MCAT Psych

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What age is psychosocial development of Identity vs Role?

12-20 years old

Law of Proximity

Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit.

Melatonin

Circadian rhythms, sleep wake, calming effect,

Riots

Crowd behavior with no end, general dissatisfaction with social conditions

Mesopic vision

Dawn and Dusk light levels

Role conflict

A conflict in society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person

Mob

A crowd in which emotion is heightened and behavior is directed toward a specific and violent cause.

Kinship

A cultural group who we think we are related to

Values

A culture standard for evaluating what is good or bad

Habituation

A decrease in responsiveness to a stimulus due to repeated exposure.

Ecclesia

A dominant religious organization that includes most member of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions (e.g. Islam in Iran)

Ecclesia

A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions.

Egalitarian family

A family in which spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions.

Mass

A group made through efforts of mass media

Coercive organization

An organization for which members do not have a choice in joining.

Utilitarian organization

An organization in which members get paid for their efforts.

Normative organization

An organization that motivates membership based on morally relevant goals.

Drive

An urge originating from physiological discomfort.

Reticular formation

Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation, a neural structure located in the brainstem, to keep the cortex awake and alert

Frustration-aggression principle

Frustration leads to aggression

Significance

If the P value is below .05, the samples are significantly different

Attrition bias

In longitudinal research, this bias occurs when certain participants are more likely to drop out of the study than others, leading to a final sample that differs from the initial sample in important ways.

Theories on aging

Life course theory, age stratification theory, activity theory, disengagement theory, and continuity theory

Kinesthesia

Movement of our body (muscle memory)

Informal norms

Norms that are generally understood but often less precise and carry no specific punishments.

Rods are used for what type of vision?

Scotopic vision (night vision) NOT DAY VISION

Stereotype threat

Self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

Culture of poverty

Self-perpetuating value system where poor people develop a unique value structure to deal with lack of sucess

Altruism

Selflessness, helping others for their well being

Difference threshold (JND)

The minimum noticeable difference between two sensory stimuli 50% of the time.

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor 50% of the time.

Justification of effort

The modification of one's attitude to match a behavior.

Bureaucracy

Structure of organizations that keep them running day to day

Panic disorder

Sudden bursts of sheer panic and anxiety

Continuity theory

Suggests that people simply need to maintain their desired level of involvement in society to maximize their sense of well-being and self-esteem.

Internal locus of control

The belief that one is able to influence outcomes through their own efforts and actions.

Race

The biological or genetic origin of an individual.

Social loafing

People exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable.

Modeling

People learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them

IQ

Pioneered by Alfred Binet

Relative deprivation

The perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself.

Scotopic vision

Vision at low light levels

Physical attractiveness stereotype

Type of halo effect, People think pretty people are better people

Yerkes- Dodson law

U shaped function for level of arousal and performance. performance bad when extreme high or low arousal. best at intermiediate level (Yerkes, Y is close to U shape, Yerk close to jerk which is arousal)

Primary reinforcer

Unconditioned reinforcer

Otolithic organs

Utricle and Sacule (Calcium carbonate crystals connected to hairs). Important in linear acceleration and head positoning.

Mesolimbic pathway

VTA -> nucleus accumbens, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus

Locus Coeruleus

Within pons, supplies norepinephrine

Stranger anxiety

a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals

Specific phobias

anxiety produced by a specific object or situation

Pay attention to units on graphs and figures

as well as passage cause answers decimal can be off

Resource model of attention

We have a limited amount of resources that we can pay attention to

Class personality disorders

Weird Schizoid, schizotypal, and paranoid

Schizotypal personality type

Weird, very odd beliefs, magical, unusual

Babinski reflex

causes toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated

Horizontal mobility

change in occupation or lifestyle that remains within the same social class

Signal detection theory

changes in perception of the same stimuli depend on internal and external content

Moderator variable

changes the strength of a existing relationship between a independent and dependent variable

Pragmatics

dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge (ex. we are more formal to a stranger but casual language with friend)

Semantics

association of meaning with a word

Inferior colliculus

auditory system

Rational choice theory

focuses on decision-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual

Signal detection theory

focuses on the changes in our perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal and external context ex. How loud would someone need to yell your name in a crowd to get your attention?

Adoption studies

helps understand environmental influences and genetic influence on behavior

ecological theory

human behavior influenced by multiple levels (individual, family, community, ect.)

collective unconscious

human instincts

Francis Galton's Theory of Intelligence

intelligence is genetically determined and quantifiable ("Francis... Crick" --> genetics)

Mental Rotation Tasks

involve making judgments of a mental image where the orientation needs to be changed

Face validity

instrument appear to be measuring what they are supposed to

Surrounding mesosystem

mesosystem is one of the five systems and comprises school, peer groups, and neighborhood.

Merkle cells

respond to deep pressure and texture

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to deep pressure and vibration

Spacing effect

retain large info when time between sessions of relearning is increased

Meritocracy

rewards according to individual talent or effort

random digit dialing

random select phone numbers within area codes

Functional fixedness

particular type of fixedness. inability to see beyond the common functions or uses of a given tool. An example would be being unable to see a spoon as an object with which one can dig or scrape.

General personality disorder: Cluster B - Antisocial

pattern of disregard for and violations of rights of others; illegal acts, aggressiveness, lack of remorse for said action

Gardner's idea of eight intelligences

people have different types of intelligences

Functional attitudes theory

states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense

Iron law of obligarchy

states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group

Master status

status by which a person is most identified

Forgetting is a process of both

time and new learning

Catch trials

trials in which the signal is presented

Correspondent inference theory

try to find intention of person action

analogies

used by thinking type to categorize, compare, and analyze data.

spreading activation

when a concept is activated, the activation spread to related concepts

Wernicke's aphasia

when this area is damaged, motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost; patients speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combo

Role strain

A conflict in society's expectations for one status held by a person.

Collective conscience

A conscience everyone shares, which presumes the existence of a greater social order that guides individual actions through shared beliefs, morals, and values. Common and primitive, traditional societies.

Culture lag

A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions.

Self-esteem

A person's overall value judgment of him- or herself.

Looking-glass self

A person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others.

Mood

A person's sustained internal emotion that colors his or her view of life.

Trait Perspective

A personality trait is stable predisposition toward a certain behavior. It is a habitual pattern of behavior, thought, and emotion (e.g. extroversion, introversion, outgoing, shy...)

Modernization theory

All countries follow a similar path of development from traditional to modern society With help any country can develop to modern

Organic solidarity

Allow society to integrate through a division of labor, which leads to each person having a different personal experience; each movement is distinguishable and separate. Common in advanced modern societies.

Aggregation

A principle that states that an attitude affects a person's aggregate behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act.

Meritocracy

A stratification system that uses personal effort to establish social standing.

Stage 3

Delta waves (slow wave sleep), high amplitude, 0.5-3 Hz.

Iron rule of oligarchy

Democratic organizations become more bureaucratic over time and becomes less and less individuals with power

Immediate networks

Dense with strong ties, composed of friends

Gender identity

Describes a person's appraisal of him or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity

Structural Strain Theory

Deviance is because of social strain (being poor, etc.) Criticism: Works with material things but not social/goals.

Neurotic Defense Mechanisms

Displacement, intellectualization, rationalization, regression, repression, reaction formation

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter

Endogenous cues

Experience cocktail party effect (requires our internal knowledge to recognize cue)

Means of production

Facilities and resources by which we produce goods

Distal stimulus

In perception, it is the actual object or event out there in the world, as opposed to its perceived image.

Proximal stimulus

In perception, it is the information our sensory receptors receive about the object.

Peripheral route

People focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech or orator.

Alienation of labour

Loss of ability to determine own destiny and ability to own goods they produce

Biological causes of Parkinsons

Loss of dopamine neurons in Substantia nigra (Basal ganglia) Lewy bodies (alpha synuclein) in dopaminergic neurons

Alzheimer's Disease symptoms

Loss of vital neurons throughout cerebral cortex. Forgetfulness, disorientation, mood swings

Eros

Love, health, safety, sex drives

beta waves

Low amplitude high frequency. Seen in wakefulness and REM sleep

Spatial mismatch

Low income households reside far from where suitable job opportunities are

Suspensory ligaments

Muscles contract and pulls this to change the shape of the lens

Mores

Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and are often strictly enforced based on a society's moral and ethical standards.

Selection bias

Occurs when the subjects used for the study are not representative of the target population due to improper randomization.

Projection bias

Occurs when we assume others have the same beliefs we do.

False consensus

Occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do.

Olfactory pathway

Odor -> olfactory nerves in olfactory epithelium -> olfactory bulb -> olfactory tract

Disengagement theory

Older adults and society separate, resulting in decreased interactions

Avoidance

Operant conditioning: a person performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not presented.

Phototransduction Cascade

Optic discs in rod/cone cells contain retinal, retinal conformation change by light causes a cascade that stops Na+ from flowing into the cell (hyperpolarization) which allows bipolar cells to turn on

Extinction

Organism become habituated to a conditioned stimulus

Discrimination

Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli

Reciprocal altruism

Organisms will behave in a way to reduce their own fitness while increasing others but expect others to act similarly later

How get false positive in cave robber situation

People advantage randomly formed outgroup members, seeing negative traits as situational and positive traits as dispositional. The opposite is observed for ingroup members. (A.K.A. being weird AF and not doing in group and out group stuff)

Halo effect

People are inherently good/bad, not individual characteristics. If you think some guy is nice, "he must be a good dad"

Central route

People are persuaded by the content of an argument.

Factors that influence obedience/conformity

Prior commitment, distance from patient, depersonalization Low SES more likely to conform ,individualistic cultures less likely

Negative priming

Prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably = influences the response to the same stimulus.

Auguste Comte would ask what kind of question?

Functionalism. Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, and Herbert Spencer, are founding fathers of functionalism.

context effects

both the context in which the stimuli is presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli

Temporal resolution

The precision of a measurement with respect to time (e.g. FPS)

Rationalization

The process by which tasks are broken down into component parts to be efficiently accomplished by workers within the organization. (Ford breaking down car assembly for different workers)

Assimilation (sociology)

The process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture.

Stage 1

Theta waves, low amplitude, 3-7 Hz.

Hallucinogens

distort perceptions in absence of any sensory input E.g. LSD, marijuana

Scalae

divides cochlea into three parts

Urban renewal

fueled by gentrification= when upper or middle class populations purchase and rennovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing low-SES population

depersonalization/derealization disorder

individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonaliation) or from their surroundings (derealization)

anomie

individuals feels disconnected from larger community

herd behavior

individuals in a group act without obvious source of direction

proactive interference

interference of long term memory with new information. Since Alzheimer can't get much long term info, there is no interference.

cognition dissonance

internal conflict with belief and behavior

Cultural relativism

judging another culture by its own standards

Strong ties

peer group and kinship contacts which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful

Whorfian hypothesis

linguistic relativity hypothesis - perception of reality depends on content of language. (Wolf, they howl so relative linguistic)

Representative heuristic

mental shortcut using the frequency of an incident to make decisions. Gambler does not acknowledge stats of occurrence is independent of each other

Skinner said punishment can cause

misbehavior and aggression

distal stimuli

objects /events out in the world about you

OCD

obsessions: persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses Compulsions: repetitive tasks that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life

social mobility

one's ability to move up (and down?) social classes

Stereotype threat

people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group

Deindividuation

people losing their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality

Semantic Memory

declarative memory of facts or general knowledge

Relative deprivation

decrease in resources, representations, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society

central route processing

deep thinking in elaboration likelihood model

Aphasia

deficit of language production or comprehension

behavior of people in a riot

deindividualism

Role strain

difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role

Trait theorists

individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors

Bystander effect

individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present

Crystallized intelligence

use of learned skills and knowledge, peaks in middle adulthood

The Robber's Cave experiment

used to study in-group favoritism

Occipital lobe

vision

back-stage self

we "left down our front" and be ourselves in private

Midbrain (mesencephalon)

receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body

Concordance rates

refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait

Retrospective chart review

reviewing old data

Inductive reasoning (Bottom-up)

seeks to create a theory via generalizations; starts with specific instances and draw a conclusion from them

Mate choice/intersexual selection

selection of a mate based on attraction

Master role

social behavior (Status - ID, Role - Behavior like role play you have to match behavior)

Weber's law

states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a JND and the magnitude of the original stimulus

Dopamine

plays important role in movement and posture where high concentrations are normally found in the basal ganglia which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability

Statuses

positions in society that are used to classify individual

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Linguistic relativity)

structure of language affects the perception of its speakers; people are limited to what they know of language

Multiculturalism

A perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions in which each culture is able to maintain its practices.

Dramaturgical perspective

A perspective that posits we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others.

Rooting

A primitive reflex in which an infant turns their head toward the direction of any object touching the cheek.

Babinski

A primitive reflex; extension of big toe and fanning of other toes in response to brushing on the sole of the foot.

Grasping

A primitive reflex; holding onto any object placed in the hand.

Moro

A primitive reflex; in response to sudden head movement, arms extend and slowly retract.

Fechner's law

A principal describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the magnitude of subjective sensation increases proportionally to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity.

Cultural syndrome

A shared set of beliefs, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme, as is found among people sharing the same language and geography.

McDonaldization

A shift in focus of an organization toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control.

Liberal strategy to signal detection

Accept everything unless you are certain signal is not there (lots of false alarms)

Volmeronasal system

Accessory olfactory epithelium that binds pheromones (humans do not have an accessory olfactory bulb)

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

Alarm reaction - prepares animal for fight/flight response (sympathetic NS) Resistance - Body tries to adapt to situation and activates parasympathetic NS Exhaustion - after repeated stimulus, body no longer has energy to cope with the stressor anymore

Learning distinction

Albert bandura posited that people learn a behaviour but can also decide not to perform it

Depressants Drugs (examples)

Alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbituates, opiates

Methodological individualism

All social realities are the result of individual actions and interactions. Staunch viewpoint that does not leave room to consider large-scale structures.

Mechanical solidarity

Allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience.

Stages of Sleep

Alpha: awake but relaxing with eyes closed -Waves slower than beta waves Beta: high frequency and occur when person is alert or attending mental task that requires concentration Stage 1 Theta: Dozing off; slower frequencies and higher voltages Stage 2 shows theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes Stage 3 and 4 Delta: low frequency, high voltage sleep wave; becomes difficult to rouse someone from sleep

Life course approach

An approach to sociology that captures how earlier life experiences and decisions affect opportunities in later life and for future generations within and across cultures and time.

Food desert

An area where fresh healthy food is difficult to find.

Dramaturgical approach

An argument that assumes that people are theatrical performers and that every day life is just a stage.

Social constructionism

An argument that people actively shape their reality through social interactions and that reality is something that is constructed, not inherent.

Source monitoring error

An error in remembering the source of information.

Randomized controlled trial

An experiment weather is a treatment group and the control group that are both randomly selected

Anchoring bias

Anchoring bias is the tendency to emphasize the accuracy of the first piece of information obtained in making a decision. This becomes the benchmark or anchor that is employed to make all other subsequent decisions

Exurb

Areas like woodlands outside of city (people commute into work)

Karl Marx

Argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production (bourgeoise) and those who labor and provide the manpower for production (proletariat) - conflict theory

Social constructionism

Argues that people actively make choices and shape their reality through social interactions and experience.

Detection bias

Arises from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way by searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations

Drive-Reduction Theory is correlated with what?

Arousal

Fear then relief technique

Ask for a big favor and then be like jk can you do this small favor

Superego

Aspect of one's personality that influences one to follow moralistic and ideals to gain psychological rewards.

Rooting reflex

Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek such as a nipple during feeding

Formal organizations

1. Continue despite departure of an individual member 2. expressed goals recorded in a written format and guide the members and their activities 3. seek to control activities of their members 4. hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members

two way ANOVA use for 2 dependent or 2 independent variables?

2 dependent variables

Durkheim structural functionalism theory

2 types of solidarity bonds, mechanical and organic. Mechanical is many similar parts put together to make the social machine. Organic is complementary bonds similar to organisms.

Generalized anxiety disorder

<6 months, identifiable physical symptoms, unclear source of anxiety

Carl Jung's rational and irrational functions of personality.

Divided typology of cognitive function into rational and irrational functions. Rational (thinking and feeling --> stepping stone mind and heart). Irrational (sensing and intuition --> stepping stone body and spirit)

Patrilocal family, matrilocal family, neolocal, ambilocality

Closeness to husbands, wifes, neither, both family

Ganglia

Cluster of cell bodies of afferent neurons. Provide relay points and ability to relay/process stimuli quickly.

Group

Collection of any # of people who regularly interact/identify w/ each other. Share similar norms, values, expectations.

Herbert Blumer

Collective Behavior

Fad/craze

Collective behavior when something comes and goes quickly, and is popular for a little bit with a lot of people

Social Movement

Collective behavior with the intention of promoting change.

Mass hysteria

Collective delusion of some threat until it spirals out of control to panic...public reactions to stressful situations. Lots of fake symptoms. "Salem Witch Trials"

Normative influence

Conformity based on one's desire to fulfill others' expectations and gain acceptance.

Solomon Asch experiment

Conformity study Experimenters grouped subjects with confederates and asked them all "Which line is the longest?". Confederates chose the smaller line, and subjects tended to also conform and choose the obviously smaller line.

Informational influence

Conformity under acceptance of evidence about reality which has been provided by others

Arcuate fasciculus

Connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area; it is a bundle of axons allowing appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production

Republican governments

Consider their countries to be public concerns and a democratic in nature, meaning that people have the supreme power in these societies.

Emile Durkheim

Considered the father of sociology was a major proponant of functionalism.

Authoritarian governments

Consist of an elected leaders; the public may have individual freedoms but no control over representation

What factors affect how we determine internal or external attribution?

Consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus

Avolition

Decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions.

Cocaine

Decreases re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin; anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties, can cause heart attacks and strokes

elaborative rehearsal.

Deep processing involves establishing semantic associations with the material to be remembered, helping to reflect upon the meaning of the material to memorize.

Neuroticism

Degree of emotional instability or stability as a result of stress.

Reality principle

Delay of gratification until its socially acceptable to get what we want

Bureaucracy

Dependent upon an advanced, hierarchical division of labor where each worker does his task Championed by Max Weber

Cognitive development

Development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan

Dyssomnias

Disorder that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep

Schizophrenia: negative symptoms

Disturbance of affect: expression of emotion Blunting: severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression Flat affect: no signs of emotional expression Inappropriate affect: (ex. schizophrenic starts laughing when talking about someone's death) Avolition: decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions

Myelencephalon (becomes medulla oblongata in fetus)

During embryonic development, the rhombencephalon divides to form the myelencephalon and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum from fetus)

Alcohol myopia

Effect of alcohol where it is in the inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world

Social facts

Elements that serve some function in society, such as laws, morals, and values.

Dramaturgical approach

Erving goffman, front and backstage self, we plan our conduct based on how we want people to see us

Which research methodology involves the extended, systematic observation of a complete social environment?

Ethnographic methods

Exogenous cues

Experience pop out effect, we don't have to consciously think about it to get our attention

Schachter-Singer Theory

Experiencing emotion requires physiological response PLUS interpretation of current situation (e.g. heart racing + lion chasing you = fear).

Sex response cycle

Excitement, plateau, orgasm, refractory period (men only), and resolution

Neobehaviorists would diet for every 5 lbs person loses, she is given a non food reward like money or praise attention from others

Expand__________________________ Who are they_____________________

Sick rule

Expectation within society that allows you to take breaks from responsibilities when you are sick

PTSD hard to do what kind of study?

Experimental studies, hard to systematically manipulate physiological states and sensitivity to changes in those states (also unethical to do these for residential segregation)

Inattentional blindness

Failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere

Type II error

Failure to reject a false null hypothesis ("false negative")

Characteristics of ideal bureacracy

Division of labor, specialization, hierarchy, rules, expectations, impersonality, employment based on technical qualifications

Nonmaleficence

Do no harm; physician has responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit

Force field theory

Lewin's theory that described one's current state of mind as a field, and forces as the sum of the influences acting on a person at a given time.

Deviance

Going against a social norm (but doesn't necessarily mean bad or immoral)

Government schemes

Government intervenes to lower social inequality by implementing certain tactics

Extended family

Grandparents, aunts, uncles, and others.

Difference between independent and dependent variables

In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher. The independent variable is the presumed cause whereas the dependent variable is the presumed effect.

Social facts

In functionalism, there are facts that are formed by society and will exist before any individual and continue to exist

Place theory

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the basilar membrane is stimulated

Amphetamines

Increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake; increases heart rate and blood pressure, euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia

Long-term Memory

Info retained indefinitely; infinite recall capacity Two types: Implicit/Procedural, Explicit/Declarative

Proactive interference

Information previously learned interferes with ability ro recall information learned later.

Types of conformity

Informative, normative, identification, internalization

Self-reference effect

It is easier to remember things that are personally relevant.

Dual coding hypothesis

It is easier to remember words with associated images than with either words or images alone.

Attribute substitution

It occurs when an individual has to make a judgment (of a target attribute) that is computationally complex, and instead substitutes a more easily calculated heuristic attribute.

Repression

Lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory.

Misinformation effect

False memories created by outside sources like use of severity in language or given false information

Mere exposure effect

Familiarity effect : people prefer things they are exposed to a lot

Social institutions (examples)

Family, Government and economy, religion, education, health and medicine

Avoidant personality type

Feels inadequate, inhibited, avoids social situations

Expansive Population pyramid

Fewer old people than young

Constrictive population pyramid

Fewer younger people than old

Optic chiasm

Fibers from the nasal half field of each retina cross paths

Mindguarding

Filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group.

Schachter-Singer Theory

First we experience physiological arousal, then we cognitively interpret the situation, and finally we experience the emotion

Complex innate behaviours

Fixed action patterns (e.g. mating dance), migration, circadian rhythm

Social cognitive perspective

Focus on how our environment influences our behavior and how we interact with the environment

Major criticisms of conflict theory

Focuses too much on conflict and does not recognize the role of stability within society.

