MCAT Psych
What age is psychosocial development of Identity vs Role?
12-20 years old
Law of Proximity
Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit.
Melatonin
Circadian rhythms, sleep wake, calming effect,
Riots
Crowd behavior with no end, general dissatisfaction with social conditions
Mesopic vision
Dawn and Dusk light levels
Role conflict
A conflict in society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person
Mob
A crowd in which emotion is heightened and behavior is directed toward a specific and violent cause.
Kinship
A cultural group who we think we are related to
Values
A culture standard for evaluating what is good or bad
Habituation
A decrease in responsiveness to a stimulus due to repeated exposure.
Ecclesia
A dominant religious organization that includes most member of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions (e.g. Islam in Iran)
Ecclesia
A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions.
Egalitarian family
A family in which spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions.
Mass
A group made through efforts of mass media
Coercive organization
An organization for which members do not have a choice in joining.
Utilitarian organization
An organization in which members get paid for their efforts.
Normative organization
An organization that motivates membership based on morally relevant goals.
Drive
An urge originating from physiological discomfort.
Reticular formation
Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation, a neural structure located in the brainstem, to keep the cortex awake and alert
Frustration-aggression principle
Frustration leads to aggression
Significance
If the P value is below .05, the samples are significantly different
Attrition bias
In longitudinal research, this bias occurs when certain participants are more likely to drop out of the study than others, leading to a final sample that differs from the initial sample in important ways.
Theories on aging
Life course theory, age stratification theory, activity theory, disengagement theory, and continuity theory
Kinesthesia
Movement of our body (muscle memory)
Informal norms
Norms that are generally understood but often less precise and carry no specific punishments.
Rods are used for what type of vision?
Scotopic vision (night vision) NOT DAY VISION
Stereotype threat
Self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
Culture of poverty
Self-perpetuating value system where poor people develop a unique value structure to deal with lack of sucess
Altruism
Selflessness, helping others for their well being
Difference threshold (JND)
The minimum noticeable difference between two sensory stimuli 50% of the time.
Absolute threshold
The minimum stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor 50% of the time.
Justification of effort
The modification of one's attitude to match a behavior.
Bureaucracy
Structure of organizations that keep them running day to day
Panic disorder
Sudden bursts of sheer panic and anxiety
Continuity theory
Suggests that people simply need to maintain their desired level of involvement in society to maximize their sense of well-being and self-esteem.
Internal locus of control
The belief that one is able to influence outcomes through their own efforts and actions.
Race
The biological or genetic origin of an individual.
Social loafing
People exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable.
Modeling
People learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them
IQ
Pioneered by Alfred Binet
Relative deprivation
The perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself.
Scotopic vision
Vision at low light levels
Physical attractiveness stereotype
Type of halo effect, People think pretty people are better people
Yerkes- Dodson law
U shaped function for level of arousal and performance. performance bad when extreme high or low arousal. best at intermiediate level (Yerkes, Y is close to U shape, Yerk close to jerk which is arousal)
Primary reinforcer
Unconditioned reinforcer
Otolithic organs
Utricle and Sacule (Calcium carbonate crystals connected to hairs). Important in linear acceleration and head positoning.
Mesolimbic pathway
VTA -> nucleus accumbens, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus
Locus Coeruleus
Within pons, supplies norepinephrine
Stranger anxiety
a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals
Specific phobias
anxiety produced by a specific object or situation
Pay attention to units on graphs and figures
as well as passage cause answers decimal can be off
Resource model of attention
We have a limited amount of resources that we can pay attention to
Class personality disorders
Weird Schizoid, schizotypal, and paranoid
Schizotypal personality type
Weird, very odd beliefs, magical, unusual
Babinski reflex
causes toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated
Horizontal mobility
change in occupation or lifestyle that remains within the same social class
Signal detection theory
changes in perception of the same stimuli depend on internal and external content
Moderator variable
changes the strength of a existing relationship between a independent and dependent variable
Pragmatics
dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge (ex. we are more formal to a stranger but casual language with friend)
Semantics
association of meaning with a word
Inferior colliculus
auditory system
Rational choice theory
focuses on decision-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual
Signal detection theory
focuses on the changes in our perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal and external context ex. How loud would someone need to yell your name in a crowd to get your attention?
