it the more the surface area particle size decreases then rxn rate goes down
As surface area of molecules increase, the strength of _________ increases as well
intermolecular forces
In an ideal gas ______ and _______ are neglible and there are no _______ or ______ forces between gas molecules
intermolecular forces and individual molecular volume are neglible no attractive or repulsive forces between gas molecules
Index of refraction is an __________ quality of a material
intrinsic quality of the material, so the only way index of refraction changes is if the material changes.
When two samples from different stock solutions are mixed the final molar concentration of the sample mixture
is determined by the total number of moles transferred (of a given species so given mL and M find the moles and dissociation of the two say Na+ in NaCl and NaOH) divided by the total volume of the resulting mixture.
methyl acetate
is the same as methyl ethanoate
Heat Transfer mechanisms (Convection, conduction, radiation)
Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct physical contact. Convection is the transfer of heat through the flow of fluids. Fluids absorb heat from hotter regions and deliver it to colder regions. Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared light. Radiation heat transfer is significant only for high temperatures.
Buffer solutions
Consist of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate salt or weak base and its conjugate salt. They resist large fluctuations in pH. NS4 C/P Q1 Na2HPO4 is a salt formed from phosphoric acid
In [Cu(NH3)4]2+, the subscript 4 indicates which of the following?
Coordination number of Cu2+
Torque counterclockwise and clockwise which is neg and pos
Counter = pos Clock = neg Just remember torque is weirdo and a weird movie so against the grain with + and -
Protonating something makes it a better leaving group oftentimes. Often the case with oxygen atoms become OH, allows them to then get substituted.
This allows for nucleophilic attack to happen such as in this example
Remember hydrogen bonding can happen between different hydrogen bond acceptors and donors (example)
This examples shows NH and OH and FH all interacting with each other via hydrogen bonding. Also donors are the H and acceptors are the N O F
What is happening to PbSO4 in this diagram? And what is happening in this diagram?
This is an electrolytic cell where the Pb electrode is the cathode where reduction is happening and PbSO4 is the solid product that accumulates on both electrodes and it gets reduced.
atomic mass unit (amu)
one twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom for example 16 amu of oxygen refers to only a single atom of Oxygen, not the same as a mole of oxygen
Remember, wavelength is the ______ that determines color
only thing
Anytime you see friction, remember there will always be a force _______
opposing that friction, very important for balancing equations
For an exergonic reaction to be spontaneous, it must first _______
overcome the activation energy
Wherever the electrons are coming from on a cell that is where __________
oxidation is occurring so in this example (sess 53 Question 4) the electrons are flowing away from the NAD+/NADH side so it must be LOSING electrons, so the reaction must be NADH --> NAD+ + 2e- this causes an ELECTRON POTENTIAL
Resistivity and conductivity
p=RA/L or R=PL/A p=resistivity conductivity = 1/p
ph=pka ph>pka ph<pka
ph=pka Neutral ph>pka Deprotonated ph<pka Protonated
Electrophiles are
"electron-loving" tend to have positive charge or positively polarized atom that accepts electron pair
Nucleophiles are
"nucleus-loving" tend to have lone pairs or pi bonds that can form new bonds to electrophiles, donate electron pair. Oftentimes negatively charged
Phosphorylation makes things negative, such as in the case of this example, it gives it an overall negative charge
"the activation loop also contains His232, which is subject to phosphorylation by another kinase to form phosphorylated GK (GK-P)"
Attenuation
(damping) is the decrease in the amplitude (intensity) of a wave due to absorption and scattering. greatest in softer materials. Also attenuated via inverse-square law.