Joint attention

Focusing of attention by two separate individuals

Types of Norms

Folkways, Mores, Laws, Taboos

Behaviour influences attitude (theories)

Foot in door, Door in face, role-playing

Activity theory

For healthy and successful aging people sohuld remain active and miaintain social interactions

Where are cones located on retina?

Fovea @ center of retina

Erich Fromm

Fromm argued that there are eight universal human needs: relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, sense of identity, frame of orientation, excitation, unity, and effectiveness.

Actor observer bias

Fundamental attribution error in combination with self serving bias

Georg Simmel's concept of the stranger

Georg Simmel explains that we trust those strangers because they are surrounded by signs and clues such as tools and uniforms that put us at ease. The stranger exists in modern society because of the economic division of labor that forces people to trust someone they have never met before

Social exchange

Give person physical or psychological reward, so next time they are more likely to agree to a request

Source traits

Global factors underlying human personality and behaviors that are not directly evident from behavior.

Consumption based families

Smaller families because they consume too much resources

Reciprocal determinism

Social cogntiive theory personal factors <-> behavioural <-> environment

Some studies find that the association between discrimination and health is stronger for U.S.-born members of certain ethnic minority groups than it is for immigrant members of the same ethnic minority group. This finding suggests that the possible effect of discrimination on health is most likely related to: A) social segregation in US B) length of residence in US C) place of residence in US D) social integration in US

Social integration in US due to system of stratification from US social institutions

Front stage

Social interaction where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people.

Relative deprivation theory

Social movements birthed by relative deprivation, feeling of deserving better, and convention methods weren't helpful

Auditory pathways

Sound -> vestibulocochlear nerve -> medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) -> auditory cortex -> superior olive -> inferior colliculus

hypnic jerk

Spasm of part of our body (occurs during stage 1 NREM)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Student will perform best when moderately aroused. Not too hyped, not too calm.

Ebbinghaus

Studied nonsense words. Plotted a forgetting curve by testing himself at various intervals after learning (using different lists for each interval). He found that memory did decline with the passage of time. Decline was uneven, sharpest soon after learning and became more gradual

Mass society theory

Suggests that social movements offer a sense of belonging to people who feel alienated and disconnected from others.

Frustration aggression principle

Suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression.

Self-concept

Sum of an individual's knowledge of himself. There are three main influences on an individual's development of self-concept: self-efficacy, locus of control, self-esteem.

Mature Defense mechanisms

Supression, Sublimation, humour, altruism

George Herbert Mead

Symbolic interactionalism.

Symbolic culture

Symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture.

Material culture

Tangible, physical items produced and used by members of a specific culture group and reflective of their traditions, lifestyles, and technologies.

Self-serving bias

Tendency to attribute failures to external environment & successes to ourselves

Self-serving bias

Tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and failures to others or the external environment.

Halo effect

Tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics.

Just world Phenomenon

Tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve

Actor-observer bias

Tendency to blame our actions on situational factors and blame the actions of others on internal stable traits.

Actor/observer bias

Tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

Confirmation bias

Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them

Context effect

Tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information.

Primacy and recency effect

Tendency to remember early and late items

Self-discrepancy theory

Maintains that each of us has three selves. The actual self: the way we see ourselves as we currently are, the ideal self: the person we would like to be, and our ought self: the way others think we should be.

Self-discrepancy theory

Maintains that each of us has three selves: actual, ideal, and ought self (representation of the way others think we should be)

Manifest vs. latent function

Manifest functions: action intended to help some part of a system Latent: unintended positive consequences on other parts of society Ex. Annual meetings of medical societies have the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, sharing research findings, and setting goals for the next year. Latently, they create stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and provide a sense of identity for the group.

Cultural transmission/cultural learning

Manner at which a society socializes its members

Holism and mind-body connection

Many cultural groups, particularly from the East, have a more holistic view of the mind-body connection. In other words, the mind and body play an integral role in healing. In the West, the view is that there is a dichotomy between the mind and body, which is why many Western cultures emphasize the biomedical model.

Conflict theory

Marxist theory that views society as a competition for limited resources indicating anger or dissatisfaction; involves a dominant and oppressed group. Thesis (status quo) -> Antithesis (social struggle) -> Synthesis (emerges from resulting struggle)

Sources of self-efficacy

Mastery of experience, social modeling, social persuasion, psychological responses

Conformity

Matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms

I and Me

Me: Social self (societies view) - socialized me I: response to social self (personal responses) - no one is important as you

Kinsey scale

Measures hetero vs. homosexuality; significant portions of the population fell somewhere between them

Theory of intersectionality

Multiple different areas of potential discrimination overlap with one another and exist alongside one another

Convergence

Muscles in the eye will stretch and cause eyes to converge on an object less than 10 metres away (binocular cue)

Nativist (biology) theory

Noam Chomsky - children should learn languages between 2 and puberty.

NREM

Non Rapid Eye Movement, a recurring sleep state during which rapid eye movements do not occur and dreaming does not occur. Accounts for 75% of sleep.

Sampling Bias

Non random sample selection that could lead to bias

Abraham Maslow's Humanistic Theory

Peak experience: self-actualizers more likely to have profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual

Stanford Prison experiment

People conform to the different roles placed upon them. Behavior can shape attitude. Role playing prisoners and jail officers... Jail officers really got into their role and started oppressing prisoners. Prisoners even started a revolt in response. The experiment had to be ended prematurely because it got too lit.

Self-selection bias

People in a sample can choose whether or not to participate in an experiment

Reciprocal liking

People like others better when they believe the other person likes them

David McClelland's N-Arch

People rated high in N-Arch tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments; they set realistic goals, and stop striving toward a goal if success is unlikely

Social facilitation

People tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present and worse on complex or new tasks.

Continuity theory

People try to maintain same basic structure for lives over time

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

People understand their world through language and language shapes how we experience our world.

Fundamentalists

People who adhere strictly to religious beliefs.

Category

People who share similar characteristics but are otherwise not tied together

Neuromodulators

Peptide neurotransmitter where the synaptic action involves more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell and are therefore slower and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell than NT

Relative size

Perceive things to be closer to us because it takes up a larger space in our visual field (monocular cue)

Interposition

Perceive things to be closer to us because its in front of another object (monocular cue)

Retinal disparity (stereopsis)

Perception of depth and 3-dimensional structure obtained on the basis of visual information deriving from slight differences in the images projected onto the retina.

Whorfian hypothesis/Linguistic relativity hypothesis

Perception of reality is determined by the content of language

Law of Pragnanz

Perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible.

State-dependent memory

Person's mental state affect recall

Carl Jung

Personal unconscious: similar to Freud's unconsciousness Collective unconscious: powerful system that is shared among all umans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors Archetypes: images invariably have an emotional element

Priming

Priming is a nonconscious form of memory in which an association of the memory is activated prior to initiating a particular task.

Schizophrenia: Positive Symptoms

Psychotic disorder; associated with high dopamine levels Positive symptoms Delusions of reference: (ex. person believes characters in a TV show are talking to him directly) Delusions of persecution: (ex. person believes he is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, threatened) Delusions of grandeur: (person is remarkable in some significant way such as being a historical figure or religious icon) Thought broadcasting: believe one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to external world Thought insertion: belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head) Hallucinations: hearing voices Disorganized thought: loosening of associations; ideas shift from one thought to another; word salad; schizophrenics invent new words (neologisms) Disorganized behavior: inability to carry out activities of daily living; patient will either spontaneously move or remain rigid (catatonia)

Eysencks' PEN model

Psychoticism: nonconformity or social deviance Extraversion: tolerance for social interaction and stimulation Neuroticism: emotional arousal in stressful situations

Cultural imperialism

Putting ones culture above all others (deliberate imposition)

Experimental study

Research that manipulates a variable in a test group and compares the response to that of a control group that was not exposed to the same variable.

Ego depletion

Self control requires a lot of energy and focus, using a lot of it over a long period of time can cause you to use it up

Thanatos

Self destruction, death, anger, hate, harm

Deductive reasoning (Top-down)

Set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Seven defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

Effectiveness

The ability of a treatment to work in a clinical setting.

Efficacy

The ability of a treatment to work in a lab setting.

Fertility

The ability of females to generate offspring in abundance

Social cognition

The ability of the brain to store & process information regarding social perception

Explicit memory (declarative)

The ability to explain what is known - Includes semantic, episodic memory.

Hierarchy of salience

We let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment

Social exchange theory

We prefer the action with the greatest personal benefit. Exchanges do not have to be economic in nature.

Weak and strong social constructionism

Weak - social constructs are dependent on brute facts Strong - everything is a product of human language and social habits

Urbanization

The growth of urban areas. It is tied to industrialization.

Symbolic culture

The nonmaterial culture that represents a group of people; expressed through ideas and concepts (ex: currency).

Replacement level fertility

The number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people in the population who die.

Incidence

The number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time.

Prevalence

The number or proportion of cases of a particular disease or condition present in a population at a given time.

External locus of control

The perception that outcomes are controlled by external forces.

Hyperglobalist perspective

The perspective that globalization is driven by legitimate forces, that national boundaries/specific nation states are becoming less important, and the world is becoming one unit.

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes.

Test retest reliability

The reliability of an assessment tool in obtaining similar scores overtime

Exogamy

The requirement to marry outside a particular group. For example, prohibiting sexual relationships between certain relatives.

Spatial resolution

The smallest feature that can be seen by a detector.

Id

The source of energy and instincts devoid of logical or moral reasoning, ruled by the pleasure principle.

Instinctual drift

The tendency for an animal to drift back from a learned operant response to an innate instinctual response to an object.

actor/observer bias

The tendency for an individual to attribute one's own wrongdoing to situational causes, and NOT to dispositional factors. This is vice versa when dealing with other's wrongdoings.

Modernization

The transformation from traditional social structures to more rational or economic driven ones.

Echolalia

The uncontrollable and immediate repetition of words spoken by another person.

Disengagement theory

The view that aging makes a person's social sphere increasingly narrow, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawal, and passivity.

Norms

The visible and invisible rules of social conduct within the society.

What is the difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins?

The zygote undergoes a split for monozygotic twins, whereas dizygotic twins result from two ova.

Rational Choice Theory

There is a simple reason for all choices: provides greatest reward at lowest cost

Hidden curriculum

Things that are taught in socialization that are not the manifest content

Shadowing task

Two different sounds projected into different ears- asked to repeat one thing in one ear

Retinal disparity

Two eyes provide slightly different view of the same object, giving a cue of depth (binocular cue)

Social interaction

Two or more individuals can shape each other's behavior.

Outbreaks/Epidemics/Pandemics

Unexpected increase of an infectious disease "H1N1"

Social epidemiology

Using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population

Mesolimbic Pathway

VTA and all other pathways to other portions of the brain that releases dopamine (serotonin decreases)

1st week (action --> no reward) 2nd week (action --> reward) 3rd week (action --> random reward) What is schedule of reinforcement for 3rd week? Frequency of action of course of study?

Variable Ratio NOT Variable Interval Increase over course of study NOT Be stable first two week and fluctuate the 3rd week NOT increase first two week and decline 3rd week

State

Variable aspects of personality influenced by the external environment.

Confounding variable

Variable that affects both dependent and independent variable

Reinforcement Schedules

Variable-ratio schedule has fastest response rate

Covariate

Variables that might affect the dependent variable, but are not associated with the independent variable - essentially a control variable.

Trial and Error

Various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work

Spotlight model

Visual attention can shift within the visual field but can only be focused on a single target.

Feature detection

Visual pathways contain cells specialized in detection of color, shape, or motion

stereotype content model

Warm groups: those not in direct competition with the in-group for resources Competent groups: high status within society Paternalistic: inferior, dismissed, ignored Contemptuous: resentment, annoyance, anger Envious: jealously, bitterness, distrust Admiration: pride and other positive feelings

Social Exchange Theory

We assign value to different courses of action, and choose the one with the highest value

Specific Real Area Bias

When people in a sample are selected from only a certain area

Incipient stage

When public begins to take notice of a situation they consider a problem

Compliance

change in behavior based on a direct request; person or group asks the individual to make the change typically has no actual power or authority to command individual, but ask him to change his behavior

Obedience

changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure

Internalization

changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group

Availability heuristic

a cognitive shortcut that focuses on making use of information that immediately comes to mind about some particular topic or issue. This immediate information then becomes the framework for judging the likelihood of events occurring

Group polarization

a dynamic that occurs in a group in which individuals take on views that reflect a more extreme position than they might hold privately.

self-efficacy

a feeling of not being able to make changes

Cortisol

a glucocorticoid that shifts body from using glucose as an energy source to fat (i.e. glucose-sparing effect)

James Langer theory

a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions and is one of the earliest theories of emotion within modern psychology. It was developed independently by two 19th-century scholars, William James and Carl Lange. The basic premise of the theory is that physiological arousal instigates the experience of a specific emotion. Instead of feeling an emotion and having a subsequent physiological (bodily) response, the theory proposes that the physiological change is primary, and emotion is then experienced when the brain reacts to the information received via the body's nervous system

Propriocentive Senses

allow humans to control their limbs without directly looking at them. It is the sense of location, position, orientation, and movement of various parts of your body with each other

Moderating Variable

alters the relationship between two other variables

Limbic system (3 components)

amygdala - emotional experiences; identifies/expresses fear and aggression hippocampus - forms memories cingulate gyrus - learning and memory

That's-not-all technique

an individual is made an offer but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected

Longitudinal Study

analysis of patients over time

Social anxiety disorder

anxiety that is due to social situations and persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situation that may result in embarrassment

Synaptic pruning

as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information

Method of loci

associating each item in the list with location along a route through a building that has already been memorized

Peer group

association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses; provide opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging

Diffusion of responsibility

assumes that individuals are less likely to intervene or help in a crisis situation when there are other individuals around.

Social construction model

assumes there is no biological basis for emotions but are based on experiences and situational context alone

Identity shift effect

afraid to be rejected by group so conform to norms of group.

Alzheimer's disease

age related dementia

Indirect therapy

aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of affected individual

Functional attitude theory

attitude has functions of knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense.

learning theory

attitudes can be developed through different forms of learning

Ego-defensive

attitudes that protect our self esteem or justify actions that are wrong

Differential association theory

deviance can be learned through interactions with others; intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior him- or herself

Differential association theory

deviance can be learned through others

sick role

deviant behavior person expected to display

Misplaced Familiarity:memory processes that make a stimulus seem familiar are _____ from those that help us figure out why it feels familiar.

different

Role conflict

difficulty in statisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles

Low-context communicators

direct communication, explicit descriptions and terms, speaking more and frequently raising their voices (animated, dramatic), and often being impatient to get to the point of the discussion

Stigma

disapproval attached to disobeying the expected norms so that a person is discredited as less than normal

racial discrimination not the same as racial stereotyping and prejudice

discrimination - stereotyping - prejudice -

Socialization

discussing of the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs

In drive reduction theory, the motivating drive comes from what?

disruption of homeostasis

archival data improves sample size or ecological validity?

ecological validity because the experiment has already been done and cant chance sample size of something already done.

institutionalized cultural capital

educational qualifications -people with degrees more cultural capital -people with degrees form Harvard have more cultural capital than people with degrees from DU

Harry Harlow's experiment

effects of early infant maternal separation (monkey baby wire with milk or cloth)(Hairy Harry Harlow is Hairy like a monkey cloth)

Expectancy value theory

effort depends on expectations of achieving goal

Resource mobilization theory.

emergence and evolution of social movements through a focus on organizational resources. Those can be material, moral, social-organizational, human, or cultural. The passage implies that the breast cancer movement was succesful because it managed to raise ongoing material support

Self-determination Theory (SDT)

emphasizes roles of ... Autonomy: need to be in control of one's actions and ideas Competence: need to complete and excel at difficult tasks Relatedness: need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships

stage 3 of level 2, "conventional morality," in Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development

emphasizes social approval. In other words, a person in this stage and level will make moral decisions based on whether he or she will be evaluated as a good person or a bad person Level 1, stage 1 reflects the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Individuals in this stage will make moral decisions based on whether they will be punished or not. Level 3, stage 6 reflects the post-conventional level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Individuals in this stage will make moral decisions based on their own guidelines or principles of justice.

Working memory

enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that information

Catecholamines or monoanimes or biogenic amines)

epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine

instinctual drift

established habits, learned via operant techniques, are eventually replaced by innate food-related behaviors

Disconformation principle

evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work

Implicit memory: procedural

ex. retain skill of riding a bike

Cross-Sectional Design

examine a group of individuals at one point in time

Self-fulfilling prophecy

expectation create conditions that lead to confirmation of those expectations ex. people tell you a class is hard and most people fail, you start to get nervous and do bad, validating their opinion

speech shadowing

experimental subjects repeat speech immediately after it is heard

Game theory

explain decision making behavior

Dispositional attributions

explaining and attributing behaviors to the internal characteristics of a person, for example, explaining behavior due to the individual's personality disorders, mental illness, or personality characteristics

Opponent-Process Theory

explains continuous drug use where the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology (ex. body counteract repeated use of alcohol that will last longer than the drug resulting in withdrawal symptoms) Withdrawal creates dependence on drug

Incentive theory

explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments

explicit memory vs. semantic memory

explicit (very great detail of facts or events) semantic (general detail from world knowledge)

Attribution theory

focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior

Social cognition

focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior

Social construct

follow the traditional assumptions and perceive them as inevitable.

Altruism

form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at the cost to him or herself

Telencephalon

forms cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system

Diencephalon

forms thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland

Jean Piaget

formulated the stages of cognitive development. Adolescents begin to move into the formal operational stage, and they will typically begin thinking in a more abstract manner versus in a concrete way. Their thinking will move away from being based solely on personal experience

Adaptive

function of attitude that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed

Ego-expressive

function of attutude that allows us to communicate self identity such as wearing sports hat so you are identified as fan of the team

Feminist theory

gender inequality (work). Gender differences (norms), gender oppression (diff power and abuse), and structural oppression (race class)

Parietal lobe

general sensations (touch, temperature, pressure), taste, spatial reasoning

External Validity

generalizability of a study

Group conformity

group holds power over its members, creating group pressure that ultimately shapes members' behaviors; individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goals

altruistic behavior

help another person fitness at the cost of (your own? another person fitness?)

Implicit/Procedural Memory

conditioned associations/knowledge of how to do something (e.g. how to walk, other skills) Basal ganglia responsible for procedural memory of skills

Source-monitoring error

confusion between semantic and episodic memory (ex. a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else and later recalls the story as having happened to him or herself)

Corpus callosum

connects the two cerebral hemispheres

Game theory

decision making, predict interactions.

Episodic Memory

declarative memory of events you've experienced

What parts of the brain are important for declarative memory? procedural memory?

declarative: Hippocampus and medial temporal lobe procedural: cerebellum and striatum

Bystander effect

decrease likelihood of helping victim when others are present.

Parkinson's disease (biological)

decreased dopamine production in substantia nigra (layer of brain cells that produce dopamine to permit functioning of basal ganglia) Treatment: L-DOPA (precursor converted to dopamine once in brain)

Racialization

definition or establishment of a group as a particular race

Stage 3 of Sleep

delta waves, night terrors, somnambulism, nocturnal enuresis (bed-wetting); DEEPEST sleep

Alan Baddeley and Grham Hitch's working memory model

developed in two stages. In the first stage, the original working memory system components included the central executive, which is thought mainly to focus and divide attentional resources. They also included the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, which are thought to hold storage and rehearsal functions, to be subordinate to the central executive, and to be similar to short-term memory. That is, they store information for short periods of time, sometimes repeating or rehearsing it before its transfer to long-term storage. The difference between these two components lies in the type of information held: auditory for the phonological loop, and visual and spatial for the visuospatial sketchpad. The episodic buffer was a component subsequently added to the model. It is thought to act as an interface by integrating and storing information existing within the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into a multimodal gestalt or single episodic representation.

Kübler-Ross theory

developed the five-stage model of grief. People go through an emotional stage characterized by denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Her work with dying people and John Bowlby's attachment and loss theory influenced the development of this model

Sensory bias

development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population (ex. fiddler crabs are naturally attracted to structures that break up the level horizon because they may indicate a food source; male crabs build pillars around their territory to attract mates)

Semantic encoding

place meaningful context to how we encode information Semantic encoding is the strongest encoding and visual encoding is the weakest

Serotonin

play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming Oversupply of serotonin produce manic states while undersupply is thought to produce depression

Karen Horney - Object relations Theory

object refers to representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infanc; objects prsist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others

Object relations theory

object reflect parents based on subjective feelings and persist when adult and influence interactions with others.

Phenotypic benefits

observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex; traits indicate increased production and survival of offspring

Primary socialization

occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close

Groupthink

occurs when members begin to focus solely on ideas generated within the group while ignoring outside ideas; may limit to group's options or views

Retroactive interference

occurs when newly acquired information causes us to have trouble remembering old information.

Attrition Bias

occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study

Neurulation

occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds

Reversed attribution bias

often seen in depressed people; viewing their successes as caused by external factors and failures as caused by internal factors

Proactive interference

old information is interfering with new learning (ex. moved to a new address and had trouble recalling individual pieces of the new address)

Resocialization

one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change and can have positive/negative connotations

Empathy-altruism hypothesis

one helps another person when feeling empathetic regardless of the cost

Place Theory

one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the basilar membrane

Halo effect

one specific aspect of person can affect overall impression

Adaptation

one way the mind and body try to focus attention on only the most relevant stimuli, which are usually changes in the environment around us

Mediating Variable

one which explains the relationship between two other variables.