Adoption studies
helps understand environmental influences and genetic influence on behavior
ecological theory
human behavior influenced by multiple levels (individual, family, community, ect.)
collective unconscious
human instincts
Francis Galton's Theory of Intelligence
intelligence is genetically determined and quantifiable ("Francis... Crick" --> genetics)
Mental Rotation Tasks
involve making judgments of a mental image where the orientation needs to be changed
Face validity
instrument appear to be measuring what they are supposed to
Surrounding mesosystem
mesosystem is one of the five systems and comprises school, peer groups, and neighborhood.
Merkle cells
respond to deep pressure and texture
Pacinian corpuscles
respond to deep pressure and vibration
Spacing effect
retain large info when time between sessions of relearning is increased
Meritocracy
rewards according to individual talent or effort
random digit dialing
random select phone numbers within area codes
Functional fixedness
particular type of fixedness. inability to see beyond the common functions or uses of a given tool. An example would be being unable to see a spoon as an object with which one can dig or scrape.
General personality disorder: Cluster B - Antisocial
pattern of disregard for and violations of rights of others; illegal acts, aggressiveness, lack of remorse for said action
Gardner's idea of eight intelligences
people have different types of intelligences
Functional attitudes theory
states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense
Iron law of obligarchy
states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group
Master status
status by which a person is most identified
Forgetting is a process of both
time and new learning
Catch trials
trials in which the signal is presented
Correspondent inference theory
try to find intention of person action
analogies
used by thinking type to categorize, compare, and analyze data.
spreading activation
when a concept is activated, the activation spread to related concepts
Wernicke's aphasia
when this area is damaged, motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost; patients speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combo
Role strain
A conflict in society's expectations for one status held by a person.
Collective conscience
A conscience everyone shares, which presumes the existence of a greater social order that guides individual actions through shared beliefs, morals, and values. Common and primitive, traditional societies.
Culture lag
A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions.
Self-esteem
A person's overall value judgment of him- or herself.
Looking-glass self
A person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others.
Mood
A person's sustained internal emotion that colors his or her view of life.
Trait Perspective
A personality trait is stable predisposition toward a certain behavior. It is a habitual pattern of behavior, thought, and emotion (e.g. extroversion, introversion, outgoing, shy...)
Modernization theory
All countries follow a similar path of development from traditional to modern society With help any country can develop to modern
Organic solidarity
Allow society to integrate through a division of labor, which leads to each person having a different personal experience; each movement is distinguishable and separate. Common in advanced modern societies.
Aggregation
A principle that states that an attitude affects a person's aggregate behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act.
Meritocracy
A stratification system that uses personal effort to establish social standing.
Stage 3
Delta waves (slow wave sleep), high amplitude, 0.5-3 Hz.
Iron rule of oligarchy
Democratic organizations become more bureaucratic over time and becomes less and less individuals with power
Immediate networks
Dense with strong ties, composed of friends
Gender identity
Describes a person's appraisal of him or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity
Structural Strain Theory
Deviance is because of social strain (being poor, etc.) Criticism: Works with material things but not social/goals.
Neurotic Defense Mechanisms
Displacement, intellectualization, rationalization, regression, repression, reaction formation
Glutamate
Excitatory neurotransmitter
Endogenous cues
Experience cocktail party effect (requires our internal knowledge to recognize cue)
Means of production
Facilities and resources by which we produce goods
Distal stimulus
In perception, it is the actual object or event out there in the world, as opposed to its perceived image.
Proximal stimulus
In perception, it is the information our sensory receptors receive about the object.
Peripheral route
People focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech or orator.
Alienation of labour
Loss of ability to determine own destiny and ability to own goods they produce
Biological causes of Parkinsons
Loss of dopamine neurons in Substantia nigra (Basal ganglia) Lewy bodies (alpha synuclein) in dopaminergic neurons
Alzheimer's Disease symptoms
Loss of vital neurons throughout cerebral cortex. Forgetfulness, disorientation, mood swings
Eros
Love, health, safety, sex drives
beta waves
Low amplitude high frequency. Seen in wakefulness and REM sleep
Spatial mismatch
Low income households reside far from where suitable job opportunities are
Suspensory ligaments
Muscles contract and pulls this to change the shape of the lens
Mores
Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and are often strictly enforced based on a society's moral and ethical standards.
Selection bias
Occurs when the subjects used for the study are not representative of the target population due to improper randomization.