Try to put details like this together, it is hard, but try and think about stuff like this
*NS C/P Q24 FL5* This question says that IPB grows in locations used for drinking water, so the temperature is likely not 33-40C since that would be not be optimal for consumption
Don't overthink problems
*NS FL5 C/P Q14* Here you can see that wrinkle formation and then subsequent relaxation reduces surface activity but you chose that it increases surface activity thinking that to decrease it must first increase but that is too much of a logical leap, so A is correct as you can see from figure 3 where wrinkle formation causes the release of monomers from the interface. Don't read TOO much into things
Remember to look over graphs and at least read what they say even if you don't interpret
*NS FL5 C/P Q2* Here you could use table 1 and see that energy transfer goes from part to part (legs and hips to lower torso) and decoupling that will lead to less efficiency
So if one body loses entropy, then the thing it is transferring energy to gains it
*NS FL5 C/P Q40* Evaporation causes the ocean to lose entropy but the atmosphere gains it Try to pick the simpler answer when you don't know
Read the figure and surrounding info and try to piece it together
*NS FL5 C/P Q42* Here the statement above the figure states that cholesterol and free fatty acid are formed, and since only the cholesterol is shown, the RCOOH must be a fatty acid
If you decrease any of the reactants in terms of availability, then the the overall reaction will not be able to proceed
*NS FL5 Q20 C/P* Here heat would not decrease the solubility of ferrous (II) hydroxide but it would decrease solubility of oxygen, if this decreased the bacteria would not be able to perform this reaction that they use for energy
If something is less capable of diffusion out of a membrane, then it is likely that they will be excreted, at least in the case of the example
*NS FL5 Q33 C/P* So, for this we have to see that the charged version is not as capable of diffusion so it would be more likely excreted, so we have to deprotonate with an basic salt in this case
Processes with constant variable for Thermo problems
-Isobaric: Pressure is constant, DP = 0 -Isothermal: Temp is constant, DU = 0 -Adiabatic: No heat is exchanged, Q = 0 -Isovolumetric (isochoric): Volume is constant, DV = 0, so Work = 0
Do, Di, and focal length signs for lens equation
-Object is always positive for single lens setups -Image is positive if opposite side of object, and negative if same side -Focal length depends on what side the rays converge, so for convex think positive since it gets projected opposite and for concave think negative since it is projected the same side
Stereoisomers how to find number
2^n (includes diastereomers and enantiomers)
Radius of curvature equation
2f=R
Which is greater? 3.1x10^-2 or 2.0x10^-2
3.1x10^-2 This is a positive number don't get tricked into thinking it is somehow smaller than the other number, just write it out when in doubt
Alpha Decay
4/2 He
dehydration reaction
A chemical reaction in which molecules combine by removing water
Nonconservative force
A nonconservative force does not conserve the total mechanical energy (potential plus kinetic) in a system.
Coordinate bonds
Although classified as covalent bonds, coordination bonds do share some of the characteristics of ionic bonds. For example the metal ion maintains its oxidation state, as in the case of an ionic bond, but the ligands are not charged and are usually electronegative, as in covalent bonds
Which atoms are oxidized here?
Answer: the methane carbon atom only since the methane hydrogen atom stays with an oxidation number of +1, remember electronegativity here, it goes from -4 to +4 since it previously had all the charge, now O is more EN so it has the negative charge instead
Types of Beta Decay
B- (Beta Emission) B+ (Positron Emission) Electron Capture
What is the reason water is not included in Keq?
Because it is a constant, at 55.5M it is essentially not changed
Conceptually you understood this, you just didn't pick the correct answer, when evaporation happens, that means energy is _____ so temperature _____
Being absorbed so the temperature is decreasing in surroundings (this is flipped for condensation in this same question) *Physics Mini 1 Q13* So it should be constant, decrease, and then increase, but you chose constant, increase, and then decrease, your thought process was correct make SURE you chose the right answer when you know it
When light goes from a higher to lower index of refraction what happens the refracted angle?
Bends away from the normal, this is why total internal reflection happens, it is moving closer to horizon
When light goes from a lower to higher index of refraction what happens the refracted angle?
Bends toward the normal
At equilibrium, what is sign of the voltage generated (E) by an electrochemical cell? A galvanic cell?