Confounding Variable

one which is not typically of interest to the researcher but affects the relationship between the dependent and independent variables

Rods

only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment called rhodopsin

Confounding bias

other variables interfere with cause and effect --> affects internal validity

Kohlberg

outlined stages of moral reasoning addressing how people reason their way through moral questions, and showed how this reasoning develops from children to adults

Piaget

outlined the stages of cognitive development that applies to children and adolescents

Identification

outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas

important first impressions are nonverbal like paralinguistic kinesics proxemics

paralinguistic - spoken communication that isn't words like tone/pitch kinesics - body language proxemics - physical distance between people

Knowledge

part of functional attitudes theory, it provides consistency and stability

anterior cingulate cortex does what? What might happen if damaged?

part of limbic system, for self - regulation, decision making, impulse control damage --> impulsive and aggression

fusiform gyrus

part of visual system in brain; deals with high-level visual processing and recognition

Experiment on misplaced familiarity

participants witness staged crime, shown mug shots, none of the mugshots were of the person but they identified someone. The person they pictured was just someone they saw in a previous photograph.

Sanctions

penalties for misconduct can be used to maintain social control and often include fines or incarceration

insight learning process

people and animals do not learn by operant conditioning or trial and error. Rather, they learn by having an insight or figuring out a solution for their problems. problem-solving attempts are meaning and purposeful, rather than random.

Maslow's self-actualization theory

people are motivated by needs, and these needs are hierarchical in that as human beings we strive to meet the needs on the lower rung of the hierarchy (i.e., physiological needs) before we can strive to meet our needs in the highest rung (i.e., self-actualization).

familiarity and recollection

people can tell whether they "remember" a prior event or whether they don't remember the event, but "know" that it happened. You notice a stimulus is familiar, think you know why but you're wrong and you attribute familiarity to wrong source.

Halo effect

people have inherently good or bad natures

Correspondent inference theory

people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental beavior when making attributions especially if the behavior is unexpected

Mere exposure effect/familiarity effect

people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently (ex. first hearing a song you hate, but after hearing it many more times, you like it)

Theory of symbolic interactionism

people relate things based on the meanings they have for them. Drinking coffee more a ritual than the drink itself

Third person effect

people say persuasive ads and commercials won't effect them, but will effect other people

Social facilitation

people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others

Yerkes-Dodson Theory

people tend to perform their best when they're moderately emotionally stimulated.

Attribution theory

people try to understand the cause behind other peoples actions/behaviors

Self-presentation/Impression management

people use specific strategies to shape what others will think of them

Endowment effect

people value things they own more than things they don't have

peripheral route processing

people who focus on superficial details such as appearance of person delivering the argument, catchphrases, slogans

frustration-aggression hypothesis

people will be more aggressive when frustrated; being hindered from a goal induces frustration

Social network theory

people's networks are important/necessary for the spread of ideas/resources. Weak ties are good because it allows sharing of new resources to a VAST network. E.g. people are more likely to get a job through an acquaintance than a friend

Cultural relativism

perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with recognition that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that of culture itself; just perceives other culture as different, not bad

General personality disorder: Cluster C - Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

perfectionistic and inflexible, tends to like rules and order not same as OCD because OCPD is life long while OCD is acquired

Projection areas

perform simple perceptual and motor tasks

Major depressive disorder

period of two weeks with at least five of following symptoms: 1. prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood 2. loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities (anhedonia) 3. appetite disturbances 4. substantial weight changes 5. sleep disturbances 6. decreased energy 7. feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt 8. difficulty concentrating or thinking 9. psychomotor symptoms (slowing down) 10. thoughts of death or attempts at suicide

Social reproduction

perpetuation of inequalities through social institutions

social reproduction

perpetuation of social inequalities through social institutions with each generation

Dysthymia

persistent depressive disorder where depressed mood isn't severe enough to meet criteria of major depressive episode; most of the time for at least two years

Generalized anxiety disorder

persistent worry about many different things for at least six months; is often accompanied by physical symptoms

Body dysmorphic disorder

person has unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness

approach-approach conflict

person must choose between two more or less equally desirable goals

avoidance-avoidance conflict

person must choose between two more or less equally unattractive or undesirable goals

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

personality assessment on psychological functions of sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Assume one type is more dominate than the others

William Sheldon's Somatotypes

personality types based on body types Type A: competitive and compulsive Type B laid-back and relaxed

General personality disorder: Cluster B - Borderline personality disorder

pervasive instability in terpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image; profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values; may use splitting (all good or all bad mentality) Suicide and elf-mutilation are common

General personality disorder: Cluster A - Schizoid

pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and restricted range of emotional expression NOTE: Schizotypal and schizoid are not the same as schizophrenia

Transference

phenomenon in which the client unconsciously transfers or redirects his/her feelings to the therapist or counselor

Actor-observer effect

phenomenon where individuals will attribute their own behavior to external events but explain the behaviors of other people by internal causes such as traits or character.

Juxtaposition

physically putting two things next to each other to compare

Cannon-bard theory of emotion

physiological + emotional same time (both at same time goes off like a cannon)

Anterograde amnesia

inability to form and therefore recall memories of recent events

Anterograde amensia

inability to form new memories

Dissociative amnesia

inability to recall past experiences, often linked to trauma Disociative fugue: sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily ctivities

source amnesia

inability to remember where/when/how you got the information from while still retaining the actual information

Retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve old memories, or memories that were formed prior to the event that triggered memory problems (temporally graded amnesia is a particular type for Alzheimer's, even though they have hard time retrieving newer information)

Gross motor skills

incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion like sitting, crawling, and walking

Schizophrenia causes (biological)

increased dopamine, smaller frontal and temporal lobes and are abnormally structures, abnormalities in frontal portion of mesocorticolimbic pathway, genes, stress during pregnancy

Gentrification

increased neighborhood stratification, displacement of lower-income residents, expanded tax base for local gov't

Stimulants

increases release of neurotransmitters, or reduces reuptake of NT's E.g. caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines ("speed")

high-context cultures

indirect communication, talk less, rely on nonverbal cues, and are very comfortable with silences. They tend to use more formal language that emphasizes the hierarchical relationships of individuals

Alfred Adler's theory

individual psychology. His theory mainly developed concepts such as inferiority complex, overcompensation, and birth order.

Carl Roger's humanistic theory

individual who comes in for therapy is not a patient but a client, who has the capacity to grow. The only way the client can grow is through the therapist's unconditional positive regard toward the client, which is based on respect and empathy.

Deindividuation

individuals in a group setting lose individual identity

Reliance on central trait

individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver

Self-serving bias/self-serving attribution bias

individuals view their own success based on internal factors while viewing failures based on external factors

Grasping reflex

infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand

Moro reflex

infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms then slowly retracting their arms and crying

Freud - Instinct

innate psychological representation of a biological need Life instinct (Eros): promote individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, sexual need Death instinct (Thanatos): represent unconscious wish for death and destruction

Instinct Theory

innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli; people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts

Membranous labyrinth

inner ear structures bathed with this potassium-rich fluid called endolymph

Primary group

interactions are direct with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members, last long period of time,

Secondary group

interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds, last short period of time

Social exclusion

involves the lack or denial of resources, rights, goods and services, and the inability to participate in the normal relationships and activities, available to the majority of people in a society, often problem of being impoverished

Ethnographic methods

involving systematic observation of a complete social env't

Prejudice

irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity

Class consciousness

is a term used in political theory, particularly Marxism, to refer to the beliefs that a person holds regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests.

Relearning

is a way of measuring retention by measuring how much faster one relearns material that has been previously learned and then forgotten.

social transition

knowledge passed on in a group/society

Labeling theory

label affect how others respond to person and person's self image

Labeling theory

labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self image

Avolition

lack of drive to perform activities and pursue objectives

James

lange theory - stim. --> physiological arousal --> emotion (Lange simple stim and response)

Linguistic styles

language

Linguistic relativism

language a person speaks influences how they think

Dominant hemisphere (Left)

language, logic, and math skills

non-REM waves on a graph

large and big amplitude, slow would be deeper stage like 3/4

Propaganda

large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others

Door-in-the-face technique

large request is made at first and if refused, a second and smaller request is made

quasi-experimental

large sample size in which two groups of research subjects are examined along a particular outcome

Basic group dynamics larger groups vs smaller groups

larger groups - more stable (many ties/bonds), less intimate, smaller groups - less stable (if break single tie/bond), more intimate

Stage 2 NREM sleep

last about 10 to 20 minutes and is characterised by brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves (called sleep spindles). Dreams occasionally occur in this stage however are usually very brief and meaningless. Mostly theta waves present.

Social cognitive theory

learn attitudes based off of watching others

Social interactionist theory

learn language because want to communicate

Latent learning

learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

Associative learning

learning when one event is connected (i.e. associated) with another

Nonassociative learning

learning when repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus

Working-class parents

less likely to possess the cultural capital that facilitates these family-school interactions. they see school as the teacher's responsiblity

Prestige

level of respect shown to a person by others

Pons

lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla

Anterior chamber

lies in front of the iris

Jung - Persona

likened to a mask that we wear in public

"impulsively" portion of brain

limbic system

Long term memory

limitless warehouse for the knowledge that we are then able to recall on demand Elaborative rehearsal: information gets converted into long-term memory

Distant networks

looser and contain weaker ties, include acquaintances

Parkinson's disease (related to dopamine)

loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia where disruptions lead to resting tremors and jerky movements

Retrograde amnesia

loss of previously formed memories

Agnosia

loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds; caused by physical damage to the brain such as a stroke or MS

Trickle Down effect

lower class attempt to pretend to be upper class after prices of something has gone down. by Georg Simmel

Automatic processing

mechanisms that are involuntary or don't require attention

Hindbrain/rhombencephalon (3 components)

medulla, pons, cerebellum

Pressure for conformity (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

member pressure any in the group who express arguments against the group's stereotypes, illusions, or commitments viewing such opposition as disloyalty.

Collective rationalization (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

members discredit and explain away any positions contrary to group thinking.

Misinformation effect

memories altered by misleading info provided at the point of encoding or recall

Decay

memories are simply lost naturally over time as neurochemical trace of a short term memory fades

Schemas

mental representations that summarize what we know about a certain type of event or situation

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory if went beyond development stage

moral decisions like "killing a bad guy". preconventional (self interest) conventional (rules) post conventional (morals, principles, perspectives)

If Asian participants used ethnic identity as a central part of their self concept, how would they have tested on math performance?

more positive stereotype because they would be prone to stereotype threat

Opiates

morphine and codeine Opioids: oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin

Recency effect

most recent information most important.

Huntington's disease

nerve cells in brain break down over time. can have early onset (Hunts for brain cells)

Cannon-Bard Theory

physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously and independently. Annabel's brain released hormones at the same time that she interpreted the situation as happy and calm. The theory also states that behavioral expression is the last aspect - like when Annabel smiled.

Folkway

norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions such as shaking hands after a sports match

Stanley Milgram's experiment

obedience to authority figures (teacher learner electric shocks)(Being obedient if Stanford and milligrams)

Teacher expectancy

the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students

Gestalt laws

the law of similarity (group) the law of proximity (group) the law of Pragnanz (perceive reality in simplest form) NOT the law of discontinuation (lines)(it could be a side effect?)

Semantic Memory

the type of memory related to facts and information.

Language acquisition

the wat infants acquire their native language (parent's)

Attitude: behavioral

the way a person acts with respect to something (ex. avoiding snakes)

Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft

theory distinguish 2 groups. communities which share beliefs, ancestry or geography. and societies which work together for a common goal

Carol Gilligan

theory of moral development - females make moral decisions based on ethics of care as opposed to males, who make moral decisions based on ethics of justice. In other words, females tend to make moral decision based on relationships and on the selves as interconnected with others.

objectified cultural capital

things which are owned and represent familiarity with high culture (books, classical music CDs, painting)

Perspective taking occurs during concrete operational stage

think something is in its original place

Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder)

two or more personalities recurrently take control of person's behavior

If change mental stress --> physical stress in experiment, Selye's general adaptation syndrome would say...

unnecessary, because the human response is not specific to the type of stressor

proletarian drift

upscale products become popular with lower class. not by Georg Simmel

Babinski reflex

upward flexing of the big toe whenever the outer side of the foot's sole is vigorously stimulated, such as through scraping. It disappear 18 week

Mixed methods approach

use both quantitative (stats approach of total claims) and qualitative (IN DEPTH ANALYSIS of subset of cases)

Operant Conditioning

use of punishment and reinforcement

Content analysis

used to make inferences about communication. ex. internet website would help determine which beliefs the organization publically emphasizes

front-stage self

using impression management to relay a certain perception of ourselves to others

Otoliths

utricle and saccule contain modified hair cells covered in otoliths As body accelerates, these otoliths resist that motion

Social capital

values or benefits that are associated with networks or groups of people

Mediating variable

variable can explain a relationship

Superior colliculus

visual sensory input

Frontal Lobe

voluntary movement, problem solving

factors of modernization theory for inequality

population growth, technology, cultural patterns

Vestibule

portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule sensitive to linear acceleration

Henry Murray

posited that all human beings have psychogenic needs that are basic and rooted in the unconscious. He identified 27 needs, and one of them is the need for affiliation.

Learning theory

posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning such as direct contact, influence from friends, parents, etc.

Cognitive Dissonance

presence of a discrepancy between what a person thinks or believes and the info they receive which supports another belief. People strive for internal consistency and will seek to reduce this conflict. (The respondent feels guilty but doesn't believe they were responsible, so they always 100% blame person at the bottom of the hill)

Recognition test

presenting a set of items to participants. The second stage of the test involves presenting both new and old items to participants. The task is to detect the items to which one was previously exposed

Confabulation

process of creating vivid but fabricated memories and thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories

Retrieval/recall

process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained

Observational learning

process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others

Secondary socialization

process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society; occurs outside of home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments

Recognition

process of merely identifying a piece of information that has been previously learned

Encoding

process of putting new information into memory

Shaping

process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors

Encoding

process of transferring sensory information into memory system

Adrenal cortex

produces corticosteroids such as cortisol

GABA

produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and play role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain GABA exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane

Choroid and ciliary body

produces the aqueous humor that bates the front part of the eye before draining into the canal of Schlemm

Indirect benefits

promoting better survival in offspring

Vygotsky Cultural and Biosocial Development

proposed the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language. As child develops, help from adults or other children can develop skills further

Gate theory of pain

proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain

Frataxin

protein paralysis

Informational support

providing information that will help someone

Incentive theory

pursue reward and avoid punish Tangible (extrinsic) rewards - material, car, $ Intangible (intrinsic) reward - feel good, heathly

McDonaldization

refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculabiity, and control in societies

Situational attributions

refer to attributing behaviors to external circumstances or the environment

Consistency cues

refer to consistent behavior of a person over time; the more regular the behavior, the more we associate that behavior with the motives of the person

Distinctiveness cues

refer to extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios; likely to form situational attribution to explain it

Variable-ratio Schedule

reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but the average number of performances to receive the reward is relatively constant FASTEST response rate

Variable-interval Schedule

reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time

Fixed-ratio Schedule

reinforce behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior Continuous reinforcement: fixed-ratio schedule in which behavior is rewarded every time it is performed

Fixed-interval Schedule

reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed

Pheromones

secreted by one person or animal and once bonded with chemoreceptors, compel or urge another to behave in a specific way

Some drugs recommended to improve memory like ______(less guarded/less cautious state of mind)

sedatives

Foraging

seeking out and eating food driven by biological, psychological, and social influences

Reference group

self-concept depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to

Implicit personality theory

set assumptions people make about how different types of people, traits, and behaviors are related. aka stereotyping

Parvocellular cells

shape is detected by parvocellular cells which have very high color spatial resolution and permit us to see very fine detail but have low temporal resolution

Cultural syndrome

shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme

Peer pressure

social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual

Proactive

social movements that promote social change

Reactive

social movements that resist social change (ex. white supremacist movement)

Groupthink

social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision

Racialization

social process by which a dominant group ascribes racial/ethnical identities to another group, whether or not those identities are felt as relevant to the labeled group

Master status

social status that has power to shape and define a person's identity which can be (+) or (-)

functionalist

society is made up of components within a system, and these parts work to serve a particular function

Ascribed status

socioeconomic status determined by external characteristics or outward appearances (skin color, gender, age)

Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory

standardized psychometric personality test that has multiple scales like hypochondriasis, depression, masculinity/femininity, and paranoia.

Groupthink

state of harmony within a group because everyone seems to be in agreement

Kurt Lewin's force field theory

state of mind depends on all the influences on the person at that time. 2 groups of influences which are assisting goal and blocking goal.

Expectancy-value Theory

states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and degree to which he or she value suceeding at the goal

Implicit personality theory

states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related

Cognitive neoassociation model

states that we are more likely to respond to others agressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain

Long-term potentiation

stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density

Eudaimonic happiness

strive for good virtuous life. community and live with a purpose. correlated with good physical and mental health (show report card and will pay for tuition)

longitudinal study

study same subjects over a period of time

Counterculture

subculture group gravitates toward identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores

snowball sampling

subjects refer other people (bias, non-random)

sometimes first process _____ so we know something is familiar but we don't know why it is familiar

succeeds

Choroidal vessels

supplies nutrients to the eye

Perilymph

suspends inner ear membranous labyrinth

Cultural lag

symbolic culture is slower to change than material culture

attrition bias

systematic loss or withdrawal of participants from follow up. (become depressed or noncompliant)

emulation of tactile representation

tactile information such as the weight or thickness of a book can influence how information is processed on a subconscious level

ectomorphs

tall, thin, lanky, and fragile looking.

Interaction process analysis

technique for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups

temporal lobe does what? hippocampus does what?

temporal lobe - primary auditory functions, such as the interpretation and production of speech hippocampus - learning, memory, anxiety, and stress regulation

Group polarization

tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group Risky shift: group makes riskier decisions than individuals Choice shift: groups shift toward caution

Social loafing

tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually

Mental set

tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

Overconfidence

tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible

social loafing

tendency to exert less effort when being evaluated as a group

confirmation bias

tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs

Ethnocentrism

tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one's own

social facilitation

tendency to perform simple tasks better in the presence of others

role conflict

tension exists between different roles that a single individual holds; more internal e.g. black cop

role strain

tension that results from competing demands within the context of a single role e.g. patient translator has to take into account competing desires of patient and doctor

Catell Personality theory

16 personality traits that we all possess

When is stranger anxiety developed? And at which Piagetian stage of development?

8 months; Sensorimotor Period

PTSD

>4 weeks and have triggers

Working memory

A "storage bin" to hold memories that are needed at a particular moment in order to process information or solve problem.

Crowd

A group that shares a purpose

Inter-rater reliability

A measure of the degree to which two different researchers or raters agree in their assessment.

Awake

Alpha/beta (relaxed) waves, low amplitude, 8-12 Hz.

Capitalism

An economic system where resources and productions are mainly privately owned, and goods and services are produced for a profit.

Trait

An enduring, stable aspect of personality

Cultural capital

Benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills, for example using one's background or other intangible assets such as a college degree

Problem-solving dream theory

Dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping

Cognitive process dream theory

Dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness

Jung - dichotomies of personality

Extraversion vs. introversion Sensing vs. intuiting Thinking vs. feeling

Algorithmns

Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem. This can be mathematical or a set of instructions, designed to automatically produce a desired solution

Attraction

Fostered by the proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity.

Correlation does not imply

Causation

Sleep deprivation

Causes REM rebound, which is earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal

Mitral/tufted cell

Cell that synapses with olfactory receptor in glomerulus, GPCR g protein will activate ion channel to let positive ions in

Sandra Bem's theory of masculinity and femininity

Certain traits linked M or F and reinforced by society culture norms. Gender stereotypes. F --> seek formal assistance.

According to Cognitive Dissonance, do people change their attitude to match their behavior, or vice versa?

Change attitude to match their behavior

Traditional economies

Consider social customs and economic decisions. Most common in Borough areas and involves bartering or trading.

Base rate fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

Strain theory

anomic conditions (excessive individualism, social inequality, isolation) can lead to deviance. by Robert Agnew. stressors or strains (e.g., social pressure) can trigger negative emotions, which then increase the likelihood of certain negative or deviant behaviors such as crime.

Foot in the door technique

ask for something small --> something bigger

System for multiple level observation of groups

based on the belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive

Schizophrenia: prodromal phase

before diagnosis, patient goes through evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences

Functional autonomy

behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior

family systems theory

behavior must be understood within the family system (function, role, boundary, communication)

Personality disorder

behavior that is inflexibile and maladaptive causing distress or impaired functioning ego-syntonic: individual perceives her behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with her goals Ego-dystonic: individual sees illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome

Fad

behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community

James-Lange Theory

behavioral and physiological aspects of emotion (like increased heart rate and shouting) lead to cognitive aspects of emotion (like understanding a situation is scary and feeling afraid).

Ganglion cells

bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells which group together to form the optic nerve

visual agnosia

can see but not recognize visual information

astereognosis

can't identify something soley on touch

Cultural relativism

Judging another culture based on its own standards

Xenocentrism

Judging another culture superior to own

Parallel play

children play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior

Countertransference

clinical phenomenon whereby the therapist or counselor consciously and unconsciously reacts to the client's experience. Sometimes this reaction involves an identification with the client's experiences. Victims of abuse often feel silenced because they do not feel they have any power or feel that the perpetrator will retaliate if the victim discloses the abuse.

Mnemonics

common way to memorize information particularly lists like acronyms and rhyming phrases

Bioluminescence

communicate using light (fireflies)

Stage 2

K-complexes/sleep spindles, moderate amplitude, 12-14Hz bursts.

Conflict theory

Karl Marx - Powerful will exploit weak. power differences in groups and contribute to maintain social order. Can lead to dominance. Upper class Owners and lower class workers have tension but can compromise make middle class. Thesis happy, antithesis not happy. Two opposing sides. About change.