Projection bias
Occurs when we assume others have the same beliefs we do.
False consensus
Occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do.
Olfactory pathway
Odor -> olfactory nerves in olfactory epithelium -> olfactory bulb -> olfactory tract
Disengagement theory
Older adults and society separate, resulting in decreased interactions
Avoidance
Operant conditioning: a person performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not presented.
Phototransduction Cascade
Optic discs in rod/cone cells contain retinal, retinal conformation change by light causes a cascade that stops Na+ from flowing into the cell (hyperpolarization) which allows bipolar cells to turn on
Extinction
Organism become habituated to a conditioned stimulus
Discrimination
Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Reciprocal altruism
Organisms will behave in a way to reduce their own fitness while increasing others but expect others to act similarly later
How get false positive in cave robber situation
People advantage randomly formed outgroup members, seeing negative traits as situational and positive traits as dispositional. The opposite is observed for ingroup members. (A.K.A. being weird AF and not doing in group and out group stuff)
Halo effect
People are inherently good/bad, not individual characteristics. If you think some guy is nice, "he must be a good dad"
Central route
People are persuaded by the content of an argument.
Factors that influence obedience/conformity
Prior commitment, distance from patient, depersonalization Low SES more likely to conform ,individualistic cultures less likely
Negative priming
Prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably = influences the response to the same stimulus.
Auguste Comte would ask what kind of question?
Functionalism. Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, and Herbert Spencer, are founding fathers of functionalism.
context effects
both the context in which the stimuli is presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli
Temporal resolution
The precision of a measurement with respect to time (e.g. FPS)
Rationalization
The process by which tasks are broken down into component parts to be efficiently accomplished by workers within the organization. (Ford breaking down car assembly for different workers)
Assimilation (sociology)
The process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture.
Stage 1
Theta waves, low amplitude, 3-7 Hz.
Hallucinogens
distort perceptions in absence of any sensory input E.g. LSD, marijuana
Scalae
divides cochlea into three parts
Urban renewal
fueled by gentrification= when upper or middle class populations purchase and rennovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing low-SES population
depersonalization/derealization disorder
individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonaliation) or from their surroundings (derealization)
anomie
individuals feels disconnected from larger community
herd behavior
individuals in a group act without obvious source of direction
proactive interference
interference of long term memory with new information. Since Alzheimer can't get much long term info, there is no interference.
cognition dissonance
internal conflict with belief and behavior
Cultural relativism
judging another culture by its own standards
Strong ties
peer group and kinship contacts which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful
Whorfian hypothesis
linguistic relativity hypothesis - perception of reality depends on content of language. (Wolf, they howl so relative linguistic)
Representative heuristic
mental shortcut using the frequency of an incident to make decisions. Gambler does not acknowledge stats of occurrence is independent of each other
Skinner said punishment can cause
misbehavior and aggression
distal stimuli
objects /events out in the world about you
OCD
obsessions: persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses Compulsions: repetitive tasks that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life
social mobility
one's ability to move up (and down?) social classes
Stereotype threat
people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group
Deindividuation
people losing their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality
Semantic Memory
declarative memory of facts or general knowledge
Relative deprivation
decrease in resources, representations, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society
central route processing
deep thinking in elaboration likelihood model
Aphasia
deficit of language production or comprehension
behavior of people in a riot
deindividualism
Role strain
difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role
Trait theorists
individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors
Bystander effect
individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present
Crystallized intelligence
use of learned skills and knowledge, peaks in middle adulthood
The Robber's Cave experiment
used to study in-group favoritism
Occipital lobe
vision
back-stage self
we "left down our front" and be ourselves in private
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body
Concordance rates
refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait
Retrospective chart review
reviewing old data
Inductive reasoning (Bottom-up)
seeks to create a theory via generalizations; starts with specific instances and draw a conclusion from them
Mate choice/intersexual selection
selection of a mate based on attraction
Master role
social behavior (Status - ID, Role - Behavior like role play you have to match behavior)
Weber's law
states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a JND and the magnitude of the original stimulus
Dopamine
plays important role in movement and posture where high concentrations are normally found in the basal ganglia which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability
Statuses
positions in society that are used to classify individual
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Linguistic relativity)
structure of language affects the perception of its speakers; people are limited to what they know of language
Multiculturalism
A perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions in which each culture is able to maintain its practices.