Both MUST be zero since at Eq, deltaG = 0 so that means potential is also zero from DeltaG=-nFE
Gas Laws
Boyle's Law PV (Boil has volume and pressure) Avogadro V/n (reading VNs) Charles V/T (CVT transmission) Gay-Lussac P/T (Gay Penis Training) Combined PV/nT These all assume the other values are constant
Which has weakest bond and why? C-H, C=O, C-C
C-C because they have the largest radius apart and are not double bonded so it has the weakest bond (lowest bond dissociation energy)
Bond Strength and Radii (rank C-H, C=O, O-H, C-C from weakest to strongest)
C-C, C-H, O-H, C=O The less the radii the shorter the bond and the stronger Note: hydrogen forms short strong bonds often
Are atoms in row or column more similar?
Column
What nucleic acid is not found in the complement to this sequence: 5′-TTCCCTACCCTCCCCACCCTAA-3′
Cytosine is not found, don't quickly jump and think the answer is Thymine because you think it's talking about mRNA, it's just asking for the complement which is the other strand, don't rush into answers, always consider that it's trying to catch you off guard FL3 CP Q44
E1 vs E2 what kinds of products?
E1 makes a racemic mix
For endothermic reactions, heat can be treated as an ________ for exothermic ________
Endothermic: reactant Exothermic: product in relation to Le chatelier's principle
Energy is released when bonds ________ Energy must be added when bonds are ________
Energy is released when bonds form Energy must be added to break bonds Sess 57 Question 17 is a good example
This question asks you to look at structure and deduce which is what from the description of the structure
FL1 BB Q23 (could be CP not sure) So it likely a salt bridge since that is the only one of those listed where they both can form some kind of intermolecular force with the cell surface, also they are the only ones where they are grouped with similar properties (both charged Asp and Arg none of the other choices are paired)
Intensity of light is unrelated to
Energy of photoelectron
ternary complex
Enzyme simultaneously bound to two substrates.
Review titration, to make sure you have it down this question was harder than it should have been
Equivalence point essentially means where one mole of the titrant and the analyte have been neutralized. For something with two equivalence points, you would want two H+ moles and KH2PO4 is the only one with two H moles in one salt
For log estimations positive log is add and negative log is subtract, and remember to keep the sign and apply it to exponent
Example -log (3.5x10^5) is -5.35 -log (3.5x10^-5) is 4.65 log (3.5x10^5) is 5.35 log (3.5x10^-5) is -4.65
Faraday's Constant equation
F=q/n
Sess 49 Question 12 is very hard
Go look at it if you want to learn about vectors
If you remove a resistor from a group in parallel, the total resistance will?
Go up since 1/R=1/R1+1/R2.... For a parallel circuit the voltage drop across each resistor is the same, because the voltage drop in a loop has to be equal to the battery so deltaV=0 Sess 40 Question 21
If frequency goes up, what happens to kinetic energy of photoelectron?
Goes up
Alkaline solutions can disrupt ___ bonds
H bonds
Rxn of CO2 and H2O makes
H2CO3 Carbonic acid this is the bicarbonate buffer rxn, on NS6 CP Q26, you had the right idea just did not apply it properly
Strong Acids
HI, HBr, HCl, HNO3, HClO4, HClO3, H2SO4 2SoNoClo34 BrICl
Reduction often involves the formation of bonds to _________ Oxidation often involves the formation of bonds to __________
Hydrogen Oxygen
pH can be directly converted into
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (Molarity)
The pressure of fluid in the body can be visualized using what equation
Hydrostatic pressure equation DeltaP=pgdeltah
Intensity equation
I = P/A = Power(energy/time)/ area *Sess 21 Q3 for example*
Intensity
I=P/A Power/Area so either increase energy per photon or increase the amount of photons (area) are the options available here (FL1 Q16) Kind of confusing in context of the equation but think conceptually
Current equation
I=Q/t in C/s
Basic salt vs acidic salt
If the ionized form of it is capable of deprotonating water and yielding something basic, it is a basic salt If the ionized form of it is capable of protonating water and yielding something acidic, it is an acidic salt
Radius of Curvature is
R= 2f focal length
What is the rate law given this elementary reaction? 3A + B → 2C
Rate = k[A]^3[B]
Rate law equation
Rate=k[A]^m[B]^n where k is the rate constant
When one factor is changing and you are asked to compare set up a
Ratio if applicable
Changing the temperature and the catalyst will only affect _________ not the ________
Reaction rate not the equilibrium amount
So when something ACCEPTS/GAINS electrons, it is being ______ so you could say that the other compound involved is being ________
Reduced but the other compound is oxidized, You could say that compound getting reduced is OXIDIZING the other compound like in this question IMPORTANT get this wording down *NS6 Q5 CP*
When trying to solve for something, always do dimensional analysis and cancel the values to get it into the terms you want
Remember, you can play either conversion factor on top or bottom, so to get rid of grams on top multiply by kg/1000g to get it in terms of kg
______ reactions tend to be under thermodynamic control and favor pathways that have the ______ activation energy
Reversible rxns are thermodynamic and have the highest activation energy
Lens power and combined lens power
S=1/f (in D) S=S1+S2+.....