Linguistic determinism

Language determines how we think

Denomination

Large, non-state sponsored religious organization

Dream types Latent vs Manifest

Latent - hidden content refers to the unconscious, underlying, symbolic meaning of the dream Manifest - the remembered plot

Hunger is controlled by the hypothalamus

Lateral hypothalamus: promotes hunger Ventromedial hypothalamus: cues that we are full and promote satiety

Formal Norms

Laws

Covariation model

Likelihood to attribute to internal/external - consistency, distinctiveness, consensus

Whorfian hypothesis

Linguistic relativity hypothesis that suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language.

A researcher suggests that the benefits of bilingualism are related to the idea that the structure of language affects the perceptions of its speakers. This researcher is referring to which concept?

Linguistics relativity

Folkways

Norms that are less important (not strictly enforced) but shape everyday behavior ; when broken, do not

Folkways

Norms that are less important but cheap every day behavior. For example, style of dress or ways of breeding.

Sanctions

Positive, negative, formal, informal

Self-selection bias

Occurs when an individual inserts themselves into a group, causing a bias in the sample.

Case-control study

One type of retrospective study used to identify factors that may contribute to a specific medical condition by comparing a group of patients who already have that condition with a group of patients who do not.

Dependency ratio

People aged under 14 and over 65: 15-64

Peter Principle

People climb hierarchy until they reach a level of incompetence where they cannot advance

Rational choice theory of social movements

People compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and choose the one that fits them best

Dependency theory

Periphery countries will export resources to wealthy core Integrated into world-system as an undeveloped country

Where are rods located on retina?

Periphery of retina

Biological Perspective

Personality is due to innate biological makeup

Bureaucratization

Process by which organizations becomes increasingly governed by law and policy

An employee is concerned with making a good impression at a new job. Struggling with feelings of being overly challenged by having to learn new office software, he repeatedly calls his computer "dumb" and "stupid." According to psychoanalytic theory, this behavior results from:

Projection

Immature Defense mechanisms

Projection and Passive agression

Marxist Theory

Proletariat: "have-nots" Bourgeoisie: "haves"

Activation-synthesis hypothesis

Random activation of the brainstem that causes dreams

REM

Rapid Eye Movement, describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases

Conservative strategy to Signal detection

Reject unless you are certain the signal is correct (lots of misses)

Habituation

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response

Iron Law of Oligarchy

Revolutionary organizations inevitably becomes less revolutionary as their organizational structures develop & become entrenched

Social exchange theory

Rewards and costs drive relationship decisions; individuals in society perform cost-benefit analysis to maximize their rewards in their relationships.

Transduction

conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in the nervous system

Basal ganglia

coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and spinal cord

Hypothalamus

coordinates many hormones, some of which are involved in mood regulation

Escape learning

Role of behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists like a headache

Neurocognitive models of dreaming

Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

theta waves

Seen in stage 2 NREM sleep and for part of stage 3.

Political isolation

Segregated communities are politically isolated and have weaker influence on politics

Concentration

Segregation and clustering of different groups

Centralization

Segregation and clustering within the central area

Seismic sense

Seismic signals are produced by creating vibrational waves using a body part and an external substrate, such as water or soil. These waves are then captured by other organisms via many different structures

Cocktail party phenomenon

Selective attention is probably more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background (ex. talking to a friend at a loud party and hear your name being called)

Semiotics of culture

Semiotics of culture is the study of culture by examining the meanings of symbols, signs, and language

Convergence

Simultaneous inward movement of both eyes toward each other, usually in an effort to maintain single binocular vision when viewing an object.

Accommodation

The adjustment of a schema to take into account new experiences.

Ecological validity

The extent to which a study is realistic or representative of real life.

Reliability

The extent to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.

Stigma

The extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society.

Social perception

The initial information we process about other people in order to understand their mindsets & intentions

Sensory memory

The initial recording of sensory information in the memory system that very quickly decays.

Group polarization

The intensification of preexisting views of a group, resulting in the average view of a member of a group being accentuated.

Reciprocal determinism

The interaction between a person's behavior, personal factors, and environment - behavior influences and is influenced by these factors.

Spacing effect

The longer the amount of time between sessions of re-learning, the greater the retention of the information later on

Cultural capital

The non-financial social aspects that promote social mobility (e.g. education, intellect, appearance).

Photopic vision

Vision at high light levels

Pleasure principle

Want things immediately

Belief bias

The tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than the use of sound logic.

Attitude influences Behaviour (theories)

Theory of planned behaviour, attitude to behavour process model , prototype willingness model, elaboration likelihood model (cognitive)

Embedded Field Study

This study would occur if the researchers posed as patients, for example.

Surface traits

Traits evident from a person's behavior.

Processing

Transformation of multiple neural signals into perception

Latent content

What is the hidden meaning in our dreams

Strain theory

When people are blocked from achieving a socially acceptable goal they will become deviant as a way to achieve it

Habituation

You become used to a repeated stimulus

Distress

a negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body. It happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you some way

Georg Simmel

influence religious studies

Bony labyrinth

inner ear bone

Abraham Maslow

maintained that the need to belong comes only after basic needs like food, water, and shelter in his self-actualization theory.

Context effects

memory is aided by being in the physical located where encoding took place

Anterograde amnesia

memory loss characterized by not being able to establish new long-term memories whereas memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact

Retrograde amnesia

memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury

Alzheimer's Disease

memory loss proceed in retrograde fashion with loss of recent memories before distant memories Associated with neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques Sundowning: increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening

collectivism

cultural value that emphasizes orientation toward the collective unit such as the family or the community

Broca's aphasia

damage to broca's area, speech comprehension is intact but patient has reduced/absent ability to produce spoken language

Depressants

depresses/slows down neural activity E.g. alcohol, opiates, heroin, tranquilizers

Seasonal Affective Disorder

depressive symptoms are present only in the winter months related to abnormal melatonin metabolism and treated with bright light therapy

Prevalence

describe how common a disease is

Schizoid personality type

detatched emotionally and doesn't like social gatherings

Participants told stories of indian folklore

elements of these stories seemed strange, participants recollection the parts that made no sense to them were left out or were reinterpreted on more familiar line. Result - they started weaving together what they did not understand to what they do understand in the real world. Weaving = problems b/c participants could nto keep track of what was actually in the stories and which came from their attempt to understand

Polyandry

female having exclusive relationships with multiple partners

Strain Theory

focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance; anomic conditions include excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation

Malthusian theory

focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder

Spatial inequality

how geography influences social processes, unequal amounts of qualities or resources and services depending on the area or location, such as medical or welfare

Syntax

how words are put together to form sentences

Implicit Bias

the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner.

Pineal gland

secrets melatonin and receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight

Michelangelo phenomenon

self is made up of intrapersonal self and ideas of your own abilities traits beliefs. ideal self can be sculpted with help from others.

Role

set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status

according to Ferdinand Tönnies and Emile Durkheim, modernity is essentially shaped by

the decline of small communities that offered a sense of purpose and belonging to their members and more impersonalized interactions.

proximal stimuli

the distal stimuli that reaches your senses

Internal Validity

the extend conclusions about cause and effect can be made

Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

the hunger center because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids

Biologically speaking, pregnancy starts when

the zygote is formed

Max Weber

theories of symbolic interactionism emphasize how individuals relate to society, and one of his ideas was the concept of the iron cage. He believed that the experience of the "iron cage" led to disenchantment with society

Mental set

to switch one's perspective of a given problem. It is usually the fruit of past training or knowledge about how to solve a given problem. mental rigidity. (ex. cant find bottle opener would be mental set but not functional fixedness)

operationalize

to take a fuzzy, intangible concept and define it in more tangible, quantifiable terms e.g. measuring anger by facial expression, physiological symptoms, etc.

Haptic sense

touch

Fornix

used to help the hippocampus communicate with other portions of the limbic system

Mores

widely observed social norms

Positive symptom

only in people with mental disorders (thoughts, behaviors, emotions, sensory perception) (hallucinations, disorganized speech - not fluent, catatonic behavior - change muscle tone and behavior from not moving to aggression towards self and others

People also try just being more careful in their recollection

only relying on memories we're sure of. But confidence in memories we trust isn't

Stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychological development match phase with crisis

oral sensory phase = trust vs mistrust anal motor phase = autonomy vs shame and doubt latency phase = industry vs inferiority middle adult =

Stereotypes

oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics (gender, race, religion)

General personality disorder: Cluster A - Schizotypal

pattern of odd or eccentric thinking; have ideas of reference (delusions of reference) and magical thinking (superstitious or clairvoyance)

narcissistic personality disorders

patterns of arrogance, a lack of empathy, a focus on self, and a belief they are unique, and although they appear to be very self-confident and self-assured, when their self-esteem is threatened they become defensive. They also exhibit impulsiveness and tend to seek risks.

looking-glass self

people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how OTHERS view them

Law of pragnanz

perceptual organization will always be regular, simple, and symmetric

Ageism

prejudice or discrimination of the basis of a person's age

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

provides signals to stop eating

Attitude: affective

refers to the way a person feelings toward something and emotional component of attitude (ex. snakes scare me)

Criterion Validity

refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome

Prospective chart review

reviewing new, incoming data

Indicator trait

signify overall good health and wellbeing of an organism which increases its attractiveness to mates

Cognitive dissonance

simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions

Schachter

singer theory of emotion - cognitive arousal theory - two factor theory - arousal + label arousal --> emotion (singer artist need to label their art first)

Morphology

structure of words

Learning (Behaviorist) Theory

(B.F. Skinner) language acquisition by operant conditioning and reinforcement

Affect

A person's visible emotion at a specific moment.

Innate temperament

Hardwired behaviour that persists throughout life

Modeling

Imitation of an observed behavior.

Class consciousness

Lower class develops solidarity with people in own class

Universals

Patterns or traits that are common to all people.

Back stage

Social interaction where we "let down our guard" and be ourselves.

Trait theory is very similar to what?

Social-cognitive theory

Fecundity

The potential reproductive capacity of a female

Stage 2 of Sleep

Theta waves, K-complexes, sleep spindles

deprivation

loss of an attachment

Brainstem (3 components)

midbrain, pons, medulla

sick status

not a real term

Lowball

offer at really low price and after say yes, increase the price

Sclera

white of the eye

Age stratification theory

Age of generation should affect what they do

Inattentional blindness

Don't focus on something even when its in our directional field

Assortative mating

Individuals with similar genotypes/phenotypes will tend to mate with one another

Short-term Memory

Limited in duration/capacity; recall capacity ~7 itmes

Non-associative learning

No reinforcement required Habituation and sensitization

Generations

Silent, GI, baby boomers

Amalgamation

When different groups combine to form a new group

Anterior hypothalamus

controls sexual behavior

Network support

gives a person a sense of belonging

Serotonin

neurotransmitter for mood, sleep, appetite,

simple random sampling

number generator to select subjects

Mass hysteria

refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society

Libido

Natural energy source that fuels the sources of the mind

Herd Behavior

Non permanent loss of rational thought in a crowd

Dopamine-4- receptor

Thrill-seeker

Automatic processing

familiar or routine actions can be performed

Ach

neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle

Pons

regulates autonomic fxn's, coordinates mvmt and balance

Down Syndrome

trisomy 21 Alzheimer's disease

Type I error

Incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis ("false positive")

Upward/Downward Mobility

Positive or negative change in a person's class

According to Mead, the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self is the:

"I" NOT id, NOT ego, NOT me (self formed by interaction with others and environment)

Operant Conditioning

(B.F. Skinner) Negative reinforcement: increase frequency of behavior by removing unpleasant something Positive punishment; add unpleasant consequence

Basic model of emotional expression

(Charles Darwin) emotional expression involves a number of components like facial expressions, behavior, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes

DRM Paradigm

(Deese, Roediger, McDermott) hear list of words that are associated with one another, after hearing the list asked to recall. The root word of the list (like "sleep") is not listed, but participant says that he remembers that word because that's what it was associated with.

Dramaturgical approach

(Erving Goffman) Front stage: conforms to image he wants others to see Back stage: free to act like his true self

Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft

(Ferdinand Tonnies) Gemeinschaft: refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography Gesellschaft: refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal

Second sickness

(Howard Witzkin) exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice

Conflict Theory

(Macro) Society is a competition of limited resources. There will be inequalities in resources. Championed by Karl Marx, Max Weber, Ludwig Gumplowicz. A major criticism of Conflict Theory is that it focuses too much on conflict and not on the role of stability of society; it ignores the non-forceful ways people reach agreements.

Functionalism

(Macro) Society is a living organism w/ many parts--each with a distinct purpose. Dynamic equilibrium is reached when the many parts work together to maintain stability. Structure provides manifest fxn's and latent fxn's. Championed by Emile Durkheim. This is the oldest sociological framework.

Symbolic Interactionism

(Micro) Examines relationship and interaction b/w individuals and society by focusing on communication--the exchange of information via language and symbols. It views the individual as active in shaping his/her society. Championed by George Herbert Mead.

Social Constructionism

(Micro) People actively shape their reality through assigning meaning to everything; therefore, it is constructed, not inherent. Everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect of society a certain way (e.g. money means financial value!)

Indirect transculture diffusion

(exchange western rings in china) Direct is usually neighboring countries Indirect can be spread media and internet

Nativist (Biological) theory

(Noam Chomsky) existence of some innate capacity for language Transformational grammar: changes in words that retain the same meaning (Ex. I took the MCAT vs. the MCAT was taken by me) Language acquisition device (LAD): theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules Critical period: language acquisition between two years and puberty Sensitive period: time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability

Linguistic relativism

(Strong) Cognition and perception are determined by the language one speaks. (Weak) Linguistic structure *influences* cognition and perception.

Hypomania

(bipolar related disorder) patient does not have significantly impaired functioning or are there psychotic features but individual may be more energetic and optimistic

Catecholamine theory of depression/monoamine

(bipolar related disorder) too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania and too little leads to depression

the role of socialization in social reproduction

-Kohn, "Social Class and Parental Values" -Kohn's research suggests that working-class parents and middle-class parents try to instill similar values in their children -there is one major difference*

The strength of weak ties

-weak ties can actually be more beneficial than strong ones -strong ties are likely to inhabit your social world, have information you ahve, and know people you know -weak ties provide an "in" to new social worlds and access to new resources

social capital

-WHO you know -resource that can be used to obtain scarce resources -it generally involves access to information -"it's not what you know, it's who you know" -the middle class parents in this article possess a greater amount of social capital and they use it to facilitate their children's success in school

Pierre Bourdieu: Cultural Capital

-argues that social reproduction happens via cultural reproduction -people who embody working-class culture are less capable of successfully negotiating institutions such as education -parents' disadvantage is passed on to their children through their culture -argues that schools utilize particular linguistic structures, authority patterns, and types of curricula; children from higher social locations enter schools already familiar with these social arrangements. Bourdieu maintains that the cultural experiences in the home facilitate children's adjustment to school and academic achievement, thereby transforming cultural resources into cultural capital

"Social Class Differences in Family School Relations"

-author: Lareau -suggests that cultural capital matters for children's success in school because it affects parents' interactions with schools -more cultural capital in higher-class school ****see table 2 in reading

social networks provide access to important resources

-emotional support (shoulder to cry on) -companionship (someone to hang out with) -instrumental support (a ride home) -information(which bars have the best drink specials) -ideas and advice (what to do about relationship problems) -access to new ties (meet a friend of a friend taht knows about a job opening)

how are working-class networks different from middle and upper-class networks?

-middle and upper have more spatial reach -working class has more network density

cultural capital

-one of the ways that groups pass their position onto their children is through the acquisition and maintenance of cultural capital -cultural capital is a resource (much like financial capital or social capital) that allows people advantages in navigating dominant institutions and achieving upward mobility -familiarity with culture, how comfortable you are with the culture-- lower classes value upper-class culture

Karen Horney

-personality is result of interpersonal relationships -primary concept is basic anxiety -Neurotic needs: each needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable -Basic anxiety vs. basic hostility: vulnerability and helplessness vs. neglect and rejection

Social Networks

-social networks= the social ties that link people together -social networks link individuas to the larger society. because of this, they are a good way to think about social structure

Agape

1 of the 6 forms of love that is unconditional

Factors that affect attribution

1) Consistency: How often does the person act like this? 2)Distinctiveness: Is the person acting like that to everyone or just you? 3) Consensus: Are they the only person acting like this or is everyone?

Cross's Nigrescence Model of Cultural Awareness

1. Pre-encounter: African-Americans tend to view the majority Caucasian culture as being more desirable and would view a doctor of this race as being more skilled 2. Immersion-Emmersion: Someone in this stage would view the majority Caucasian culture with resentment and distrust and prefer to be treated by someone of his or her own race. 3. Internalization Stage: integrated aspects of his own culture with that of the majority culture and is working to rectify past racial injustices.

Impression management strategies

1. Self-disclosure: give info about oneself to establish an identity 2. Managing appearances: use props, appearance, emotional expression, etc with others to create a positive image 3. Ingratiation: use flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over 4. Aligning actions: make questionable behavior acceptable through excuses 5. Alter-casting: imposing an identity onto another person

Information processing model

1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision-making 3. Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (called situational modification) 4. Problem-solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem

Depression (biological causes)

1. abnormally high glucose metabolism in in amygdala 2. hippocampal atrophy after long duration of illness 3. abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) 4. decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine

Alzheimer's disease (biological markers)

1. diffuse atrophy of brain on CT/MRI 2. Flattened sulci in cerebral cortex 3. enlarged cerebral ventricles 4. deficient blood flow in parietal lobes -> cognitive decline 5. reduction in levels of acetylcholine 6. reduction in choline acetyltransferase (produces acetylcholine) 7. reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes 8. senile plaques of B-amyloid 9. neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

McDonaldization

1. efficiency 2. calculability 3. uniformity 4. technological control

Bipolar disorders (biological causes)

1. increased norepinephrine and serotonin 2. higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder 3. higher risk for persons with MS

Alzheimer's disease (genetic component)

1. mutations in presenilin genes on chromosomes 1 and 14 2. mutations in apolipoprotein E on c'some 19 3. Beta amyloid precursor protein gene on c'some 21

Index of dissimilarity

100 = perfect distribution 0 = total segregation

Hippocrates medical theory of personality

4 basic temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic

Allport personality theory

4500 traits, cardinal, primary, and secondary

How many items can working memory store?

5 - 9 items (7 +/- 2 items)

Visual Cliff experiment R.D. Walk and E.J. Gibson

6 1/2 - 12 months won't crawl across glass table

Erik Erikson's ego integrity versus despair

65 and older typically reflect back on their life, examining what they have done and achieved. Those who master this stage well will feel satisfied that they have journeyed through their life with integrity. Those who do not master this stage will feel that they have wasted their life and may feel bitter

Capacity of working memory is

7 +/- 2 (5-9)

Flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

Phonological loop

A component of working memory that allows us to repeat semantic verbal or written information to help us remember it.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory that allows us to use mental imagery to help us remember semantic visual information.

Episodic buffer

A component of working memory that interacts with information in long term memory.

Social construct

A concept or practice that it's construct of a group, essentially, everyone in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, for example, money.

Incongruity

A conflict between the ideal self and the real self.

Aristarchic governments

A government controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power; the public is not involved in most political decisions.

Public

A group of individuals discussing a single issue.

Aggregate

A group of people who exist in the same space but don't interact or share a common sense of identity

Society

A group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area.

Out-group

A group that an individual does not belong to.

In-group

A group that an individual identifies that they belong to and believes to be an integral part of who they are.

Profession

A highly esteemed white-collar occupation that requires a great deal of education.

Law of Common Fate

A law of grouping that states that elements moving in the same direction at the same rate are grouped together.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A law that states that the correlation between performance and emotional arousal is U-shaped.

Deindividuation

A loss of individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality.

Inter-rater reliability

A measure of the degree to which two different researchers or raters agree in their assessment

Symbolic interactionism

A micro level analysis that sees society as the build up of every day typical interactions.

Elaboration likelihood model

A model of persuasion that explains when people will be influenced by speech content versus other superficial characteristics.

Stimulus motive

A motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.

Self-determination theory

A need-based motivational theory that emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness

Rumination

A negative coping mechanism; dwelling persistently on negative thoughts that, in turn, intensify negative feelings

Informal norm

A norm that is generally understood but is less precise and often carries no specific punishments.

Formal norm

A norm that is generally written down (such as a law).

Learned helplessness

A perceived absence of control after exposure to repeatedly aversive stimuli that one is not able to escape or avoid.

Bystander effect

A person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.

Associative learning

A process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another.

Dishabituation

A process that occurs when a previously habituated stimulus is removed: response recovery occurs.

Correlational study

A research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other.

Taboo

A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom.

Subcultures

A segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society

Panic

A situation in which fear escalates to the point that it dominates thinking and affects entire groups

Slow wave sleep

A sleep state which notes the emergence of delta waves - usually in Stages 3 & 4 NREM sleep

Economics

A social science concerned with resources and their production, distribution, and consumption by both individuals and groups.

Anomie

A social state in which norms are weak; conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation

Racial formation

A sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created, inhibited, transformed, and destroyed.

Moral Panic

A specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to social order

Communism

A specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the absence of currencies, classes, and states, based on shared economic, political, and social ideologies.

Reference group

A standard measure group to which people compare themselves.

Ascribed status

A status assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts.

Achieved status

A status that is considered to be due largely to the individual's efforts.

Language

A symbolic system that is codified for communication

Independent samples t-test

A technique used to test the hypothesis that the mean scores in some interval- or ratio-scaled variables are significantly different for two independent samples or groups.

Just world phenomenon

A tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Belief perseverance

A tendency to cling to beliefs despite the presence of contrary evidence.

Mental set

A tendency to fixate on solutions that have worked in the past but may not apply to the current situation.

Ethnocentrism

A tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture.

Representativeness heuristic

A tendency to judge the likelihoods of an event occurring as based on our typical mental representations of those events.

Availability heuristic

A tendency to make judgments based on how readily available information is in our memories.