Dramaturgical perspective
A perspective that posits we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others.
Rooting
A primitive reflex in which an infant turns their head toward the direction of any object touching the cheek.
Babinski
A primitive reflex; extension of big toe and fanning of other toes in response to brushing on the sole of the foot.
Grasping
A primitive reflex; holding onto any object placed in the hand.
Moro
A primitive reflex; in response to sudden head movement, arms extend and slowly retract.
Fechner's law
A principal describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the magnitude of subjective sensation increases proportionally to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity.
Cultural syndrome
A shared set of beliefs, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme, as is found among people sharing the same language and geography.
McDonaldization
A shift in focus of an organization toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control.
Liberal strategy to signal detection
Accept everything unless you are certain signal is not there (lots of false alarms)
Volmeronasal system
Accessory olfactory epithelium that binds pheromones (humans do not have an accessory olfactory bulb)
Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome
Alarm reaction - prepares animal for fight/flight response (sympathetic NS) Resistance - Body tries to adapt to situation and activates parasympathetic NS Exhaustion - after repeated stimulus, body no longer has energy to cope with the stressor anymore
Learning distinction
Albert bandura posited that people learn a behaviour but can also decide not to perform it
Depressants Drugs (examples)
Alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbituates, opiates
Methodological individualism
All social realities are the result of individual actions and interactions. Staunch viewpoint that does not leave room to consider large-scale structures.
Mechanical solidarity
Allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience.
Stages of Sleep
Alpha: awake but relaxing with eyes closed -Waves slower than beta waves Beta: high frequency and occur when person is alert or attending mental task that requires concentration Stage 1 Theta: Dozing off; slower frequencies and higher voltages Stage 2 shows theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes Stage 3 and 4 Delta: low frequency, high voltage sleep wave; becomes difficult to rouse someone from sleep
Life course approach
An approach to sociology that captures how earlier life experiences and decisions affect opportunities in later life and for future generations within and across cultures and time.
Food desert
An area where fresh healthy food is difficult to find.
Dramaturgical approach
An argument that assumes that people are theatrical performers and that every day life is just a stage.
Social constructionism
An argument that people actively shape their reality through social interactions and that reality is something that is constructed, not inherent.
Source monitoring error
An error in remembering the source of information.
Randomized controlled trial
An experiment weather is a treatment group and the control group that are both randomly selected
Anchoring bias
Anchoring bias is the tendency to emphasize the accuracy of the first piece of information obtained in making a decision. This becomes the benchmark or anchor that is employed to make all other subsequent decisions
Exurb
Areas like woodlands outside of city (people commute into work)
Karl Marx
Argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production (bourgeoise) and those who labor and provide the manpower for production (proletariat) - conflict theory
Social constructionism
Argues that people actively make choices and shape their reality through social interactions and experience.
Detection bias
Arises from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way by searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations
Drive-Reduction Theory is correlated with what?
Arousal
Fear then relief technique
Ask for a big favor and then be like jk can you do this small favor
Superego
Aspect of one's personality that influences one to follow moralistic and ideals to gain psychological rewards.
Rooting reflex
Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek such as a nipple during feeding
Formal organizations
1. Continue despite departure of an individual member 2. expressed goals recorded in a written format and guide the members and their activities 3. seek to control activities of their members 4. hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members
two way ANOVA use for 2 dependent or 2 independent variables?
2 dependent variables
Durkheim structural functionalism theory
2 types of solidarity bonds, mechanical and organic. Mechanical is many similar parts put together to make the social machine. Organic is complementary bonds similar to organisms.
Generalized anxiety disorder
<6 months, identifiable physical symptoms, unclear source of anxiety
Carl Jung's rational and irrational functions of personality.
Divided typology of cognitive function into rational and irrational functions. Rational (thinking and feeling --> stepping stone mind and heart). Irrational (sensing and intuition --> stepping stone body and spirit)
Patrilocal family, matrilocal family, neolocal, ambilocality
Closeness to husbands, wifes, neither, both family
Ganglia
Cluster of cell bodies of afferent neurons. Provide relay points and ability to relay/process stimuli quickly.
Group
Collection of any # of people who regularly interact/identify w/ each other. Share similar norms, values, expectations.
Herbert Blumer
Collective Behavior
Fad/craze
Collective behavior when something comes and goes quickly, and is popular for a little bit with a lot of people
Social Movement
Collective behavior with the intention of promoting change.