Another one you'd definitely get right but still be careful
SB CP Q95 So you could see that activity increases in the table and think the vmax goes up, but that wouldn't be enough info to decide. It's easy to miss where it says "It was noted that after phosphorylation, the KM of GK did not change with respect to either substrate but the kcat increased 10-fold" so pay attention to stuff like this and the question becomes easy.
This is an interesting question about extractions
SB CP Q14 For stuff like it's best to draw out the reaction, if you react a carboxylic acid anhydride(basically an anhydride with a carboxylic acid on one side) with an amine you will get a carboxylic acid and an amide. It's better to add NaOH here to carboxylic acid here for the sake of the subsequent seperation, if you add an acid, it may react with amide and give it protons, but if you add a base, it will only deprotonate the COOH to COO- and not touch the amide, this is because both are POLAR so you need to seperate based on CHARGE instead. Then you have to realize that to seperate the two layers, you should use charge (instead of purely polarity here). The COO- is charged and the NH2 on amide is not, so if you add something nonpolar like diethyl ether, the amide will dissolve much better than the COO-.
Very fun and challenging question about circuits
SB CP Q17 First thing to know, voltmeters have really high resistance, so basically none of the current at that junction will flow that way, so this might as well be a parallel circuit. This means you can set (I1*R1) = (I2*R) and (IR2) = (I2R3) this means that you can then solve for R by plugging in for the I2 in equation one and then cancelling. This is because the voltmeter reads 0 so that means the voltage difference between both R1 and R is 0 (they are both the same voltage) so you can set those IR portions equal and R2 and R3 are equal.
Which of these is this molecule? Triacylglycerols Pyrophosphates Phosphatides Phosphonic acids
SB CP Q18 The one that makes the most sense here is phosphatides, because triacyl doesn't make sense, it doesn't have two phosphate so not pyrophosphate, and it's not acidic so phosphatides is the only one that makes sense
What reaction led to the formation of this structure?
SB CP Q2 So here, you can see that the original was likely hydroxyquinone, but then you need to decide whether carboxylation or oxidation caused it to turn into DHB. Oxidation would cause the -OH to turn into a ketone which would make it quinone, but this structure is not that, so the only option really is carboxylation
You would also get this one right if you did it today, good job mane
SB CP Q20 So the passage says Compound 1 was stable to mixing and Compound 2 was not stable to mixing, which means compound 1 is irreversible and compound 2 is reversible, this means that 1 is kinetic and 2 is thermodynamic
Good example of being mindful of the graphs always
SB CP Q21 So here, you've to estimate the mL at 250 nm using the chart and then you have to see that the chart in the passage includes mL values and anything under 10 mL must be greater than 0.20mM, so D is the only one that makes sense
For this one, you've to use the 1mL value from the passage, not the 20 mL elution
SB CP Q22 Also since all the values are 8 then you'd probably realize that mistake, but keep this in mind. 0.10 mM is the value for 20 mL elution in the graph. So 0.10 mM times x/0.001L where x is moles, then multiply it by g/mol value to get the mass
This is a good one testing understaning of DeltaG equations
SB CP Q24 So it's fairly easy to tell that this question wants you to use DeltaG=-RTlnKeq and you basically plug in the values then raise each side to the e and get e^12 = keq which is the ratio of ADP/ATP at equilibrium. Also keep in mind RT and DeltaG are both in kJ/mol.