Functional fixedness

A tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging.

Covariation model

A theory of attribution asserting that people rely on consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness of information when assigning causes for events.

Social cognitive theory

A theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their social environment as a basis for behavior.

Pluralism

A theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group.

Cognitive process theory

A theory that dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness

Cognitive dissonance theory

A theory that explains that we feel tensions when we hold two cognitions that are incompatible, and that *we modify our attitudes to match how we feel or decisions that we have made.*

Stress-diathesis theory

A theory that suggests how biological predipositions (such as genes or other biological traits) interact with environmental factors to result in disease.

Drive reduction theory

A theory that suggests physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce that need by engaging in a behavior.

Activation synthesis theory

A theory that suggests that dreams are byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep.

Social influence theory

A theory that suggests that people do and report what is expected of them.

Randomized controlled trial

A trial in which there is a treatment/control group for which individuals are selected randomly in order to measure the effects of the treatment.

Systematic desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

Nonassociative learning

A type of learning in which an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus.

Cohort study

A type of longitudinal study where a group of exposed individuals and a group of non-exposed individuals are followed over time to determine the incidence of disease or effectiveness of treatment.

Cross-sectional study

A type of observational study that involves the analysis of data collected from a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time

Hawthorne effect

A type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.

Church

A type of religious organization that is well integrated into the larger society.

Moderating variable

A variable that affects the size or direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Confounding variable

A variable that obscures the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Mediating variable (intervening variable)

A variable that operates in a causal sequence between independent and dependent variables.

Parvo pathway

A visual pathway responsible for perception of color and spatial resolution, but slow.

Magno pathway

A visual pathway responsible for perception of movement with low contrast.

Microsociology

Analysis of social life that focuses on social interaction; typically used by symbolic interactionists.

Aberle's categories are: alternative social movements reformative social movements redemptive social movements revolutionary social movements

Aberle's categories are: alternative social movements (which want limited change for specific individuals), reformative social movements (limited change for groups or whole society), redemptive social movements (radical change for specific individuals), revolutionary social movements (radical change for groups or whole society)

Intuition

Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence; people may have beliefs that are not necessarily supported by evidence, but that person "feels" to be correct

Agents of social control

Ability to attach stigmas to social behaviors (politicians, doctors)

Parasomnias

Abnormal behaviors that occur during sleep, usually occurring during Stage 3.

Depression causes (biological)

Abnormal decrease activity in frontal lobe, increased activity in limbic system, raphe nuclei of reticular formation releasing too little serotonin, Locus coeruleus (in pons) supplies too much norepinephrine, low ventral tegmental

Parasomnias

Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep including night terrors and sleep walking

Dyssomnias

Abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep.

Discrimination (sociology)

Acting a certain way towards a particular societal group.

Tragedy of the commons

Acting in ones own self interest contrary to group

Bloomers three tenents of symoblic interactionism

Action, different, change Act based on meaning we have, symbols are different for diff people, we can change our symbols

Social action

Actions and behaviors an individual performs because others are around.

Activist vs reactionary movement

Active - try to change aspect of society Reactionary - actively trying to resist change

Marijuana

Active chemical known as THC; exerts effects on cannabinoid, glycine, and opioid receptors, increases GABA and dopamine activity

Max attends a party and does not make eye contact with, or approach, his acquaintance, Sam. According to the actor-observer bias, which graph best represents how Max and Sam view this behavior?

Actors attribute their own behaviors to situational factors (not feeling well) whereas observers attribute actor's behavior to dispositional factors (social awkwardness)

Phonology

Actual sound of language; composed of building blocks called morphemes

Inferiority complex

Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences that drives one's personality to achieve superiority.

Erikson's theory of psychological development, which group are challenged with generativity vs stagnation?

Adults (mid-adults)

Ethnicity

Affiliation or identity within a group of people bound by common ancestry and culture.

Life course theory

Aging is a social, psychological and biological process that begins from time of birth to death What you do in your life can affect what you do later

Max Weber

Agreed with Marx that inequalities in a capitalist system would lead to conflict but did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable. Argued that there could be more than one source of conflict. Conflict theory.

Structuralist perspective

Aiming to provide equal education and training opportunities for all

Bandura's Requirement for observational learning

Am I Motivated? Attention, memory, imitation, motivation

Hereitability

Amount of variance that can be attributed due to genes in specific subgroups

Bureacracy

An administrative body and the processes by which this body accomplishes work tasks. Hierarchy of workers w/ specialized tasks and set procedures.

Intersectionality

An analytic framework for assessing how factors such as race, gender, and class interact to shape individual life chances and societal patterns of stratification.

Confounding factor

An extraneous variable in a statistical model that correlates (positively or negatively) with both the dependent variable and the independent variable.

Dynamic equilibrium

An idea of functionalism that involves many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability.

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to recall information that was previously encoded.

Sensitization

An increase in responsiveness to a stimulus due to either repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive stimulus.

Serial position effect

An individual is more likely to recall the first and last items on a list (primacy and recency effect)

Escape

An individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior.

Generalized other

An individual's internalized impression of societal norms. Related to the "me" (social self - influenced by the GO) and the "I" (individual's response to the "me" )

Glass ceiling

An invisible barrier that limits opportunities for the promotion of women in professional contexts.

Han's Eysenck's personality theory

Analysis of self reported questionnaires based off of introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability

Macrosociology

Analysis of social life that focuses on broad features of society, such as social class and the relationships of groups to one another; usually used by functionalists and conflict theorists

Jung - Anima vs. animus

Anima: feminine Animus: masculine Shadow: responsible for appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness sex-inappropriate qualities (ex. feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females)

Crude death rate

Annual number of deaths per 1000 people

General fertility rate

Annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age

Crude birth rate

Annual number of live births per thousand people

Class B personality type

Antisocial, Borderline, Narcissistic, Histrionic

Basic anxiety

Anxiety created when a child is born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults

Barbiturates

Anxiety-reducing and sleep medications; increase GABA activity which causes relaxation

Central sleep apnea

Apnea- but without blocking the airway (5+ apneas per hour)

Helping behaviour

Appears at age 2 where children offer things to other companions

Peg-word

Associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

Theory of differential association

Association with deviant people will increase likelihood of deviance

Family studies

Assumes that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals

Harry Harlow experiment

Attachment/comfort Baby monkeys were taken away from original parents and were given to two types of robot surrogate mothers. One was a wire-metal robot that provided milk nourishment, and the other was a cloth-covered robot that didn't provide nourishment. Monkeys preferred the cloth surrogate mother for comfort.

Expressive Movements

Attempt to foster individual change (for example, support groups)

Active Movements

Attempt to foster social change (for example, revolutions)

Pseudospeciation

Attempts to dehumanize other groups

Functional attitude theory

Attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense.

Situational Attribution

Attributing behavior to external causes

Situational attribution

Attributing behavior to external causes.

Dispositional Attribution

Attributing behavior to internal causes

Dispositional attribution

Attributing behavior to internal causes

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person.

Impression management

Authentic self Ideal self: who we would like to be under optimal circumstances Tactical self: who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us

Rational-legal authority

Authority in which legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document.

Episodic memory

Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance.

Heuristics

Availability heuristic: used when we try to decide how likely something is (ex. students who do not truly problem-solve on MCAT questions will be tempted by familiar-sounding answers merely because they can recall the statement being mentioned in the passage)

Class C personality type

Avoidant, Dependent, and Obsessive compulsive

Self-consciousness

Awareness of one's self

According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders V (DSM-V), which is NOT autistic symptom? A. Verbal communication difficulties B. Loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities C. Limited and repetitive patterns of behavior D. Nonverbal social interaction

B. Loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities presupposes that the individual had interest in those activities at some point in his/her life Autistic people, on the other hand, are usually interested in a small set of subjects or activities, which stays constant throughout their lives

Learning (behaviorist) theory

B.F. Skinner - learn language trough operant conditioning via reinforcement. the pioneer of behaviorism. He believed that personality and human behaviors are reductionistic and deterministic. Also classical conditioning or a conditioned fear PTSD (BF, Behave, operant conditioning)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Base: most primitive, essential, and important needs First four levels: physiological needs, safety, security, love and belonging, and self esteem Highest level: self-actualization

Behaviorist perspective

Based heavily on concepts of operant conditioning; Token economies used as rewards for positive behavior (ex. privileges, treats, other reinforcers)

Ethnicity

Based on culture, beliefs, religion

Race

Based on physical characteristics (social construct)

Basilar tuning

Basilar membrane is organized in a certain way that we can hear frequencies from 20-20000 hz

alpha waves

Become slightly higher in amplitude that beta waves and less frequent. Seen in stage 1 NREM sleep

Trained incapacity

Become so specialized that you are losing touch with overall goal

Incentive Theory

Behavior is shaped by incentives

John Bowlby's attachment theory

Behaviors from emotional attachment between infant and parent (baby name their bowl Bowlby and get attached to things)

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Behaviors that affirm original stereotypes.

Taboo

Behaviors that result in disgust towards the violator. There is often a moral or religious component to the taboo, for example, Muslims eating pork.

Labeling theory

Behaviour is deviant if people are judged and labeled that way, primary and secondary deviance

Group behaviour

Behaviour of a large number of individuals that act together - Strongly connected, long term, strong norms

Collective behaviour

Behaviour of a large number of people rapidly and randomly behave in one way (e.g. fads, mass hysteria, mobs) - Loosely connected, short term, weak and murky norms

Explicit/Declarative Memory

Being able to "declare" or recite what is known (e.g. facts, memories) Two types: episodic and semantic

Self-efficacy

Belief in one's own competence and effectiveness or ability to "get things done".

optimism bias

Belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us

Optimism bias

Belief that bad things happen to other people, not us

Just world phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve and that the world is fair

Theory of Planned Behavior

Belief, attitude, subjective norms --> intentions --> behavior

Posterior chamber

Between the iris and the lens

Specific real area bias

Bias that occurs when people are selected in a physical space.

Self-selection bias

Bias that occurs when people being studied have some control over whether or not to participate.

Production based families

Bigger families because they can produce more

Depth (Monocular and binocular cues)

Binocular - Retinal disparity and Convergence Monocular - Relative size, Interposition, Relative height

Fundamental Attribution Error

Blame negative act on situation and not self.

Mixed economies

Blend elements of command and market economies with both public and private ownership. United States.

Proprioception

Bodies recognition of where you are in space

Heroin

Body metabolizes heroin to morphine

Sect

Breaks away from denomination to a more pure fundamental

Iconic Memory

Brief photographic memory for visual info, which decays in less than a second

Iconic memory

Brief photographic memory for visual information, lasting fractions of a second.

Pierre Bourdieu suggests that middle-class children have "cultural capital," which refers to a set of symbolic assets that can convey privilege in society, such as tastes, knowledge, and skills. With this comes a "set of ingrained dispositions that dictate cultural behavior." Which of the concepts below is the name that Bourdieu gives to this? A. Anomie B. Praxis C. Habitus D. Ascribed status

C Bourdieu identified that middle-class individuals possess a higher level of cultural capital, and he used the concept of habitus to describe the set of dispositions that lead behavior and taste. On the other hand, anomie is a sense of "normlessness," or lack of understanding of the prevailing norms and values. "Praxis" is a Marxist term meaning practical action based upon theory. "Ascribed status" is a term employed by Ralph Linton to describe a status or social position that is fixed at birth and not achieved or chosen. None of these terms was used by Bourdieu to describe a "set of ingrained dispositions that dictate cultural behavior."

Parkinson's Disease

CNS disorder cause tremors (Parallel parking test nervous and start shaking like tremors)

Stimulant drugs (examples)

Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, meth

Gordon Allport

Cardinal traits: traits around which a person organizes his or her life Central traits: major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, like honesty and charisma Secondary traits: other personality characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one's personality that only appear in closer groups or specific social situations

Which term refers to closed status positions that hinder social mobility

Caste systems

Race

Categorizations of people based on perceived physical characteristics.

Myers briggs personality test

Categorizes you into four of sixteen personality types

Representativeness heuristic

Categorizing items on a basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category (ex. a standard coin that is flipped ten times in a row and lands on heads every time. What is the probability of the coin landing on heads the next time? Probability is still 50% but people will overestimate or underestimate the prediction)

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

Caused by a deficiency of thamine and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills

Behaviorist Theory/Perspective

Championed by B.F. Skinner. Personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on one's environment. All behavior is learned from the env't via punishment and reinforcement. Therapy = use classical and operant conditioning to correct personality

Humanistic Theory/Perspective

Championed by Carl Rogers. Humans are inherently good and have free will. Goal is for humans to realize their potential. People choose behaviors consistent with their self-concept, and when they encounter experiences inconsistent w/ self-concept, they feel incongruence. Therapy = make people feel good about themselves

Psychoanalytic Theory

Championed by Sigmund Freud. personality is shaped by person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. LARGELY shaped by early caregivers (e.g. childhood). Therapy = help patients become more aware of unconscious motives and strengthen Ego

Transduction

Change of energy from one form to another

Accommodation

Changes the shape of the lens

Internalization

Changing one's behavior to fit into group while privately agreeing with ideas of the group.

Sublimation

Channeling aggressive behavior or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities.

Stage 1 NREM sleep

Characterised by small, irregular waves (a mixture of theta and alpha waves) this is a brief, transitional stage lasting between 5 to 10 minutes. marked by a decline in breathing and pulse rates, body temperature and muscle tension. This stage is often skipped after the first full sleep cycle. mix of alpha and theta waves.

Secondary deviance

Characterized by a severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label that can result in further deviant behavior.

Insecure attachment

Children who will exhibit significant distress upon caregiver departure OR demonstrate indifference to departure and return.

Secure attachment

Children who will exhibit some distress when caregiver leaves, but upon return is easily consoled.

Freud - Defense mechanisms

Clash of id and superego Main defense mechanisms: 1. repression - ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to unconscious 2. suppression - deliberate, conscious form of forgetting 3. regression - faced with stress, older children return to earlier behaviors like thumb-sucking, throwing temper tantrums, clinging to their mothers 4. reaction formation - individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites 5. projection - attribute their undesired feelings to others 6. rationalization - justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society 7. displacement - describes transference of undesired urge from one person or object to another 8. sublimation - transformation of unacceptable urges into socially accepted behavior

Personality Disorders

Class A - Weird Class B - Wild Class C - Worried

Ivan Pavlov experiment

Classical conditioning with dogs and salivation. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = food unconditioned response (UCR) = salivation conditioned stimulus (CS) = bell conditioned response (CR) = salivation in response to the bell

Social isolation

Community may separate from mainstream and isolate themselves

Paired samples t-test

Compare the means for a given variable for two separate observations of the same group.

Global stratification

Comparing the wealth, economic stability, and the power of various countries.

Assumptions of rational choice theory

Completeness, transitivity, independent of irrelevant alternatives

Basal nuclei

Composed of gray matter. Coordinates and processes voluntary body movement, implicit/procedural memory, eye mvmt.

Functionalism

Conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs, each of which has a distinct purpose.

Implicit memory (procedural)

Conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something.

Secondary reinforcer

Conditioned reinforcer

Social disorganization theory

Conditions of neighbourhood shapes the likelihood that person will become involved in street crimes (e.g. broken windows theory)

Timothy Leary "reality tunnel" individual's perception filter similar to which? A) Parson's gloss B) Bloom's taxonomy C) Confirmation bias D) Metacognition

Confirmation Bias (how people interpret) Gloss (social system --> consensus in perception --> written and unwritten rules like the bro code) Bloom (educational objective cognitive, affective, or psychomotor) Metacognition (human observe own mind)

Cultural congruence

Cultural congruence refers to a cultural match between the provider and client levels in order to provide services that meet the cultural needs of the clients.

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Consists of our skills and conditioned responses

Cochlear implant

Contains a speech processor and a stimulator which will process sound and directly stimulate auditory nerve

Placebo comparator

Control arm of experiment

Experiment with forgetting

Control group learns items on list A, tested after specific interval. Experimental group learns A but also learns items on list B during same retention interval. Result marked an inferiority in performance of experimental group . List be interferes with recall of list A. No interference is observed between dissimilar sorts of material - learning to skate doesn't unto learning of words. If new learning is consistent with old, no disruption. It actually helps memory

Statistical adjustment

Controlling for confounding variables that could affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Beliefs

Convictions or principles that people hold

Hawk Dove Game

Cooperation: both the donor and recipient benefit from cooperating Spite: both donor and recipient are negatively impacted Selfishness: donor benefits while recipient is negatively impacted

World Systems Theory

Core nation - more econ + government developed Periphery Nation - less econ + government developed

Harlequin ichthyosis, a rare genetic disorder, causes the skin to become thick and scaly. Flaking skin behind the eyelids of individuals with this condition is most likely to damage which structure of the eye?

Cornea in direct contact

Correlation numbers on a table

Correlations vary from −1 to 1. The greatest positive correlations translate to stronger associations r = _____.

Compassion fatigue

Counselors get strained with exhaustion from hearing stories of violence

Skeptical perspective

Critical of globalization & considers today's international processes as becoming regionalized rather than globalized.

Normative culture

Culture that follows the major culture

Active comparator

Current widely used therapy

Differential Association

Deviance is caused by hanging out with deviants. Criticism: People are reduced to their environments

Labeling Theory

Deviance is the result of society's labels. Uses deviance as a social construct. Criticism: Deviance is assumed to be automatic; ability to resist social expectation is ignored

Ideal observer to signal detection

Difference between signal and noise = d' d'/2 = ideal observer (maximize hits minimize misses)

Diffusion of innovation theory

Different rates that new ideas are adopted (innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards)

Instinctive drift

Difficulty overcoming instinctual behaviors

Nuclear family

Direct blood relations

Side-effect discrimination

Discrimination by one institutiuon inadvertently causes discrimination by another

Past-in-present discrimination

Discrimination in the past comes forward to present and causes someone to be discriminated (e.g. slaves were freed, but they still poor)

Discrimination

Discrimination is a behavior while prejudice is an attitude

Recognition-primed decision model

Doctor's brain is actually sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern. Over time, the doctor has gained an extensive level of experience that he or she is able to access without awareness

Change blindness

Don't recognize a difference between previous and current state

Cooperation

Donor and recipient gain benefit at the same time.

Selfishness

Donor gains benefit at the expense of recipient.

Spite

Donor incurs a cost in order to prevent recipient's benefit.

Altruism

Donor incurs cost in order to provide benefit to recipient.

3 "happy" neurotransmitters

Dopamine, Norepinephrine, & Serotonin

Activation-synthesis theory

Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry; activation can mimic incoming sensory information, but consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences

Drive Reduction Theory

Drive: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals ex. person feels very hungry and stomach is uncomfortable so he goes and buys food to reduce hunger

Hallucinogens

Drugs include LSD interact with various neurotransmitters especially serotonin

Functional fixedness

Duncker's candle problem: you walk into a room and see a box of matches, some tacks, and a candle. Your task is to mount the candle on the wall so that it can be used without the wax dropping on the floor. Definition: inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

Sensory adaptation

Ear (dampening of sound by inner ear muscles) Touch (sensory receptors become saturated) Smell (sensory receptors become desensitized) Sight (pupil dilation and constriction)

Command economies/planned economies

Economic decisions are based on a plan of production in the means of production are often public. Includes socialism and communism.

Racial formation theory

Economic, social, political factors result in socially constructed races

Hallucinogens (examples)

Ecstasy, LSD, Marijuana

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotion is not dependent upon physiological response. A certain physio response is not specific to a certain type of emotion (e.g. heart racing could mean fear or excitement). The two are two separate experiences that happen at the same time.

Four types of social support

Emotional, esteem, informational, tangible

Pluralism

Encourages racial and ethnic variation within a society

Labelled lines model

Every taste cell has their own line towards a specialized part of the cortex

Charles cooley

Everyone a person interacts with can shape our self-identity

Drive-Reduction Theory

Everything is motivated by a desire to reduce the drive that calls for a need (e.g. lack of food --> hunger --> eating)

Rational Choice theory

Everything people do is fundamentally rational (cost-benefit analysis of actions) 3 assumptions: completeness, transitivity, independent of irrelevant alternatives

Theories on Motivation

Evolutionary (instinct), Optimum arousal, cognitive (intrisinc and extrinsic), maslows heirarchy, Drive reduction theory, incentive theory,

Reaction formation

Expressing the opposite of what one really feels when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling.

Exchange theory

Extension of rational choice theory; focuses on interactions in groups where an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and avoiding certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments

Extrinsic Motivation

External forces, coming from outside oneself; rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved

Behavioural compliance

Externally following behaviour to get a reward (but not internalizing)

Anxiety disorders (types)

Generalized anxiety disorders, phobia, panic disorder, OCD, PTSD

Sensitive period (critical period)

Genetically determined age range during which a certain aspect of a child's development is especially susceptible to environmental conditions.

Carl Rogers - Requirements for Humanistic

Growth promoting climate - Genuine and unconditional positive regard Self-actualization is a constant growing process

Biological causes of depression

HPA, monoamine hypothesis, increased norepinephrine, decreased serotonin, decreased activity in prefrontal cortex

Lemon juice on tongue --> salivation. Continue process --> salivation decreases over time. Research studying what?

Habituation and dishabituation

Hypnagogic/hypnompic hallucinations

Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening

Ecstasy

Hallucinogen and amphetamine; causes increased heart rate, blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia

Cerebellum

Hand-eye coordination, complex mvmt's, smooth execution of muscle mvmt Located in back of the brain

Primary groups

Have a sense of belonging and shared identity, group members are close to you and care about you

Somatosensation

Have four modalities: pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature

Privilege

Having social advantages that someone else lacks.

Ipsilaterally

Hemispheres communicate on the same side of the body

Social potency trait

Highly correlated in twins, determines how well someone takes charge and leads

Traditionalism

Highly correlated in twins, determines how well they follow authority

Confounding factors

Hidden variables not directly tested for that correlate in someway with the independent or dependent variable and have an impact on the results

delta waves

High amplitude, low frequency waves. Seen in stages 3 & 4 NREM sleep - mainly stage 4.