Mass hysteria
Collective delusion of some threat until it spirals out of control to panic...public reactions to stressful situations. Lots of fake symptoms. "Salem Witch Trials"
Normative influence
Conformity based on one's desire to fulfill others' expectations and gain acceptance.
Solomon Asch experiment
Conformity study Experimenters grouped subjects with confederates and asked them all "Which line is the longest?". Confederates chose the smaller line, and subjects tended to also conform and choose the obviously smaller line.
Informational influence
Conformity under acceptance of evidence about reality which has been provided by others
Arcuate fasciculus
Connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area; it is a bundle of axons allowing appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production
Republican governments
Consider their countries to be public concerns and a democratic in nature, meaning that people have the supreme power in these societies.
Emile Durkheim
Considered the father of sociology was a major proponant of functionalism.
Authoritarian governments
Consist of an elected leaders; the public may have individual freedoms but no control over representation
What factors affect how we determine internal or external attribution?
Consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
Avolition
Decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions.
Cocaine
Decreases re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin; anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties, can cause heart attacks and strokes
elaborative rehearsal.
Deep processing involves establishing semantic associations with the material to be remembered, helping to reflect upon the meaning of the material to memorize.
Neuroticism
Degree of emotional instability or stability as a result of stress.
Reality principle
Delay of gratification until its socially acceptable to get what we want
Bureaucracy
Dependent upon an advanced, hierarchical division of labor where each worker does his task Championed by Max Weber
Cognitive development
Development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan
Dyssomnias
Disorder that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
Schizophrenia: negative symptoms
Disturbance of affect: expression of emotion Blunting: severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression Flat affect: no signs of emotional expression Inappropriate affect: (ex. schizophrenic starts laughing when talking about someone's death) Avolition: decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions
Myelencephalon (becomes medulla oblongata in fetus)
During embryonic development, the rhombencephalon divides to form the myelencephalon and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum from fetus)
Alcohol myopia
Effect of alcohol where it is in the inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world
Social facts
Elements that serve some function in society, such as laws, morals, and values.
Dramaturgical approach
Erving goffman, front and backstage self, we plan our conduct based on how we want people to see us
Which research methodology involves the extended, systematic observation of a complete social environment?
Ethnographic methods
Exogenous cues
Experience pop out effect, we don't have to consciously think about it to get our attention
Schachter-Singer Theory
Experiencing emotion requires physiological response PLUS interpretation of current situation (e.g. heart racing + lion chasing you = fear).
Sex response cycle
Excitement, plateau, orgasm, refractory period (men only), and resolution
Neobehaviorists would diet for every 5 lbs person loses, she is given a non food reward like money or praise attention from others
Expand__________________________ Who are they_____________________
Sick rule
Expectation within society that allows you to take breaks from responsibilities when you are sick
PTSD hard to do what kind of study?
Experimental studies, hard to systematically manipulate physiological states and sensitivity to changes in those states (also unethical to do these for residential segregation)
Inattentional blindness
Failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere
Type II error
Failure to reject a false null hypothesis ("false negative")
Characteristics of ideal bureacracy
Division of labor, specialization, hierarchy, rules, expectations, impersonality, employment based on technical qualifications
Nonmaleficence
Do no harm; physician has responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit
Force field theory
Lewin's theory that described one's current state of mind as a field, and forces as the sum of the influences acting on a person at a given time.
Deviance
Going against a social norm (but doesn't necessarily mean bad or immoral)
Government schemes
Government intervenes to lower social inequality by implementing certain tactics
Extended family
Grandparents, aunts, uncles, and others.
Difference between independent and dependent variables
In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher. The independent variable is the presumed cause whereas the dependent variable is the presumed effect.
Social facts
In functionalism, there are facts that are formed by society and will exist before any individual and continue to exist
Place theory
In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the basilar membrane is stimulated
Amphetamines
Increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake; increases heart rate and blood pressure, euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia
Long-term Memory
Info retained indefinitely; infinite recall capacity Two types: Implicit/Procedural, Explicit/Declarative
Proactive interference
Information previously learned interferes with ability ro recall information learned later.
Types of conformity
Informative, normative, identification, internalization
Self-reference effect
It is easier to remember things that are personally relevant.