Remember conjugation is needed for a molecule to emit light
SB CP Q29 So from the passage, it's easy to figure out 2b is conjugated and 2a isn't and then you while D is possibly true, C explains why it is detected much better. You could consider conjugation as providing delocalization of electrons due to lots of double bonds.
I don't think you'd miss this if you took this today, that's good!
SB CP Q3 Essentially this question is asking you to analyze the paragraph, it literally says "The velocity of the ions is inversely proportional to their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z)." so it's likely the best answer here, it also says they travel a specific distance so none of the others make any sense
This is so simple, it literally says it exactly in the passage
SB CP Q32 It says "BSA constitutes up to 50% of the mass of protein found in blood serum and mobilizes proteins and lipids" that's the only info we're provided, and so B makes the most sense since it is the only one talking about mobility of any kind
See when stuff in C/P seems too easy, it probably is, don't overthink just a reminder
SB CP Q37 Here ZnA is assocaited with H80 and E148 and ZnB is associated with E175 and H373 and changes to any of these effect the Kcat and the Km so they must be involved in both, it's as simple as it looks
This question seems confusing intially but it is very straightforward given the graphs
SB CP Q39 The table shows that substitutions affect the kcat by order of magnitude more than the Km
This one I did not exactly understand conceptually, but the only one with the same power and a doubled wavelength seemed the best answer
SB CP Q4 Here the table has 266 nm with 1.5 mW and 325 nm with 2.2 mW and the only thing that makes sense to me is having the same power and a doubled frequency compared to the original. So D is the best choice. But remember, if frequency doubles, wavelength is halved, so if you half 532 nm you get the original laser suitable for MALDI
Good job noticing that this is peptide bond hydrolysis from the passage but pay close attention to what the question is asking
SB CP Q40 So peptide bond hydrolysis basically happens via a nucleophillic attack essentially, and the substrate carbon which is what you're meant to be looking at is part of a carbonyl, so you already know its sp2 so only A makes sense here.
How'd you miss this? It would be easy money rn
SB CP Q43 It says NG3 makes hydrogen bonds with those a number of residues and the question asks for which ones it can bond to the side chain of, so of course it has to be 107 since that residue is alanine and side chain H bonding is not possible.
Good work on this, it's tricky
SB CP Q86 So the question is asking what the purification yield from the culture supernatant after the final ion-exchange chromatography step. These are the options: 0.1% 20% 40% 60% If you were rushing, it would be very easy to just pick 0.1% from 3/3000 and be done, BUT read the whole table, to side it has units/mg of supernatant, so you have to multiply the yield by that specific activity to get the units and then you can compare 60/300 = 0.2 = 20% which is the right option
This is a tough question, you have to realize that one part of the reaction description flows into the next so you have to realize what is actually going on there.
SB CP Q54 So basically here it says "A glutamate residue (Glu-1) in the active site donates a proton to an oxygen atom. Another glutamate on the opposite axial side (Glu-2) acts as a nucleophile to liberate D-glucose" You have to think about this stuff as a process and not isolated steps, so that first donation of proton was so that the second step could happen. You have to think about it in context, G1 does become a better nucleophile, but the question is asking for the mechanistic reason for this so that makes little sense in context, glucose is being "liberated" so it would make much more sense to choose that. This passage is hard, review this
This one is confusing try to reason through it, also keep your units in order you fool
SB CP Q57 So it says "A stock solution of the enzyme was prepared by diluting 0.100 mL of the commercial preparation to 25.0 mL in the buffer solution. Experiments were initiated by mixing 1.0 mL of each substrate solution with 1.0 mL of the enzyme solution." so they are diluting 0.100 mL by turning it into 25.0mL so this 250 times as much as solution so the dilution is halved. Then a portion is taken from this and then added to another solution mixture where it is half, so it will be halved once again. So the only viable solution is D. For dilutions basically set up a ratio 0.1mL to 25mL is 1:250 dilution (25/0.1 = 250)
You would have got this correct as well since you know your purines and pyrimidines numbering
SB CP Q59 The passage says methylation happens at the C5 position, so you start from the bottom and go towards the carbonyls in pyrimidines
I think you would get this right now
SB CP Q61 So this requires using some passage context, and what it says is "To examine the dissociation rate of Dnmt3a from DNA, His6-tagged Dnmt3a was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified with nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid-agarose chromatography" the best choice would be A since they say its meant to look at dissociation rate. Nickel column and histone tagging is a kind of affinity chromatography as per the AAMC explanation.