Garcia's Taste aversion experiment

High radiation, low radiation, no radiation after sweet water - highest was aversive to sweet water afterwards

Signal detection theory (4 outcomes)

Hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection

Robbers Cave experiment (Muzafer Sherif)

Hostility toward out-group; favor toward in-group White, middle-class boys' camp divided into two groups: The Eagles and The Rattlers. Through a series of competition, each in-group established different out-group prejudices and in-group favoritism.

Milton Gordon's assimilation theory

How immigrants adopt culture norms

Self concept

How individuals perceive or evaluate themselves (categorical self + exsistential self)

Power

How much influence one exerts in society to achieve their desired goals.

Reliability

How stable consistent and replicable an experiments results are.

Pre-screening/advertising bias

How volunteers are screened or where advertising is placed might skew the sample

Categorical self

How we understand ourselves as an object with properties

Medicalization

Human conditions get defined and treated as medical conditions

Social exchange theory

Human relationships are formed by cost-benefit analsis and comparison of alternatives

Social interactionism

Human social processes play a major role in language acquisition in conjunction with operant conditioning - Vygotsky

Problem-solving

Humans and chimpanzees alike will often avoid trial and error learning and instead take a step back, observe the situation, and take decisive action to solve the challenges they face

Nativism (universalism)

Humans have a language acquisition device (LAD) that allows the mind to gain mastery of language in early childhood - humans have an innate ability to learn language; thought determines language.

Lateral Hypothalamus

Hunger

Mead's theory of Identity (I, Me)

I = spontaneous, autonomous part Me = part formed in interactions with others and general social env't

Big Five Personality Model

ID distinct personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotion stable)).

Id, ego, superego

Id - survive + reproduce, immediate gratification ego - mediate between id and super ego and conscious mind superego - perfectionist, idealist, judgeing pride and guild.

Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Perspective

Id: primal, inborn urges to survie and reproduce -Pleasure principle: aim to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension -Primary process: id's response to frustration -Wish fulfillment: mental imagery like daydreaming to fulfill need for satisfaction Ego: operations to reality principle (taking into account objective reality) -Secondary process: guides or inhibits activity of id and id's pleasure principle -Superego: personality's perfectionist, judging actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures Conscience: collection of improper actions for which a child is punished Ego-ideal: proper actions for which a child is rewarded

Karl Marx

Identified with conflict theory. Argued that internal tensions would leave to the self-destruction of capitalist society.

Spontaneous recovery

If an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited

Cost signaling

If someone acts altruistically with us we believe they have more resources and have the ability to gain more resources

Minimal justification principle

If someone does something that does not align with their attitudes with little justification, there is greater cognitive dissonance than if they have a rationale.

8 Factors for group think

Illusion of invulnerability, Collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping, pressure for conformity, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, mindguards

Which statement explains why looking at a dimly lit object with peripheral vision at night results in the clearest image of the object? When one looks to the side of an object

Image falls in the periphery of the retina, which is denser in rods NOT the fovea --> clearer, has 2 images --> clearer, has 1 image --> clearer

Method of loci

Imagining moving through a familiar place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered.

Echopraxia

Imitation of the movements and gestures of another.

Worlds-system theory

Importance of world as a unit Core countries, periphery, semiperiphery

Shadowing

In a dichotic listening experiment, _________ refers to the procedure that is used to force participants to pay attention to a specific message among competing messages.

Social desirability bias

In research study, people will try present themselves in a more favorable light. Sensitive topics can lead to under reporting.

Ethnographic study

In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation in social settings.

In-group and Out-group

In-group: social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging or identifies as a member Out-group: social group with which an individual does not identify Negative feelings towards an out-group are not based on a sense of dislike, but favoritism for the in-group and absence of favoritism for the out-group

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to encode new memories.

Belief perseverance

Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to contrary

Fixation

Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.

Federalist government

Include a governing representative had the shares powers with constituent groups.

Parliamentary government

Include both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected; members of the executive branch are accountable to members of the legislature.

Presidential government

Include organizing branches, as well as a head of state.

Socialism

Includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs. Private property is limited and government intervenes to share property amongst all. Everyone is given a job and everyone is provided with what they need to survive. The economy is usually centrally controlled and run by the government.

Depressants

Increases GABA receptor activity causing inhibition and increases dopamine levels

Identity

Individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong

Attribution Theory

Individuals attribute behavior to internal or external causes

Cost-benefit analysis

Individuals make rational economic decisions to minimize costs and maximize benefits.

Rational choice theory

Individuals rank and choose options in their society in order to maximize personal gain.

Dissassortative mating

Individuals with dissimilar genotypes/phenotypes will tend to mate with one anothter

Selective exposure

Individuals' tendency to favor information that reinforces preexisting views while avoiding contradictory information. Mechanism for decreasing cognitive dissonance.

Temperament

Innate disposition and is consistent through life

Progressive view of institutions

Institutions were artificially produced and need to be redesigned if they are to be helpful

Conservative view of institutions

Institutions were formed out of human nature and are naturally positive

Manifest function

Intended and obvious consequences of a social structure.

Social Cognitive Theory/Perspective

Interactions between people and environment/interactions influence behavior. Observational learning forms personality. Focuses on how people respond to events, and how past experiences shaped that. Bandura experiment w/ children beating up dolls! Therapy = Substitute rational/accurate thoughts in place of irrational ones

Skeptical perspective of globalization

Internatinonal processes are regionalized not globalized Countries borders are not becoming less important, third world countries are not integrated

Characteristics of Innate behaviours

Intrinsic (special to humans) Stereotypic (same every time) Inflexible Consummate (fully developed first time seen)

Characteristics of Learned behaviours

Intrinsic, Permutable, adaptable, progressive

Intrusions from schematic knowledge

Intrusion error can occur from blurring together an episode in our life with broader knowledge of the world. Studied by Frederic Bartlett

Intrusions from Semantic Associations

Intrusion errors can be made even if the participant is warned that they're likely to make the error

The Misinformation Effect

Intrusion errs involve information about an event that you learned after the event was over Ex: you witness a crime and see thief flee in blue car. Next day read an account of the crim and learn that another rwitness reported that the thief had a green car. The misinformation often incorporated into the participants memory and they misremember the original event. basically, people remember things that didn't actually happen

PTSD

Intrusion symptoms: recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress Avoidance symptoms: deliberate attempts to avoid memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with trauma Negative cognitive symptoms: inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others Arousal symptoms: increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior

Learning performance theory

Involves learning something without actually performing the behavior.

Construct validity

Is used to determine whether a tool is measuring what it is intended to measure (ex. does a survey ask questions clearly?)

accomodation

Jean Piaget; new information causes you to revise your existing schema

Cerebrum

LARGEST part of brain and contains the four lobes

Oligarchic governments

Leaders can be elected or an elected, the public may have the power to elect a presentation, but people have little influence. Controlled by a small group of people with shared interests.

Which side of the brain contains language comprehension/production?

Left

Law of Continuity

Lines are seen as following the smoothest path.

Linguistic matching

Linguistic matching refers to matching the provider and the patient based on language

Neologisms

Made-up words that typically have only meaning to the individual who uses them.

Magical contagion

Magical contagion is a heuristic that leads people to avoid contact with an object or individual who is perceived to be "contaminated." In other words, if an object is viewed as bad or immoral, people will avoid it. If people consider that money has been obtained in an immoral manner, they will more likely feel guilty spending it. Or if food drops to the ground, they might feel that it has been contaminated.

hypothesis reason for sleep

Memory consolidation hypothesis argues that REM serves to consolidate, at a synaptic level, the memories created during that day's awake period, thereby supporting learning processes. Non-REM stage 2 serves to consolidate memories at a system level. The two-process model suggests that there are two processes to promote wakefulness (process C) and sleep (process S). Whereas wakefulness is regulated by circadian rhythms, process S is a homeostatic drive. When C is progressively activated, S is progressively shut down in an approximately 24-hour cycle, thereby affecting the body's concentration of hormones and neurotransmitters during the course of the day. The neuroregenerative metabolic theory offers that energy resources are limited in certain animals, for example those that hibernate under harsh environments as well as individuals with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. This suggests that metabolic stress triggers degenerative processes and sleep counteracts such effects, making it key in regenerative and energy conservation processes. NOT Sleep physiology and architecture state that a sleep cycle is composed of REM and non-REM periods. A non-REM period includes stages 1, 2, 3, and 4, each representing a continuum of increased depth. It lasts an average of 70 to 120 minutes. The first cycles are shorter, and the specific duration of each stage varies during the course of sleep, throughout lifespan, and across genders. BECAUSE it states process but not propose a reason for it

Semantic memory

Memory for factual information.

Echoic memory

Memory for sound, lasting about 3-4 seconds.

Echoic Memory

Memory for sound, which lasts 3-4 seconds

Semantic network

Memory is a network of interconnected ideas and organizes ideas in which concepts are linked together based on similar meaning

Chunking

Memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning (ex. ENALPKCURTRACKSUB into BUS CAR TRUCK PLANE)

Thomas Szasz

Mental illness is a myth

Eustachian tube

Middle ear is connected to the nasal cavity, which equalizes pressure between the middle ear and environment

Social anomie

Mismatch between personal or group standards and wider social standards (lack of social ethic and absence of legitimate aspirations)

Vygotsky sociocultural development

More knowledgable other, babies have elementary functions, language is main means by which aduilts transmit info to children, private speech

Language

Most highly developed symbolic system

Target Characteristics

Most important in elaboration likelihood model - characteristics of person receiving message

Controlled (effortful) processing

Most new or complex tasks require undivided attention

Extrinsic Motivation Theory

Motivation comes from external rewards like money, fame, prizes.

Opponent Process Theory

Motivation comes from the contrasts in opposing stimuli (e.g. pain and pleasure) E.g. Opiate addict says that opiates aren't enjoyable for him anymore, but the withdrawal symptoms are too much, so he will keep using them anyway.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation that comes from within oneself; driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment

Opponent process theory

Motivation that stems from the contrasts in opposite stimuli, like pain and pleasure: when one is experienced, the other is suppressed.

Acetylcholine

NT found in both central and peripheral nervous systems and used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles Used mostly by the parasympathetic nervous system

Transformationalist perspective

National governments are changing but it is difficult to describe change so simply

Transformationalist perspective

National governments are changing, world orders are changing, but unclear as to how. New world order design is developing, outcome of globalization is unknown.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers that are peptide NT

Group selection

Natural selecting for groups

Kin selection

Natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors by enhancing reproductive success of relatives.

Social Control Theory

Need social network and control to reg. it's members by supporting pro-social behaviors. Domestic Violence is triggered from the lack of regulations and cohesive networks in society.

Obsessive compulsive personality type

Need to be in control, perfect, ordered, focus on control

What economic model was installed in the developing world in the 1990s as a consequence of the implementation of the Washington Consensus?

Neoliberalism social and economical policies that increase inequality

Neuroplasticity

Neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli

Conversion disorder (hysteria)

Neurological symptoms that seem to have been caused by worry and anxiety (psychological stress or trauma)

Hans Eysneck personality theory

Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Psychoticism

Classical conditioning

Neutral stimuli: stimuli do not produce a reflexive response

Conflict theory

New society as a competition for limited sources.

Retroactive interference

Newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously.

Mores

Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and are often strictly enforced. For example, animal abuse and treason.

Rural rebounds

Tendency for people to mvoe out of city and back out to rural area

Stanley Milgram experiment

Obedience to authority vs. personal conscience Subjects were assigned to be 'teacher' and confederates were assigned to be 'learner'. Authorities would advise teachers to give electric shocks to learner if they got a question wrong on a verbal test (shocks get successively more severe). Most subjects were willing to obey authorities even if it meant delivering a lethal shock.

Relative height

Objects are perceived to be taller when they are farther away (monocular cue)

Law of Similarity

Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together.

Pygmalion effect

Occurs when leaders articulate high expectations for followers; in many cases these expectations alone will lead to higher performing followers and teams.

Amalgamation

Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group distinct of the initial groups. A + B + C -> D

Self-reporting bias

Occurs when subjects skew their responses, often to impress or appease researchers.

Functionalism

Of you that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs each of which has a distinct purpose.

Fluid intelligence

One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

Crystallized intelligence

One's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

George herbert mead

Only certain people can influence our perception of self during certain periods of our lives (e.g. infants are really egocentric and don't care about others)

Endogamy

Only people within own group are viable marriage partners

Identification

Outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally adopting these ideas.

Stereotypes

Oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics.

Pull factors

Positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant

Decision paralysis

Paralyzed by too many decisions

Paternalism

Paternalism in medicine refers to the belief or behaviors that convey that decision making about the patient's health is best left in the hands of health care providers

Factitious disorder

Patient wants to be in the sick role (falsification of signs and symptoms, not on purpose)

Charles cooley looking glass self

Persons self grows out of societies interpersonal interactions and perceptions of others 3 Components How we must appear Imagine and react to what we feel their judgment is Develop our self through judgment

Neighborhood-level socioeconomic inequalities are most likely to affect physician-patient interactions through which phenomenon?

Physical boundaries create social boundaries and close networks which develop their own cultures NOT Socioeconomic inequalities

Material culture

Physical objects that are particular to the culture. For example, clothing hairstyles food and home design.

Somatic symptom disorder

Physical symptoms that seem to have no medical or mental disorder related to it Excessive worrying about health

James-Lange Theory

Physiological response leads to emotion. Only once the physiological response is felt, the emotion is experienced because a certain physiological response is paired with an emotion (e.g. heart racing --> experience fear).

Nucleus accumbens

Pleasure center of brain where dopamine is released

Traditional authority

Power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice.

Traditional authority

Power due to customs, traditions, or accepted practice.

Charismatic authority

Power due to persuasion.

Charismatic authority

Power due to the power of persuasion

Socioeconomic status

Power, property, and prestige

Resource mobilization theory

Practical constraints of social movements, need to acquire resources, mobilize people

Formal norms

Precisely defined and written down norms. Often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them.

Kohlberg

Preconventional morality -Obedience: avoiding punishment -Self-interest: gaining rewards (instrumental relativist stage) Conventional morality -Conformity: emphasis on "good boy, nice girl" seeking approval of others -Law and order: maintain social order in highest regard Postconventional morality -Social contract: views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure greater good with focus on individual rights -Universal human ethics: decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles

Preparedness

Predisposition to learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts (ex. bird pecks when searching for food)

George herbert meads stages of self and development

Prepatory stage: children act through imitation Play stage: become aware of importance of social relationships and understand attitude, beliefs, behaviours Game stage: generalized other (everyone else), I and Me

Whole report

Presented 3x3 array of letters and participant is asked to list all the letters she say, she was able to identify 3 or 4

Partial report

Presented 3x3 array of letters and participant is asked to list the letters of a particular role, she can do so with 100% accuracy

Groupthink

Pressure not to "rock the boat" in a group by providing a dissenting opinion, resulting in a paradoxical state of harmony.

Avoidance learning

Prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen

Insight learning

Previous skills to find insight to solve a new problem

Primary and secondary deviance

Primary - behaviour that isn't that bad not much backlash Secondary - behaviour that is strongly stigmatized

Tonotypical mapping

Primary auditory cortex has parts specialized for varying frequencies

Procedural justice

Procedural justice, as the term implies, refers to the belief that fairness lies in following the dispute process

After initially learning to ride a bike, riding a bike becomes easy for an individual. Each time the individual rides a bike thereafter, what type of memory is being used?

Procedural memory because it is performance of a particular type of action

Assimilation

Process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his own culture to adopt those of a different culture

socialization

Process of learning and becoming acclimated to the standards, expectations, and culture of society

Anticipatory socialization

Processes of socialization in which a person rehearses for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.

Meninges

Protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid

Racialization

Racial identities can be ascribed to you even if you do not ascribe to those characteristics

Mcdonaldization

Rationalization of fast food

Disorganized attachment

React by being frightened or frightening in moments of stress, unpredictable, confusing, erratic behaviour

Phasic receptors

Receptors that are quick to return to normal firing rate (important in sensing things such as texture or vibrations)

Tonic receptors

Receptors that are slowly-adapting and take longer to return to normal firing rate (important for temperature and proprioception)

Dishabituation

Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred

Displacement

Redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one.

An immigrant teen starts to reject the ethnic customs of his family and instead identifies himself as an American by dressing, speaking, and acting in ways that are associated with American culture. In this scenario, Americans become which type of group for the teenager?

Reference group NOT assimilated group

Procedural bias

Refers to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses.

Ethnic identity

Refers to one's ethnic group in which members typically share a common ancestry

Perception

Refers to the processing of this information that make sense of its significance

Social reproduction

Refers to the structures and activities in place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next.

External validity (generalizability)

Refers to whether the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and other people, controlled by: random sampling, situational control, and cause/effect relationships.

Internal validity

Refers to whether the results of the study properly demonstrate a causal relationship between the two variables tested.

Colour constancy

Regardless of lighting, our brain perceives colour to be the same for an object

Is reinforcement or punishment more effective at modifying behavior?

Reinforcement!

Shaping

Reinforcing of smaller intermediate behaviors necessary to achieve the final desired behavior.

Ventral tegmental area

Releases dopamine in the dopamine reward circuit (within midbrain)

Ecclesia

Religious group that includes most members of society and holds power

Prospective memory

Remembering to do things in the future.

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future; remains mostly intact when it is event-based (ex. remembering to buy milk while passing by grocery store)

Within-subjects experiment

Research design in which each subject experiences every condition of the experiment.

Between-subjects experiment

Research design in which each subject experiences only one of the conditions in the experiment

Sensitization

Response increases every time after stimulus

Medulla oblongata

Responsible for breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Encoding specificity effect

Retrieval of information is improved when conditions of recovery are similar to the conditions when information was encoded (a type of context effect)

Fundamentalism

Return to strict religious teachings and beliefs

Sanctions

Rewards or punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms.

Ludwig Gumplowicz

Said that society is shaped by war and conquest. Conflict theory.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Satiety (leptin)

REM sleep

Sawtooth waves, bursts of quick eye movements, low skeletal muscle movement = "paradoxical sleep"

Piaget's terms

Schema: organized patterns of behavior and thought; can include a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events Adaptation: as a child proceeds through the stages, new information has to be placed into the different schemata -Assimilation: process of classifying new information into existing schemata -Accommodation: process by which existing modified to encompass this new information

Foot-in-the-door technique

Small request is made and after gaining compliance, larger request is made

Explicit memory: semantic memory and episodic memory

Semantic: facts that we know (names of bicycle parts) Episodic: our experiences (time patient learned to ride a bike)

Exsistential self

Sense of being separate and distinct

TrpV1 Receptor

Sensitive to both heat and pain (either causes change in conformation which signals to brain)

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor stage: -Circular reactions (Primary and Secondary) -Primary: repetition of body movement that originally occurred by chance (ex. sucking thumb) -Secondary: manipulation is focused on something outside the body (ex. throwing toys from a high chair) -Object permanence: marks beginning of representational thought, child understands objects continue to exist outside of view Preoperational stage: -Symbolic thinking: ability to pretend, make-believe, have imagination -Egocentrism: inability to imagine what another person may think or feel -Centration: tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, inability to understand conservation Concrete operational stage: -Children understand conservation and perspectives of others; ability to engage in logical thought working with concrete objects or information Formal operational stage: ability to think about abstract ideas

Treisman's Attenuation theory

Sensory Register -> attenuator -> perceptual processes -> cognitive processes

Deutsch and Deutsch Late selection theory

Sensory Register -> perceptual processes -> selective filter -> cognitive processes

Broadbent's early selection theory

Sensory Register -> selective filter -> perceptual processes -> cognitive processes

Which type of memory would most likely be activated first during the computer task with lights, before working memory is activated?

Sensory memory NOT Short term memory

5 HTTLPR

Serotonin transporter that has been implicated with depression in stress situations but lower levels of depression w/o stress

Glycine

Serves as an inhibitory NT in the CNS by increasing chloride influx

General adaptation syndrome

Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion.

Sham compartor

Sham therapy created for experiment

Shape constancy

Shape of an object is same even if it is reoriented

Group

Share common characteristics such as values, interests, ethnicity, social background, family ties, and political representation; sociologists see social interaction was the most important characteristic

Self-disclosure

Sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with non-judgmental empathy

Collective Behavior

Short lived behavior that describes the actions of group

Secondary groups

Short term groups that are goal directed

Which psychologist devised a theory on defense mechanisms of the ego?

Sigmund Freud

In the passage, the term "latency" is used to situate the onset of some unhealthy behaviors and lifestyles of adolescents. Which author adopts this term to describe a stage of human development; what is his/her approach to human development; and how could that stage be succinctly described (author; approach; description, respectively)?

Sigmund Freud; psychoanalytic approach; interiorization of social norms 4th stage of sexual development, preceded by oral, anal, and phallic stages and followed by the genital stage from age 6-puberty. @ this stage the libido or psychic sexual energy develop self by learning social norms instead of sexuality which was dormant or latent

Proximity

Simply being physically close to someone

K complex

Single but large high-voltage spike of brain activity that characterizes stage 2 NREM sleep.

False consciousness

Situation in which people in the lower classes come to accept a belief system that harms them; the primary means by which powerful classes in society prevent protest and revolution.

Social network creates social inequality

Situational: socioeconomic advantage Positional: based on how connected one is within a network or one's centrality within network

Size constancy

Size of two objects are probably similar regardless of distance from eyes

Atonia

Skeletal muscle paralysis, associated with REM sleep

Microculture

Small groups or organizations that affect a person during a portion of their lifetime (can't support for entire life)

Gatekeeping

Small number of people and corporations control what material is being presented in media

Prestige

Social status based on the respect given by others.

Helping to instill norms and values related to violence and violent behavior, media exposure is an aspect of which process?