Dual coding hypothesis
It is easier to remember words with associated images than with either words or images alone.
Attribute substitution
It occurs when an individual has to make a judgment (of a target attribute) that is computationally complex, and instead substitutes a more easily calculated heuristic attribute.
Repression
Lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory.
Misinformation effect
False memories created by outside sources like use of severity in language or given false information
Mere exposure effect
Familiarity effect : people prefer things they are exposed to a lot
Social institutions (examples)
Family, Government and economy, religion, education, health and medicine
Avoidant personality type
Feels inadequate, inhibited, avoids social situations
Expansive Population pyramid
Fewer old people than young
Constrictive population pyramid
Fewer younger people than old
Optic chiasm
Fibers from the nasal half field of each retina cross paths
Mindguarding
Filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group.
Schachter-Singer Theory
First we experience physiological arousal, then we cognitively interpret the situation, and finally we experience the emotion
Complex innate behaviours
Fixed action patterns (e.g. mating dance), migration, circadian rhythm
Social cognitive perspective
Focus on how our environment influences our behavior and how we interact with the environment
Major criticisms of conflict theory
Focuses too much on conflict and does not recognize the role of stability within society.
Joint attention
Focusing of attention by two separate individuals
Types of Norms
Folkways, Mores, Laws, Taboos
Behaviour influences attitude (theories)
Foot in door, Door in face, role-playing
Activity theory
For healthy and successful aging people sohuld remain active and miaintain social interactions
Where are cones located on retina?
Fovea @ center of retina
Erich Fromm
Fromm argued that there are eight universal human needs: relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, sense of identity, frame of orientation, excitation, unity, and effectiveness.
Actor observer bias
Fundamental attribution error in combination with self serving bias
Georg Simmel's concept of the stranger
Georg Simmel explains that we trust those strangers because they are surrounded by signs and clues such as tools and uniforms that put us at ease. The stranger exists in modern society because of the economic division of labor that forces people to trust someone they have never met before
Social exchange
Give person physical or psychological reward, so next time they are more likely to agree to a request
Source traits
Global factors underlying human personality and behaviors that are not directly evident from behavior.
Consumption based families
Smaller families because they consume too much resources
Reciprocal determinism
Social cogntiive theory personal factors <-> behavioural <-> environment
Some studies find that the association between discrimination and health is stronger for U.S.-born members of certain ethnic minority groups than it is for immigrant members of the same ethnic minority group. This finding suggests that the possible effect of discrimination on health is most likely related to: A) social segregation in US B) length of residence in US C) place of residence in US D) social integration in US
Social integration in US due to system of stratification from US social institutions
Front stage
Social interaction where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people.
Relative deprivation theory
Social movements birthed by relative deprivation, feeling of deserving better, and convention methods weren't helpful
Auditory pathways
Sound -> vestibulocochlear nerve -> medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) -> auditory cortex -> superior olive -> inferior colliculus
hypnic jerk
Spasm of part of our body (occurs during stage 1 NREM)
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Student will perform best when moderately aroused. Not too hyped, not too calm.
Ebbinghaus
Studied nonsense words. Plotted a forgetting curve by testing himself at various intervals after learning (using different lists for each interval). He found that memory did decline with the passage of time. Decline was uneven, sharpest soon after learning and became more gradual
Mass society theory
Suggests that social movements offer a sense of belonging to people who feel alienated and disconnected from others.
Frustration aggression principle
Suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression.
Self-concept
Sum of an individual's knowledge of himself. There are three main influences on an individual's development of self-concept: self-efficacy, locus of control, self-esteem.
Mature Defense mechanisms
Supression, Sublimation, humour, altruism
George Herbert Mead
Symbolic interactionalism.
Symbolic culture
Symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture.
Material culture
Tangible, physical items produced and used by members of a specific culture group and reflective of their traditions, lifestyles, and technologies.
Self-serving bias
Tendency to attribute failures to external environment & successes to ourselves
Self-serving bias
Tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and failures to others or the external environment.
Halo effect
Tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics.
Just world Phenomenon
Tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve
Actor-observer bias
Tendency to blame our actions on situational factors and blame the actions of others on internal stable traits.
Actor/observer bias
Tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
Confirmation bias
Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them
Context effect
Tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information.
Primacy and recency effect
Tendency to remember early and late items
Self-discrepancy theory
Maintains that each of us has three selves. The actual self: the way we see ourselves as we currently are, the ideal self: the person we would like to be, and our ought self: the way others think we should be.