The best way to figure this out is to go through options and eliminate
SB CP Q63 So you know that methylation rate is correlated with stability, so go through the options. A is not true, it's the exact opposite of true, B is not true because there is obviously differences, D seems true, but if you look at the 30mer graph that is just not true, there is no statistical significance between those two charts. So, the best answer is C because biotinylation seems to increase stability in 509mer and nonbiotinylation decreases stability but there is no difference between biotinylation and not in 30mer probably because it can't bind to biotin, which means its stability is not able to be increased or decreased at all.
This question is testing an understanding of redox reactions and electrons in rxn. This is pretty tough
SB CP Q65 So let's go through this. What happens in a disulfide bond breaking? Two cysteines gain hydrogens (gain electrons) and seperate, to facilitate this, NADH must be oxidized, and remember each NADH can carry two electrons, so that means each mole of NADH can reduce one mole of a disulfide bond. This case involves four, so that means there must be 4 moles of NADH added.
When a question even in CP says based on the passage, always read through and at least skim
SB CP Q7 Frankly the only one that makes any sense is B here, the other ones there is no proof for but it very explicitly says "this fast and localized heating process" which is not something that normal calorimeters can do readily, they require a slow specific setup.
GOOD JOB INTERPRETING THIS GRAPH KING
SB CP Q72 So this is a tough graph, it wants you to see which ion has the greatest effect. So you can see that when MgCl2 is added, the stability goes up a lot, but when the KCl is tripled, the stability stays the same, so this seems to indicate that the Mg in the MgCl2 had the most effect. The 1 M NaCl is there, but that's such a large quantity that it tells us that those don't have too much effect on stability. Mg2+ is the best choice here.
If you did this rn, this would be easy cash
SB CP Q73 So the value for the MgCl2 is 10mM and you can find the molar mass, and then this should be a very easy problem.
This is an interesting one about enzyme kinetics
SB CP Q77 So if Km goes down that means increased affinity, it also means that the substrate concentration at 1/2vmax is lower. So the answer likely relates to one of those, D is true because the kcat when down, so the vmax went down as well. A does not really make much sense, it's a stronger bond, neither does B for the same reason, and if it was unfolded like C, there would be no activity observed. D is best option.
Another one you'd get right, good job chieftain, you're killing it
SB CP Q79 Oxidation and reduction always happen in pairs, so this makes sense, also this is a fairly common reaction so good job remembering it
This one is a bit confusing, but if you read and understand the passage, there is only really one that viable
SB CP Q8 Good example of reading around the passage and not tunnelvisioning, so it says "The energy in the photochemical reaction ΔHu is the difference between the laser pulse energy Em and the heat detected ΔHnr" near the end of the passage, and by appropriate laser, it means the specific laser needed to dissociate a bond as per table 1, but this should theoretically be the same as the enthalpy (heat detected) due to energy conservation
ANOTHER ONE WOW
SB CP Q80 Cytosine has the most H bond acceptors and Guanine the most donors, good work!
Which of these three is the thermal denaturation of dsDNA into ssDNA affected by? pH of solution Ionic strength of solution Length of DNA strands
SB CP Q81 All of them, the pH and length are pretty self explanatory since pH messes with h bonds (and maybe the phosphate?) and more length means more H bonds. Ionic strength however is a weird one, this also can help stabilize DNA because positive ions can have stabilizing interactions with the phosphate groups in background and in turn increase stability.
I don't think you'd get this wrong today as long as you are careful and pay attention to the options
SB CP Q82 So right off the bat we know it has to be B or D, but remember deoxy means it has one less OH, so that means B would be larger as it is from ribose (RNA) rather than deoxyribose (DNA)
Working backwards to find how much decayed (lost in half lives) is very good to know
So given an amount and a time since it started decaying, you can find how many half lives it has undergone an how much has decayed, the amount that decayed ALL underwent whatever radioactive decay that specific molecule has. *NS6 CP Q43* also finding the g/mol of FDG is insane in this question
What is sound, how does it happen?