Socialization (norms + values) NOT assimilation (immigrants)

Interactionist perspective of deviance

Society is a product of everyday interactions and these interactions are what are the basis of deviance

Obstructive sleep apnea

Soft tissue around oesophagus contracts and blocks airway (15+ apneas per hour)

Latent learning

Something is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior until it is required.

Memory intrusions. Two ways?

Sometimes new information sits "side by side" with old = danger of mixing up memories. Sometimes new information replaces old information

Left hemisphere

Speech production and language are located in this dominant hemisphere

Norms

Spoken or unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of a society's members.

Describe the 4 stages of non-REM sleep aka synchronized sleep

Stage 1: Transition from wakefulness --> sleep. Eye movements are slowed and EEG shows low brain wave activity Stage 2: EEG activity increases. Record spikes called K complexes Stage 3: stop eye movement, wave frequency decrease and amplitude increase. Considered Deep sleep Stage 4: Record delta activity and considered deep sleep.

Which stage of sleep is the deepest sleep? Which stage of sleep do dreams occur in?

Stage 3/4. REM sleep.

Androgyny

State of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine

Weber's law

States that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for difference to be perceptible.

Generalization

Stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response

Absolute threshold

Stimulus someone can reliably detect 50% of the time (varies between person as well as situation- if person is adapted or expects it, threshold is lower)

Subliminal stimulus

Stimulus someone cannot reliably detect 50% of the time

Lazarus Theory

Stimulus → cognitive appraisal to label the emotion → physical response

Cannon-Bard Theory

Stimulus → emotion + physical condition (independent)

James-Lange theory

Stimulus → physical condition → emotion

Schacter-Singer Theory

Stimulus → physical response → cognitive appraisal to label the emotion

Evolutionary stable strategies

Strategies that will tend to persist within a population once they are prevalent

Evolutionary game theory

Strategy of each individual and depends on strategy by others (not conscious)

Adler's Theory

Strives for superiority Inferiority complex: sense of incompleteness, imperfection, inferiority Creative self: force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality Style of life: represents the manifestation of creative self and describes person's unique way of achieving superiority Fictional finalism: individual more motivated by expectations of future than past experiences

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Study in African Americans withhold info that had syphilis and withhold treatment

Functionalism

Study of structure and function of each part of society; when all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state

Symbolic interactionism

Study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols

Teacher expectancy theory

Teachers from expectations of individual students, and once they form them, they tend to act towards the student with the expectations in mind.

Which statement about technology is most consistent with social constructionism?

Tech is embedded with the values of groups who created it (What is this hippy shit?) NOT tech is build from the collective effort of innovators (because it is not a social product)

Physiological zero

Temperature judged to this normal temperature of the skin

Social mobility

The ability to move up or down within the social stratification system

Optimism bias

The belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us.

Confidence interval

The chance that the mean falls between the given lower and upper bound.

Assimilation

The conformation of experiences into existing schemas.

Stage 4 NREM sleep

The deepest stage of sleep, delta waves are dominant (low frequency high amplitude). this stage is usually reached about an hour after sleep begins. This stage lasts about 30 minutes.muscles and organs are relaxed and we hardly move in this stage. present in the first 4 to 5 hours of sleep however in the last 2 or 3 hours we often dont decent into this stage or stage 3 of sleep.

Globalization

The exchange of ideas, information, and culture across international borders.

Identity formation (individuation)

The development of a distinct individual personality.

Intragenerational mobility

The differences in social class between different members of the same generation

Malthusianism

The idea that the geometric growth of population and the arithmetic growth of of resources would cause a horrific decay, forcing the population to decline.

Symbolic interactionism

The idea that the mind and self emerge through the micro social process of communication or use of symbols. Interaction between individuals and environment/society constructs a shared meaning.

Absolute poverty

The inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities for life within a society.

Relative poverty

The inability to meet the average standard of living within a society.

Anomia

The inability to name objects.

Personal construct

The individual is a scientist who devises and test predictions about the behavior of others. Based on this the individual can begin to anticipate others actions. Anxiety is caused by someone unable to predict his or her environment.

Primary deviance

The initial violation of a norm or law that does not affect a person's self esteem.

insula

The insula of the brain is implicated in conscious urges and emotions. Therefore smokers with brain damage involving the insula would be more likely to quit smoking more easily without relapse than smokers without brain damage to the insula.

Healthcare disparities

The population specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and the quality of healthcare across social groups.

Social capital

The potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility.

Endogamy

The practice of marrying within a particular group.

Sapir Whorf hypothesis

The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its respective speakers conceptualize their world. That is, it affects their world view or otherwise influences their cognitive processes

Statistical power

The probability that a test correctly rejects the null hypothesis; the ability to correctly determine a significant effect if the effect does truly exist. P = 1 - P(type II error)

Medicalization

The process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as medical conditions, and thus become the subject of medical study, diagnosis, prevention, or treatment.

Impression management

The process by which people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others.

Consolidation

The process by which short term memory is converted into long-term memory.

Generalization

The process by which stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response.

Socialization

The process of accepting and implementing norms and values in a community/society.

Role exit

The process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on another.

Acquisition

The process of learning the conditioned response.

Resocialization

The process of removing the behaviors and roles we have developed over time and replacing them with newly-learned behaviors and roles.

Socialization

The process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society

Secularization

The process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies.

Racialization

The processes of ascribing ethnic or racial identities to a relationship, social practice, or group that did not identify itself as such.

Stage 3 NREM sleep

The start of the deepest periods of sleep, and lasts for about 10 minutes. Characterised by the appearance of slower waves (longer wavelength) with much higher amplitude knows as delta waves (he stage is a mix of theta and delta waves). heart rate, body temperature and blood pressure continue to drop, individual becomes less responsive

Master status

The status by which a person is most identified.

Social reproduction

The structures and activities and a place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next. (Cultural & Social Capital)

Sociobiology

The study of how biology and evolution have affected human social behavior.

Sociology

The study of how individuals interact with, shape, and also secretly shaped by, the society in which they live.

Demography

The study of human population dynamics including the size, structure, the distribution of the population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration.

Psychophysics

The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them (e.g. JND)

Iron law of oligarchy

The tendency of a bureaucracy to become increasingly dominated by a small group of people.

self-serving bias

The tendency to attribute successes to ourselves but failures to the environment/situation

Affect heuristic

The tendency to consult one's emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for information that confirms preconceived thinking.

Activity theory

Theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby.

Strain theory

Theory that deviance is a natural reaction to disconnect between social *goals* and social *structure.*

Differential association theory

Theory that deviance is learned through interactions with others.

Labeling theory

Theory that society creates deviance by identifying particular members as deviant regardless of their behavior.

Rogers' Unconditional Positive Regard

Therapist accepts client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote positive therapeutic environment

Cognitive behavioural therapy

Therapy that uses thought patterns and environment changes

Howard Gardner's Theory of Intelligence

There are multiple intelligences; renewed interest in social intelligence

Raymond Cattell's Theory of Intelligence

There are two types of intelligence: Fluid (Gf): ability to problem-solve on the spot Crystallized (Gc): ability to recall and apply learned info

Rational choice theory

There is a simple instrumental reason for all choices: it provides the greatest reward at the lowest cost. Concerned with decisions made between multiple courses of actions and measurable resources.

cultural variance model

This is a created and ambiguous phrase that could refer to a methodology of statistics or differences in cultures

Undifferentiated

Those who achieve low scores on both masculine and feminine

Prejudice

Thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience.

Which are more stable social ties? Dyads or triads?

Triads because in a dyad, only one person needs to break the single social tie

Bipolar Disorder types

Type 1: Mania + possibly depressive episodes Type 2: hypomania + depressive episodes

Type A vs Type B personalities

Type A: ambitious and outgoing Type B: relaxed and introverted

False consciousness

Unable to see oppression/expolitation

Fundamental Attribution Error

Underestimating the impact of the situation & overestimating the impact of a person's personality

Fundamental attribution error

Underestimation of the impact of a situation (situational) and overestimation of the impact of a person's personality (dispositional).

Feminist theory

Understanding both the social structures contributing to gender differences, and the effects of gender differences on individual interactions.

Latent function

Unintended or less recognizable consequences of a social structure.

Odds ratio

Used to compare the relative odds of the occurrence of the outcome of interest (e.g. disease or disorder), given exposure to the variable of interest (e.g. health characteristic, aspect of medical history). OR=1 Exposure does not affect odds of outcome OR>1 Exposure associated with higher odds of outcome OR<1 Exposure associated with lower odds of outcome

Ego

Uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id, ruled by the reality principle.

Base rate fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information.

Manifest content

What happens in our dreams

Healthy user bias

When a sample population is healthier than the general population

Bilateral descent

When kinship groups involve both the maternal and paternal relations.

Gender bias

When men and women receive different treatment for the same illness

Wage gap

When men and women report consistent differences and income.

Motion parallax

When moving fast, objects close to you appear to be moving quick whereas objects in the distance appear to be closer

Spreading activation

When one node of our semantic network is activated, like seeing the word "red," the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated

Internal Validity

When the results of the study properly demonstrate a casual relationship between the two variables tested

Intergenerational mobility

When there is an increase or decrease in social class between parents and children within the family

False consensus

When we assume everyone agrees with what we do

Projection bias

When we assume others have the same beliefs we do

Multiculturalism/pluralism

Where cultures coexist, no hierarchy

Rational - legal authority

Where legal rules and regulations a stipulated in document like the Constitution. Many corporations like healthcare organizations work like this.

Welfare capitalism

Where most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society.

Double-blind experiment

Where neither the participants nor the researchers know which participants belong to the control group or the test group

Short-term memory

Where new information sought to be remembered resides temporarily and is then encoded to long-term memory or forgotten.

Construct validity

Whether a tool is measuring what it is intended to measure; for example does a survey ask questions clearly?

External validity

Whether the results of the study can be generalized to other situations and people. Limited to the independent variable.

Glass Ceiling Effect

Women encounter barrier in career and cant get higher position

Raphe nuclei

Within reticular formation, supplies serotonin to the rest of the brain

Reading sentence with target word uses what type of memory?

Working memory engage phonological loop NOT procedural memory

Wax Weber in Economy and Society

World flying mysticism - religiousness associated with mysticism like Buddhism World rejecting asceticism - religion driven self discipline reject society and prefer supernatural Inner World asceticism - concentration of activities that lead to salvation

Arousal Theory

Yerkes-Dodson Law that postulates performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level Lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks Higher levels are optimal for activities requiring physical endurance and stamina Simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks

Does a p value of 0.0102 have a confidence level of 99%?

Yes it is okay to round

Sensitization

You grow increasingly responsive to repeated stimulus

what strongest support that something heritable?

a pair of monozygous twins reared together, both presenting the symptoms

Semantic priming

a particular word prepares or primes a person to figure out another word that may not be recognizable

Bystander effect

a person is less likely to help others when other bystanders are present

embodied cultural capital

a person's character and way of thinking

Fisherian/runaway selection

a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time

Eustress

a positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating.

Habituation

a reduction in response following repeated stimulation

hypnogogic state

a state experienced just before falling asleep and is characterised by slow, rolling eye movements and deep relaxation

independent stressor

a stressor that happens regardless of your personal behavior, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, etc. e.g. get hit by drunk driver

dependent stressor

a strssor that happens to you that was caused or worsened by your own behavior, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, etc. e.g. you hang out with the wrong crowd

Selection Bias

a type of bias related to how people are chosen to participate. In this case, people who witnessed unethical behavior in medical school may have been more likely to respond to the survey.

Social Desirability

a type of bias related to how people respond to research questions.

Reconstructive Bias

a type of bias related to memory: we may not remember as accurately when under high amounts of stress

Conditioned Memory

a type of memory that is formed based on your associations between two things. For example, if your professor rings a bell at the end of the exam, you will remember the bell as the sign that the exam is over.

Power

ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles and their ability to control resources

ecological validity

ability to generalize to real world

Divided attention

ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time

Theory of mind

ability to sense how another's mind works (ex. friend is interpreting story while you tell it)

Parallel processing

ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion

Perceptual organization

ability to use these two processes (Bottom-up, top down) to create a complete picture or idea

Innovation

accept cultural goals but reject the structural means to achieve them. Which leads to deviance and crime

Appraisal model

accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression

Which statement best explains meritocracy in terms of status? Meritocracy occurs when selections are made based on:

achieved status rather than ascribed status

James Marcia four ID statuses

achievement (commitment to self chosen goals and principles), foreclosure ( commitment to paternally chosen goals and principles), identity diffusion (absence of goals and principles), and moratorium (struggle with setting up goals and principles which leads to ID crisis)

Discrimination

acting a certain way toward a group

Arousal theory

action for optimal arousal levels

deviance

actions that defy dominant social norms; they are relative and contextual

Self discrepancy theory

actual self (how we see us), ideal self (want), ought self (think others think of us), closer these 3 things are will increase self esteem

Secondary drives

additional drives not directly related to biological processes (ex. getting into medical school, becoming a physician, desire for love, achievement)

Alfred Binet's Theory of Intelligence

administered IQ tests to schoolchildren (70, 100, 130)

Mindguards (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views

Association area

area that integrates input from diverse brain regions ex. multiple inputs may be necessary to solve a complex puzzle, to plan ahead for the future, or reach a difficult decision

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

argues that delusions, halucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain

How would the James-Lange theory of emotion explain the aggressive emotions experienced by the participants in the experimental condition? Participants experience physiological arousal from watching violent programs and:

arousal --> aggressive emotion NOT simultaneous NOT interpret arousal --> aggressive emotion NOT fight/flight --> aggressive emotion

REM sleep (rapid eye movement)

arousal levels reach wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed Paradoxical sleep: one's heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but individual is still asleep

Temporal lobe

auditory/olfactory, short term memory, emotion, language comprehension, interpretation of visual stimuli

The Western biomedical model of disclosing explicit information about the prognosis of an illness is based on:

autonomy - respect decision need sufficient info to make decision. NOT patient-centered communication because it is behaviors that promote respect, mutuality

Middle-class parents

aware of curriculum, aware of their children's performance in school, and feel comfortable discussing education and learning with teachers and administrators

Role partner

behaviors and expectations change with the person with whom one is interacting

Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation

behind around others will increase performance of familiar things and decrease performance of unfamiliar things

Dodson law of social facilitation

being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at and hinders performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks)

Illusion of morality (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

belief that the group's decisions are morally correct

Self-reference effect

best recall info that can relate to their own exp

Serial position effect

better remember things at beginning or end of list

primacy effect

bias towards first option on list

Fundamental attribution error

biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions

Attachment with primary caregiver

biological bond between a child and the primary caregiver, can serve as a protective buffer against stress for the child. He argued that the experience of early attachment with the caregiver forms the child's mental representation of the world, self, and others. Trauma such as child abuse can disturb children's representation of the world. Blame own actions on abused as a child.

Avoidant Avoidant Conflict

both options are unappealing

Bottom-up processing

brain takes up individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is Without this, it would be like we're looking at objects for the first time everytime

Anomie

breakdown in stability in a society that causes alienation. This can then cause social problems including suicide.

ecological validity in shock if wrong answer experiment

can generalize to real life setting

Pre-operational stage

cannot interpret other people's perspectives and are egocentric (only understand their own perspective). Therefore, assume that a person knows just as much as they do even if they are not present and were not told the information.

Sever corpus callosum

cant verbalize street names on right or left side of road

Marxism

capitalism is criminogenic because inequality makes crime inevitable. Some capitalism even rewards crime.

Attachment type: Ambivalent attachment

caregiver has an inconsistent response to child's distress; child will be very distressed on separation from the caregiver but has a mixed response when the caregiver returns

Role performance

carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role; individuals can vary in how successful they are at performing a role

3 elements of social identity theory

categorization, identification, and comparison

Parasomnia

category of sleep disorders that involve abnormal and unnatural movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, or dreams that occur while falling asleep, sleeping, between sleep stages, or during arousal from sleep.

Contralaterally

cerebral hemisphere communicates cross-sided

Parkinson's disease

characterized by : bradykinesia (slowness in movement) resting tremor (appears when muscles are not being used) pill-rolling tremor (flexing/extending fingers while moving thumb back and forth, rolling something in fingers) masklike facies (static and expressionless facial features) cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement) shuffling gait (stooped posture) Depression and dementia common symptoms

General personality disorder: Cluster C - Dependent

characterized by a continuous need for reassurance and depend on specific person to take actions and make decisions

Illness Anxiety disorder

characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition

Bipolar disorder

characterized by both depression and mania; manic episodes are characterized by abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week with at least three of the following: 1. increasing distractibility 2. decreased need for sleep 3. inflated self-esteem or grandiosity 4. racing thoughts 5. increased goal-directed activity or agitation 6. pressured speech 7. high risk behavior

Conversion disorder

characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions; begin soon after individual experiences high levels of stress or traumatic event (ex. women goes blind after watching son die tragically)

Errors of growth

child applies a grammatical rule in a situation where it does not apply (ex. runned instead of ran, funner instead of more fun)

Role taking

child begins to understand the perspectives and roles of others

Attachment type: disorganized attachment

child show no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence, but can show a mix of different behaviors; disorganized attachment associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver and a red flag for abuse

Attachment type: Secure attachment

child will be upset when caregiver leaves and will be comforted by the return of the caregiver

Attachment type: Avoidant attachment

child will show little or no distress when the caregiver leaves and little or no relief when the caregiver returns

Parts of the brain while writing

cingulate cortex sits in the frontal lobe and plays a role in initiating the writing process. The visual cortex identifies the paper and also creates the internal image of the letters. The left angular gyrus is responsible for the conversion of letter sequences into words. The corpus callosum connects the separate processes that take place in the right and left hemispheres of the brain, and the parietal lobe transmits the signal to the motor cortex, which then coordinates the appropriate physical movement that enables people to write.

Ivan Pavlov's experiment

classical conditioning (dog bell saliva) (can be fear response to body sensation)

Ganglia

collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system

Iris

colored part of the eye composed of the dilator pupillae and constrictor pupillae

Cyclothymic disorder

combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive disorder

Case Control Design

compare information about individuals with a disease or condition against people without the disease or condition

Twin studies

comparing condordance rates for a trait between monozygotic and dizygotic twins, are better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics

Conflict Theory has to do with:

competition, unequal power/authority/advantages, limited resources, status

Retinal vessels

complex intermingling of blood vessels between sclera and the retina

Forebrain (prosencephalon)

complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes

autonomic nervous system

comprises three subsystems: sympathetic (or efferent), parasympathetic (or afferent), and enteric has a independent reflex activity

Feminist Theory

concerned w/ social experiences of both men and women and the disparity between these two experiences

Double Approach Avoidance Conflicts

consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics

Fluid intelligence

consists of problem-solving skills, which peaks during early adulthood

Explicit (declarative) memory

consists of those memories that require conscious recall

General personality disorder: Cluster B - Histronic personality disorder

constant attention-seeking behavior; often wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted; seductive behavior to gain attention

Weber's law

constant ratio between change in stim magnitude needed to produce a just noticeable difference and magnitude of original stim (Like a spider web small inside and bigger outside has a constant ratio and is light enough to feel a difference)

Contact hypothesis

contact hypothesis argues that the best way to deal with prejudice is to bring people of different groups together so they can begin a dialogue to appreciate common experiences and backgrounds

Septal nuclei

contain one of the primary pleasaure centers of the brain

Elaboration likelihood model

continuum based on processing of persuasive information; based on central route processing and peripheral route processing

sucking reflex

contraction of the muscles that surround the mouth. It can happen when the area is stimulated or in the absence of stimulation, such as during sleep. maintained throughout infancy or beyond

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

controlling alertness and wakefulness In the sympathetic system, promote fight-or-flight response and mostly produced by the adrenal medulla

Hindbrain

controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes like sleeping and waking

Superior colliculus

controls some responses to visual stimuli and reflexive eye movements

culture of poverty

controversial theory first formulated by Oscar Lewis after his ethnographic work in a village in Mexico. He argued that poor people share a distinct culture of their own. It is not a macrosociological theory that aims to explain poverty patterns or differences between groups such as race/ethnicity

Matrifocal

couple gets married --> move in with wife's family

Vagus nerve

cranial parasympathetic nerve that exerts control of heart rate and GI activity

Associative learning

creation of a pairing or association either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response

Genetic compatibility

creation of mate pairs that have complementary genetics; attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for disease-carrying allele

Illusion of invulnerability (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking

Stanley Millgram

demonstrated that participants would follow orders of a superior if instructed to go against their conscience.

Symbolic ethnicity

describes specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life

Incidence

describes the number of new cases of a disease during a specific time interval

Stroop Effect

describes the phenomenon in which it is harder for an individual to reconcile different pieces of information relating to colors than information that is consonant.

group think

desire of harmony within group

flashbulb memory

detailed/vivid memory that is stored on one occasion and is retained for a lifetime; usually happens during traumatic or important events

Dorsal Pathway

detecting spatial location

Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the body

means ends analysis

determine end goal and steps needed to achieve it

stratified sample

divided into subgroups then randomly selected to ensure groups are equally represented. I guess all stratified samples are randomized

Ginkgo biloba

does improve memory for certain groups of people

Hypnotized witness mentally returns to the scene and can recall. Hypnosis _______ improve memory.

does not

Extrinsic motivation

doing an activity as a means to an end and because it will lead to a specific outcome, such as parents' approval

Top-down processing

driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectations Allows us to quickly recognize components based on these expectations Would have difficulty discriminating similar objects without this processing

Drive reduction theory

drives help motivate people to survive. primary for bio processes and secondary for emotional. eliminate uncomfortable states.

Role exit

dropping of one identity for another

Humanistic theory

explores the influence of the parents' positive regard on the offspring's development client-centered therapy individual who comes in for therapy is not a patient but a client, who has the capacity to grow. However, the only way the client can grow and undergo a constructive personality change is through the therapist's unconditional positive regard for the client, which is based on respect and empathy. Can be applied to any other relationship like child-parent

Priming

expose stim. and prime info so easier to remember

Attitude

expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario

construct validity

extend of instrument measuring

Adaptive value

extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species thus leading to adaptation through natural selection

Julian Rotter's locus of control theory

extent to which people believe that circumstances are controlled by their own behavior (internal locus of control) or by outside forces (external locus of control).