Self-discrepancy theory
Maintains that each of us has three selves: actual, ideal, and ought self (representation of the way others think we should be)
Manifest vs. latent function
Manifest functions: action intended to help some part of a system Latent: unintended positive consequences on other parts of society Ex. Annual meetings of medical societies have the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, sharing research findings, and setting goals for the next year. Latently, they create stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and provide a sense of identity for the group.
Cultural transmission/cultural learning
Manner at which a society socializes its members
Holism and mind-body connection
Many cultural groups, particularly from the East, have a more holistic view of the mind-body connection. In other words, the mind and body play an integral role in healing. In the West, the view is that there is a dichotomy between the mind and body, which is why many Western cultures emphasize the biomedical model.
Conflict theory
Marxist theory that views society as a competition for limited resources indicating anger or dissatisfaction; involves a dominant and oppressed group. Thesis (status quo) -> Antithesis (social struggle) -> Synthesis (emerges from resulting struggle)
Sources of self-efficacy
Mastery of experience, social modeling, social persuasion, psychological responses
Conformity
Matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms
I and Me
Me: Social self (societies view) - socialized me I: response to social self (personal responses) - no one is important as you
Kinsey scale
Measures hetero vs. homosexuality; significant portions of the population fell somewhere between them
Theory of intersectionality
Multiple different areas of potential discrimination overlap with one another and exist alongside one another
Convergence
Muscles in the eye will stretch and cause eyes to converge on an object less than 10 metres away (binocular cue)
Nativist (biology) theory
Noam Chomsky - children should learn languages between 2 and puberty.
NREM
Non Rapid Eye Movement, a recurring sleep state during which rapid eye movements do not occur and dreaming does not occur. Accounts for 75% of sleep.
Sampling Bias
Non random sample selection that could lead to bias
Abraham Maslow's Humanistic Theory
Peak experience: self-actualizers more likely to have profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual
Stanford Prison experiment
People conform to the different roles placed upon them. Behavior can shape attitude. Role playing prisoners and jail officers... Jail officers really got into their role and started oppressing prisoners. Prisoners even started a revolt in response. The experiment had to be ended prematurely because it got too lit.
Self-selection bias
People in a sample can choose whether or not to participate in an experiment
Reciprocal liking
People like others better when they believe the other person likes them
David McClelland's N-Arch
People rated high in N-Arch tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments; they set realistic goals, and stop striving toward a goal if success is unlikely
Social facilitation
People tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present and worse on complex or new tasks.
Continuity theory
People try to maintain same basic structure for lives over time
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
People understand their world through language and language shapes how we experience our world.
Fundamentalists
People who adhere strictly to religious beliefs.
Category
People who share similar characteristics but are otherwise not tied together
Neuromodulators
Peptide neurotransmitter where the synaptic action involves more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell and are therefore slower and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell than NT
Relative size
Perceive things to be closer to us because it takes up a larger space in our visual field (monocular cue)
Interposition
Perceive things to be closer to us because its in front of another object (monocular cue)
Retinal disparity (stereopsis)
Perception of depth and 3-dimensional structure obtained on the basis of visual information deriving from slight differences in the images projected onto the retina.
Whorfian hypothesis/Linguistic relativity hypothesis
Perception of reality is determined by the content of language
Law of Pragnanz
Perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible.
State-dependent memory
Person's mental state affect recall
Carl Jung
Personal unconscious: similar to Freud's unconsciousness Collective unconscious: powerful system that is shared among all umans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors Archetypes: images invariably have an emotional element
Priming
Priming is a nonconscious form of memory in which an association of the memory is activated prior to initiating a particular task.
Schizophrenia: Positive Symptoms
Psychotic disorder; associated with high dopamine levels Positive symptoms Delusions of reference: (ex. person believes characters in a TV show are talking to him directly) Delusions of persecution: (ex. person believes he is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, threatened) Delusions of grandeur: (person is remarkable in some significant way such as being a historical figure or religious icon) Thought broadcasting: believe one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to external world Thought insertion: belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head) Hallucinations: hearing voices Disorganized thought: loosening of associations; ideas shift from one thought to another; word salad; schizophrenics invent new words (neologisms) Disorganized behavior: inability to carry out activities of daily living; patient will either spontaneously move or remain rigid (catatonia)
Eysencks' PEN model
Psychoticism: nonconformity or social deviance Extraversion: tolerance for social interaction and stimulation Neuroticism: emotional arousal in stressful situations
Cultural imperialism
Putting ones culture above all others (deliberate imposition)
Experimental study
Research that manipulates a variable in a test group and compares the response to that of a control group that was not exposed to the same variable.