Sound is propagated in the form of longitudinal waves of oscillating pressure. Compressions (areas of high pressure) and rarefactions (areas of low pressure) are formed through the back-and-forth vibrations of the molecules of the medium.
If 4/5 of an object volume floats? What is the density of the object in 1000kg/m3 water?
TRICKY remember, the amount submerged is what the specific gravity tells so it would be 200kg/m3 here because only 1/5th is actually submerged
More kinetic energy means more ______ and ________
Temperature and more pressure
What does it mean when we say the electric field is uniform?
That means electric field lines are equally spaced in a uniform field FL3 CP Q20 you overthought this, it's as simple as it sounds, if the field is uniform the electric field lines are equally spaced between electrodes
Lyman, Balmer, Paschen series
The Lyman series (ultraviolet rays) involves any emission in which the ground state of the electron is n = 1. The Balmer series (visible rays) includes emissions in which the final state is n = 2. Finally, the Paschen series (infrared) contains any emission with a final state of n = 3. LUBV PI
Be able to manipulate the capacitance equation
The V can be made into various things like E time d, also because increasing area allows more charge to be stored, this means that Capacitance is directly proportional to Area and inversely proportional to distance. Also C= EoA/d
What determines what wavelenght of light can be absorbed?
The energy of the orbitals determines which wavelengths of light can be absorbed. some ligands cause greater differences in the energy of the d orbitals than other ligands, resulting in the absorption of different wavelengths of light
Ionic radii
The more negative an anion the bigger, the more positive a cation the smaller its ionic radius
Where on the free-energy diagram are the transition states?
The peaks are transition states, remember that is what's stabilized by enzymes usually NOT the intermediates
For ratios, what does 1:2 tell us about the respective values?
The second one is double the force of the first one. Just think of it like coefficients in front of the value, don't mess up on stuff like this.
beat frequency
The slight difference between the frequencies of the two combining sound waves that make a beat.
What is the rate-determing step?
The slowest in the process, this is the largest energy barrier, so if catalyzed will often be the first transition state
work-energy theorem
The work done on an object equals the change in kinetic energy of the object
work-energy theorem
The work done on an object equals the change in kinetic energy of the object and the work done on an object in the vertical direction is equal to potential energy. Just think KE and PE when you see work
Relative velocity between two objects depend on
Their directions, so if same direction, then subtract, if opposite then add
An ammonium salt will have a positive charge and then a variety of H or CH3 groups attached typically
This molecule from FL4 CP Q32 has an ammonium salt
Given distance and the velocity, you can find _____ very easily
Time of flight velocity/distance = time
What two enzyme types are needed to turn Cytosine into 5-hydroxymethylcytosine?
Transferase (for the methyl) and oxidoreductase (for turning the carbonyl in cytosine into a hydroxyl)
For the height in fluid questions, you can set height as being relative to something else
Trying to find height of water above hole, so hole is our zero point
If an acid or base is weak, then you figure out the base or acid dissociation constant by adding _____ to the product side
Water Example from Sess 34 Q10
Don't make mistakes cancelling like here
When you redid this, you got a weird number, just remember where the units are, C is on the bottom of N/C so multiply by C to get rid of it. *Sess 21 Q16*
Does heat affect equilbrium?
Yes heat can affect the equilbrium depending on whether the rxn is endothermic or exothermic, make sure to pay attention when a rxn mentions endo or exothermic
If given a value in J/mol or KJ/mol, you can figure out _______ by dividing it by avogadro's number
You can figure out the amount of energy in 1 atom
Total voltage drop in a loop can be related to resistance of and the current traveling across all resistors in a loop
You can set up systems of equations for two loops and solve if they have common values in their resistances or currents
Damn, you did this right but you messed up when interpreting your decimals
You had 5x10^1 and picked 5m/s HOW
When attributing R and S, what do you use to assign priority?