Stigma

extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society (ex. HIV, obesity)

General personality disorder: Cluster C - Avoidant

extreme shyness and fear of rejection; sees herself as socially inept and socially isolated despite intense desire for social attention and acceptance

prosopagnosia

face blindness - unable to recognize familiar faces

Interpersonal attraction

factors that affect attraction including similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity

Short term memory

fades quickly around 30 seconds without rehearsal and limited to 7+/-2 rule

apperceptive agnosia

failure of perception so fail to recognize

explain "tip of the tongue" phenomenon

failure of the retrieval component of memory. shows the problem of partial recognition in free recall. Retrieval of the memory works only partially, providing only components of the memory.

Panic disorder

fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, sense of unreality

Agoraphobia

fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape

Separation anxiety

fear of being separated from the parental figure

EPI

fight flight stress

NE

fight flight stress

Material support

financial or material contribution to another person

Primacy effect

first impression most important Or used when shown something in series, one after the other compared to all at once

Direct benefits

fitness of species; provide material advantages, protection, emotional support

plantar grasp reflex

flexing of the toes whenever the sole of the foot is gently caressed. The toes curl inward. disappear 6 weeks

Force field theory (Kurt Lewin)

focus on current state of mind

Capitalist economies

focus on free market trade with little intervention from central governing bodies; a private owner or corporation maintains and profits from the success of the business which encourages division of labor, where specific components of a larger task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals, promoting specialization and efficiency

Humanistic perspective

focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization

Social Interactionist Theory

focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes where language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate in a social manner

macrosociology

global cross culture phenomena, social relevance, social groups, family structures are common in every culture

Just-world hypothesis

good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people

Just-World hypothesis

goods things happen to good people and bad to bad people

Display rules

govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree

General personality disorder: Cluster B - Narcissistic personality disorder

grandiose sense of self-importance, preoccupation with fantasies of success, need for constant admiration and attention, feelings of entitlement

Sherif's Robbers Cave experiment

group membership and conflict and competition over resources (in group vs out group) (Twenty-two boys randomly placed in either the "Eagles" or "Rattlers" groups. Time was given for the boys in both groups to bond with each other by having them do activities, with T-shirts given out with the name of their group. After this initial bonding time, it was announced that there would be a series of competitive games and a prize for the winning group. Each group began to show competitive and aggressive behavior, marking off its territory and flinging taunts at the other. Sherif's findings showed how in- and outgroups can be easily formed whereby those in the ingroup begin acting in a prejudicial manner toward those in the outgroup.)

Group polarization

groups tend to strengthen the preexisting views of their members

Reference groups

groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves

Ampulla

hair cells are located here in the semicircular canals

Cochlea is tonotopically organized

hair cells are vibrating gives the brain an indication of the pitch of sound

Neustress

happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly affect you. For example, news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world may be very stressful, but your body doesn't perceive that stress as good or bad for you so you aren't affected.

Universal emotions?

happy, sad, anger, fear, disgust, surprise

Somatic symptom disorder

have at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition

Magnocellular cells

have very high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution so it can provide a blurry but moving image of an object

Fovea

highest concentration of cones

Bipolar cells

highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones

Catecholamine

hormone

Cortisol

hormone

Mate bias

how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate

Family ecology theory

how families are affected by the environment around them and how the environment is influenced by the families. Family ecology theory is equally interested in natural physical-biological environments, human-built environments, and social-cultural environments. Neighborhoods are one vital component of the human environment

intersectionality

how identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification e.g. mistreatment at work can happen cuz you're black AND cuz you're a woman

Religiosity

how religious one considers him/her-self

Construct Validity

how the terms are defined.

Carl Rogers' person-centered theory

humanistic theory that focuses on a client's growth, which can be facilitated by the therapist's unconditional positive regard and empathy for the client.

Herbert Spencer superorganisms

humans evolved from organism structure into a society that can adapt to circumstances

frontal lobe is responsible for

hunger, thirst, sex drive

Bipolar II disorder

hypomania with at least one major depressive episode

amplitude

in terms of brainwaves refers to the size of the peaks and troughs

positive emotion happiness

joy and happiness --> pursue novel experiences

Sensory memory

iconic (visual) and (echoic) memory in which the memory lasts a very short time like under one second

Primacy effect

idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions

Albert Bandura's Reciprocal determinism

idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation

Constancy

idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment

spreading activation model

ideas or concepts are represented by nodes. Similar concepts are located close to one another. When asked to recall, name something not on list but similar.The stronger the relationship or association between (similar or dissimilar) concepts, the larger the representative link that connects them. When one node is activated, the activation spreads through the network, and more quickly where strong links exist. This is the reason for naming this model "spreading activation." It was developed to explain how semantic memory was organized, namely, like a network

collective identity

identity shared by multiple people and share same values and beliefs

Carl Jung's archetypes

images and symbols, are elements of the collective unconscious

Tectorial membrane

immobile membrane

Negative symptom

impairment that is present in people in general (function, thoughts, behaviors, emotions, sensory)

frequency

in terms of brainwaves refers to the number of waves per second

Michaelangelo phenomenon

interpersonal self: manner in which others influence creation of the ideal self

Cognitive process

interpretation of bodily sensation and act upon that interpretation

melting pot goal

interracial marriages are commonplace.

external/extrinsic motivators

introduced as an OUTCOME of a response; we then perform that behavior to get that outcome

Nondominant sphere (Right)

intuition, creativity, muscle cognition, and spatial processing

Social capital

investments people make in society in return for rewards like through social networking

Cued-recall test

involve presenting a list of items to participants. Participants are then asked to remember the items of the list with the help of memory cues. For example, to recall the word "apple," the drawing of an apple tree or the word "fruit" can be presented as cues during the recall task. Many types of cues or hints can be used, but they must be related to the target to be remembered

Fine motor skills

involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing specific and delicate movement

Frontal Lobe

involved in humans' ability to project future consequences of current actions

maintenance rehearsal.

involves shallow processing. Shallow processing involves the repetition or rehearsal of superficial aspects of the material, such as the font used

Halo effect

it is the tendency to allow a general impression about a person(I like judy) to influence other more specific evaluations about a person(judy is trustworthy, Judy can do no wrong)

Hedonic happiness

living in the moment that is short term and fleeting like food and money

Broca's area

located in front of inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex

Wernicke's area

located in superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe; responsible for language comprehension

Olfactory chemoreceptors

located in the olfactory epithelium in upper part of nasal cavity

vestibular sense

located in the vestibular labyrinth of the inner ear. Via mechanoreceptors in the hair cells, the labyrinth receives and passes on sensory information critical for the organism's sense of balance and gravity, spatial orientation, motor coordination, body position, and gaze stability during head movement.

Parietal lobe: Somatosensory cortex

located on postcentral gyrus and involved in somatosensory information processing

Frontal lobe: Primary motor cortex

located on precentral gyrus (in front of central sulcus that divides frontal and parietal lobes) and initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward muscles

Ethnic enclaves

locations with high concentrations of one specific ethnicity

long term memory vs short term memory biology process differences

long term synthesis proteins via the intervention of cytoplasmic and nuclear molecules, while short term memory does not

Stereocilia

long tufts on top of hair cells that sway back and forth causing the opening of ion channels Hair cells are connected to the tectorial membrane and the hair cells are involved in amplifying the incoming sound

purposive sampling

look for certain characteristics of study sample

Cerebellum

maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements as well as speech

essentialism

maintains that there is a set of characteristics that can be applied to a specific form of entity (a group of people, animals, objects, etc.).

fundamentalism

maintenance of strict adherence to religious code instead of shifting towards rationality and scientific thinking

Bipolar I disorder

manic episodes with/without major depressive episode

General personality disorder: Cluster A - Paranoid

marked by pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives and may be in prodromal phase of schizophrenia

Inclusive fitness

measure of an organism's success in the population; based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, the ability of the offspring to then support others; promotes altruistic behavior which can improve fitness and success of a species as a whole

Biopsychosocial approach

method assumes there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's behavior

Organ of Corti

middle scala housing the actual hearing apparatus and composes of thousands of hair cells bathed in endolymph

Threshold

minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception

Absolute threshold

minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system

False consciousness

misperception of one's actual position in society. expounded by some Marxists for the way in which material, ideological, and institutional processes in capitalist society mislead members of the proletariat and other class actors.

Intrusion errors

mistakes about the past in which other information is mixed into your recall

Mesomorph

muscular, bony, and athletically built more confident, assertive, powerful, and adventurous

Strain theory

natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure (ex. American dream hard to acquire because education/opportunity not available to all)

Primary drives

need for food, water, and warmth, which motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis

Self-enhancement

need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures

Push factors

negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave

Singlism

negative stereotyping and discrimination directed toward people who are single

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

neurodegenerative disease that has memory loss as its main symptom. Anterograde and retrograde amnesia are often present, and the individual is unable both to transfer new information to long-term memory storage and to retrieve information from long-term memory storage, principally memories of events that took place before the onset of the disease. Additional symptoms include mental confusion, ataxia (lack of motor coordination), hallucinations, and ophthalmoplegia (eye muscle weakness). It is usually associated with deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) caused by alcohol abuse, malnutrition, or infections such as HIV/AIDS.

voxel based morphology

neuroimaging to look at brain anatomy. Stress --> reduce hippocampal gray matter volume

Mirror neurons

neurons are located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and hen that individual observes someone else performing that action

Linguistic isolation

new languages and dialects are formed making integration harder

cultural capital

non-financial social assets that promote upward social mobility e.g. knowledge, skills, education

Paralanguage

nonverbal aspects of communication such as tone, pitch, loudness, and tempo of speech that convey meaning and emotions

Social cognitive theory

postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others

social capital

potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility e.g. Dr. Scott Lee, my family friend, can get me into medical school cuz I know him

Matriarchical

power and authority run in the female line

Ethnocentrism

practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture

Carl Rogers

practices client-centered, person-centered, or non-directive therapy Rogers believed people have the freedom to control their own behavior and are neither slaves to the unconscious or subjects of faulty learning

Gestalt therapy (humanistic)

practitioners take a holistic view of the self, seeing individual as complete person

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional

pre-operational stage sensorimotor stage concrete stage formal operations stage

pre-operational stage: lack consistency and egocentric sensorimotor stage: explore world with senses rather than thinking concrete stage: thinking in particular situations and in concrete formal operations stage: thinking theoretically, counterfactually, strategically, and abstractly

Prejudice

preconceived opinions or attitudes that are usually negative and not based on any facts or experience. Prejudice is an attitude and discrimination is actually acting on that feeling

Game theory

predicts large, complex systems (e.g. the overall behavior of a population)

reasoning portion of brain

prefrontal cortex

Urban decay

previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time

secondary reinforces are what?

primary - needs like food and water secondary - conditioned like money and grades

Abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs

priorities needs (Abraham Lincoln had to prioritize stuff cause was leader)

Incubation

problem solving technique, step back from problem and focus on other activities which allows them to adopt different perspectives

Insight

problem solving technique, sudden realization, associated with intuition and sensing personalities, but not thinking types.

Anticipatory socialization

process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships (ex. marriage)

Cultural assimilation

process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group, mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one

Conflict theory proposal to reduce social gradient in health. (huge difference in economic statuses of classes)

put hospitals under state control rather than market control (market control of health system dictated by $, so should provide system access to all) (giving more power to the patients is wrong answer)

Racial formation theory

racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors

Randomized Controlled Trials

randomly assign participants to one of two groups: an experimental group and a control group

Delirium

rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes; can be caused by electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, etc.

Bureaucracy

rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control with characteristics such as paid, non-elected officials on a fixed salary, regular salary increases, seniority, etc.

PTSD

re-experiencing traumatic event through flashbacks and nightmares, hypervigilance to one's surroundings, and avoidance of similar situations

Balloon ride thing experiment

real life photo photoshopped into balloon ride. People recalled vividly (even though it didn't happen) the event

Priming

recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory

Amacrine and horizontal cells

receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before the information is passed on to ganglion cells Accentuate slight differences between the visual information in each bipolar cell and important for edge detection

Urbanization

refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration

Displacement

refers to forgetting in short-term memory. It refers to how old items are displaced and replaced by new information, and consequently the original information cannot be easily retrieved

Nonverbal communication

refers to how people communicate, intentionally, or unintentionally, without words such as facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, etc.

Individual discrimination

refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group

Kinesthetic sense or proprioception

refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in space

Institutional discrimination

refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution

External Validity

refers to the generalizability of the research to settings beyond this study

Difference threshold/JND

refers to the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference

Two-point threshold

refers to the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli

Subliminal perception

refers to the perception of a stimulus below a given threshold

social reproduction

refers to the process through which stratification systems reproduce themselves across generations -people tend to follow in their parents' footsteps in the class hierarchy

Response bias

refers to the tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors

Medulla

regulates autonomic functions (e.g. blood pressure, digestive system, breathing)

Limbic System

regulates emotion and memory

Homeostasis

regulation of internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions; homeostasis contains negative feedback loops

Gentrification

reinvestment in lower income neighborhoods in urban areas, which results from the influx of more affluent groups. With the arrival of more affluent residents, housing demand increases and generally results in a decrease of affordable housing for lower income residents. It would increase neighborhood stratification, displace lower income residents, and expand tax base for local government

Consensus cues

relate to extent to which a person's behavior differs from others; likely to form dispositional attribution about person's behavior

Attribution theory: situational (external)

relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure ex. friend nominated for academic reward, you believe it is due to luck

Attribution theory: dispositional (internal)

relate to the person whose behavior is being considered including their beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics ex. friend nominated for academic reward, you believe it is because she is hard working

Drug addiction

related to mesolimbic reward pathway including nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, and connected by medial forebrain bundle This pathway involved with motivation and emotional response as well as positive reinforcement and substance use

Emile Durkheim

relation between suicide rates (dependent variable) and social change. anomie theory postulates that people commit suicide because they do not have any bonds or attachments.

Psychophysics

relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke

Midbrain

relays auditory/visual information, RAS (arousal/awareness)

posterior pituitary

release ADH and oxytocin

Adrenal medulla

releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system

Depth perception

rely on monocular and binocular cues

physical landmark processing

remember physical spaces such as locations and terrains. people sometimes remember the exact position of a paragraph inside a book

Esteem support

reminding someone of the skills they possess to tackle a problem can bolster their confidence

Gentrification

renovation of urban areas in a process of urban renewal (as people move from rural/suburban areas into urban areas)

Opponent process theory

repeat take drug, body will counter it. problem is counter when no drug and get withdraw.

Maintenance rehearsal

repetition of a piece of information to keep it within working memory or store it into short-term then long term memory

Lowball technique

requester will get an initial commitment from an individual then raise the cost of the commitment (ex. boss ask you to head committee with a time commitment of five hours per month of meetings; you agreed to head the committee, but discover there are written reports and presentations required as well)

Meissner corpuscles

respond to light touch

Free nerve endings

respond to pain and temperature

Ruffini endings

respond to stretch

Osmoreceptors

respond to the osmolarity of the blood

Duplexity or duplicity theory of vision

retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors: light and dark detection and color detection

Context effect

retrieval cue by which memory is aided when a person is in the location where encoding took place.

Serial position effect

retrieval cue that appears while learning lists; higher recall for the first few and last few items on the list

Interference

retrieval error caused by the existence of other information

Memory problems involve

retrieval errors (attention to meaning, reinstate psychological context of learning).

Aging does NOT reduce one's ability to ____________?

retrieve general information

meritocracy

reward according to merit/talent

continuous reinforcement

rewarding the desired behavior every time it is committed; unambiguously shows what is the desired behavior

Vestibular sense

rotational and linear acceleration

response set

rote responding, or answering the questions in a rote manner. For example, research participants may simply go down the instrument and select the response that falls in the middle (central tendency bias). To prevent rote responding, researchers can vary the format of the questions, invert the answering scale, or intermix the correct choice. These strategies aim at forcing participants to read and think about the question before answering, and prevent such research biases

base of Abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs, what is the base?

safety needs

Acute stress disorder

same PTSD symptoms last for less than one month (but more than three days)

encoding specificity

same contextual cues are present during memorization and recall, it is easier to remember information

Variable-Ratio Reinforcement

schedules tend to produce the highest response rates that are the most resistant to extinction,

predictive validity

scores of something predict something else. (mother eff-ing MCAT)

REM waves on a graph

small amplitude could be REM, waking, light sleep, non-REM stage 1/2

Although many patients wait up to six weeks for an appointment at a busy clinic, an acquaintance of one of the clinic's physicians is regularly seen with less than a week's notice. This scenario best illustrates the use of:

social capital (using social networks to gain)

Weak ties

social connections that are personally superficial but are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals (ex. social media)

Ethnicity

sorts people by cultural factors such as language, nationality, religion, and other factors One can choose whether or not to display ethnic identity, while racial identities are always on display

Conduction aphasia

speech production and comprehension are intact but patient unable to repeat something that has been said because connection has been lost

Cultural diffusion

spread of norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture

retrieved words that were related to the words on the list, but had not actually appeared is due to...

spreading activation

underserving poor theory

the "deserving" or "non-able-bodied," was introduced by the Victorian-era Poor Law in 1834. It describes the belief that poor people only deserve welfare support when they are physically or mentally unable to provide for themselves.

Privation

the absence of any form of attachment to anyone, including caregivers

Cognitive dissonance

the discomfort produced when an individual has two thoughts or behaviors that are inconsistent. In order to reduce the tension, one of the thoughts or behaviors will be modified. Therefore an investor might continue to invest in something that has declined in value simply to confirm a previous decision. Cognitive dissonance is one explanation for the concept of "throwing good money after bad money."

Pygmalion effect

the expectations of performance. If someone is led to expect that an individual or group of individuals will perform well, then he/she will perform well. Some argue that the home advantage can be explained by the referees expecting the home team and their players to perform well, and therefore their decisions may be unconsciously biased toward that expectation.

Jim and his wife see several photos of one of the islands of Hawaii as they review a travel brochure. The white sandy beaches and the blue water evoke feelings of peacefulness and serenity. Jim immediately feels the muscles in his neck and shoulder relaxing. The muscles in his jaw also relax, and he begins to smile. He then experiences the emotion of happiness. This can best be explained by:

the facial feedback theory - facial expressions can trigger emotional experiences. A frown would trigger feelings of sadness, anger, or some other unpleasant feeling

Excessive stereotyping (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

the group construct negative stereotypes if rivals outside the group.

reference groups

the group that an assimilated group admires and tries to emulate

Recency effect

the most recent information we have about an individual that is the most important in forming our impressions

Beneficence

the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest

Downward comparison

the process wherein individuals compare themselves with those who are worse off than themselves

George Kelly's Personal Construct Psychology

thought of the individual as a scientist who devises and tests predictions about behavior of significant people in his or her life

Prejudice

thoughts, attitudes, feelings someone holds about a group that are NOT based on actual experience

Another example of intrusion from schematic knowledge

told story about trip to dentist. When asked to recall, participate talked about the patient visiting the waiting room even tho it wasn't mentioned

Verbal communication

transmission of information through the use of wods, whether spoken, written, or signed; dependent on nonverbal cues for receiver to understand sender's full meaning

Virtreous

transparent gel that supports the retina

Direct therapy

treatment that acts directly on the individual such as medication or periodic meetings with a psychologist

Socialist economies

treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system

Noise trials

trial to measure response bias in which the signal is not presented

Classical Conditioning

two stimuli are paired and response to one stimuli changes (e.g. Pavlov's dogs experiment)

Alzheimer's disease

type of dementia characterized by gradual memory loss, disorientation to time and place, problems with abstract though, and tendency to misplace things

Cognitive dissonance

uncomfortable internal state is evoked when individuals observe an inconsistency between two or more of their own attitudes and/or behaviors

planning fallacy

underestimating the amount of time it takes to complete a task

Discrimination

unfair treatment and harmful actions against others based on their membership in a specific social group

Self determination theory

universal need autonomy (control own actions), competence (excel at hard stuff), relatedness (feel accepted and wanted)

Archetypes of mother and child

unlearned and are from the collective unconsciousness and serve to help individuals organize how they experience events. The archetype of the mother represents comfort, and the archetype of the child represents innocence

Attitude: cognitive

way an individual thinks about something, justifying for the other two components (ex. snakes can be dangerous)

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

we feel tension when we hold two thoughts that are incompatible. In order to reduce these unpleasant feelings of tension, we change our worldviews to match our behaviors/actions

Hierarchy of salience

we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment

intrinsic motivation

we perform a behavior because it is inherently rewarding, or for the sake of doing it

Law of Symmetry

we tend to perceive stimuli as grouped symmetrically around a center point.

Self-reference effect

we tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives

generalized other

when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society

Identity shift effect

when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group and start to experience internal conflict

approach-avoidance conflict

when one goal has both positive and negative effects that seem desirable and undesirable at the same time

Martin Seligman's learned helplessness theory

when people are in situations where they perceive have no control, they will eventually just give up. The theory of learned helplessness has been used to explain depression

Malthusianism catastrophe

when the amount of resources are insufficient to support a given population

feminization of poverty

why women in general are at the greatest risk of poverty throughout developed and undeveloped countries alike. Both structural and cultural factors have been cited as contributing to poverty among women, such as lower incomes and social and cultural norms that impede women's access to formal employment.

Instinct theory

william james - motivations are innate and fixed behavior through evolution

Self-censorship (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

withholding of opposing views Illusion of unanimity: false sense of agreement within the group

Wright Mills

wrote The Sociological Imagination, thought about self and society regarding methods and sociological principles.


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