You use the FIRST atom bonded to the chiral center, so in this case, it would not be comparing the weight of the OH with the entire carbon chain, but rather OH vs CH2 vs D vs H. If there is a tie, you then go to the next constituent in the chain and so on.
effective nuclear charge
Zeff = Z - S S = shielding electrons between the level and the core Z = atomic number
Amphoteric
a substance that can act as both an acid and a base
Only gases are more soluble in _______ water
cold most other things are more soluble in warm water
Hertz
cycles per second (frequency) Frequency is 1/T *Sess 21 Q8 is a good one to understand this*
Electrolysis cell cause what kind of reactions to happen?
electrolysis, which is the nonspontaneous, electrochemical decomposition of a compound
Absorbing light results in
electronic excitation the majority of the time
When two high-energy nucleotides react with each other what happens?
hydrolysis of the phosphate groups
Disulfide linkages can be reversibly _______
hydrolyzed (h2o added to break bond)
Presence of a hydroxyl makes things more _______
hydroxyl group makes things more polar than a ketone or an aldehyde such as in this example FL2 CP Q10
Myopia and what kind of lens corrects this?
nearsightedness causes image formed in front of the retina, so a diverging lens will serve to diverge light before it reaches the eye. Think about it like you need to open up the rays to see more so you spread rays out (diverging)
The electromotive force for a nonspotaneous rxn in electrolytic cell is ________ and the applied potential must be ___________ to charge it
negative cell potential, but positive applied potential greater than the positive magnitude of the negative potential from external source. So if it's -1.2V, greater than 1.2V must be applied to charge it.
Electric field lines point towards?
negative charges + --> -
When there is no difference between observed and given frequency in doppler
no doppler shift = 0 velocity
A valid lewis structure needs
octets filled at each electron and a total that adds up to the valence electrons counts of each electron involved
Arrehenius can be used to visualize
rate constant (which tells us about reaction rate essentially)
The amount of product formed in a reaction depends on
reaction depends on the equilibrium constant of the reaction. This constant is not changed by the presence or absence of a catalyst, which affects only the rate of the reaction.
As ionization energy decreases, the _________ of atoms increases
reactivity
When an electron goes back to its ground state, it _______
releases the energy it absorbed in the form of a photon
total internal reflection
the complete reflection that takes place within a substance when the angle the light hits causes the reflected angle to be greater than 90 degrees back into the water
Thermodynamic vs Kinetic Product
the compound with the lowest energy transition state that forms at lower temperature (lowest energy barrier for formation) forms fastest, making it the kinetic. The compound with the most stable (lowest energy) that usually forms at higher temperatures is the thermodynamic product, but because it has a higher energy transition state (higher energy barrier for formation), it forms more slowly.
equivalence point
the point at which the two solutions used in a titration are present in chemically equivalent amounts (equal mole ratio)
Mechanical advantage
the ratio of the output force to the input force, due to the conservation of energy, the mechanical advantage of a lever is also equal to the ratio of the input distance to the output distance.
Remember rate laws are for the
the reaction of the reactants to form the products
Venturi effect
the reduction of fluid pressure that occurs when flow velocity increases at constricted sections of a tube, can be understood using bernouli's equation once you cancel out the pgh on both sides. Good example from FL2 CP Q25
Area under curve of an acceleration v time graph represents change in
velocity
Slope of distance v time graph gives
velocity
Convex mirrors create _____
virtual and upright images always
Doppler effect can be approximated by
where Δf is the frequency shift, f is the original frequency, v is the relative velocity between the source and the observer, and c is the speed of the wave in the medium. Essentially just know that as wave speed goes UP, frequency shift goes DOWN
In mechanics work is ____ independent and in thermodynamics is ____ dependent
work is path independent oftentimes but it depends on what the process being done is, if you push something up a hill and back down, it is path dependent but if you pick up and then put down then it is path independent only the displacement matters. For thermo it is path dependent
Efficiency
work output/work input
When cancelling on top and bottom, remember that you can just cancel out the variable and leave the coefficient behind, see example
x/2x can be cancelled to 1/2 or km/2km can be cancelled to 1/2