Ego depletion
Self control requires a lot of energy and focus, using a lot of it over a long period of time can cause you to use it up
Thanatos
Self destruction, death, anger, hate, harm
Deductive reasoning (Top-down)
Set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Seven defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal
Effectiveness
The ability of a treatment to work in a clinical setting.
Efficacy
The ability of a treatment to work in a lab setting.
Fertility
The ability of females to generate offspring in abundance
Social cognition
The ability of the brain to store & process information regarding social perception
Explicit memory (declarative)
The ability to explain what is known - Includes semantic, episodic memory.
Hierarchy of salience
We let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment
Social exchange theory
We prefer the action with the greatest personal benefit. Exchanges do not have to be economic in nature.
Weak and strong social constructionism
Weak - social constructs are dependent on brute facts Strong - everything is a product of human language and social habits
Urbanization
The growth of urban areas. It is tied to industrialization.
Symbolic culture
The nonmaterial culture that represents a group of people; expressed through ideas and concepts (ex: currency).
Replacement level fertility
The number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people in the population who die.
Incidence
The number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time.
Prevalence
The number or proportion of cases of a particular disease or condition present in a population at a given time.
External locus of control
The perception that outcomes are controlled by external forces.
Hyperglobalist perspective
The perspective that globalization is driven by legitimate forces, that national boundaries/specific nation states are becoming less important, and the world is becoming one unit.
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes.
Test retest reliability
The reliability of an assessment tool in obtaining similar scores overtime
Exogamy
The requirement to marry outside a particular group. For example, prohibiting sexual relationships between certain relatives.
Spatial resolution
The smallest feature that can be seen by a detector.
Id
The source of energy and instincts devoid of logical or moral reasoning, ruled by the pleasure principle.
Instinctual drift
The tendency for an animal to drift back from a learned operant response to an innate instinctual response to an object.
actor/observer bias
The tendency for an individual to attribute one's own wrongdoing to situational causes, and NOT to dispositional factors. This is vice versa when dealing with other's wrongdoings.
Modernization
The transformation from traditional social structures to more rational or economic driven ones.
Echolalia
The uncontrollable and immediate repetition of words spoken by another person.
Disengagement theory
The view that aging makes a person's social sphere increasingly narrow, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawal, and passivity.
Norms
The visible and invisible rules of social conduct within the society.
What is the difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins?
The zygote undergoes a split for monozygotic twins, whereas dizygotic twins result from two ova.
Rational Choice Theory
There is a simple reason for all choices: provides greatest reward at lowest cost
Hidden curriculum
Things that are taught in socialization that are not the manifest content
Shadowing task
Two different sounds projected into different ears- asked to repeat one thing in one ear
Retinal disparity
Two eyes provide slightly different view of the same object, giving a cue of depth (binocular cue)
Social interaction
Two or more individuals can shape each other's behavior.
Outbreaks/Epidemics/Pandemics
Unexpected increase of an infectious disease "H1N1"
Social epidemiology
Using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population
Mesolimbic Pathway
VTA and all other pathways to other portions of the brain that releases dopamine (serotonin decreases)
1st week (action --> no reward) 2nd week (action --> reward) 3rd week (action --> random reward) What is schedule of reinforcement for 3rd week? Frequency of action of course of study?
Variable Ratio NOT Variable Interval Increase over course of study NOT Be stable first two week and fluctuate the 3rd week NOT increase first two week and decline 3rd week
State
Variable aspects of personality influenced by the external environment.
Confounding variable
Variable that affects both dependent and independent variable
Reinforcement Schedules
Variable-ratio schedule has fastest response rate
Covariate
Variables that might affect the dependent variable, but are not associated with the independent variable - essentially a control variable.
Trial and Error
Various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work
Spotlight model
Visual attention can shift within the visual field but can only be focused on a single target.
Feature detection
Visual pathways contain cells specialized in detection of color, shape, or motion
stereotype content model
Warm groups: those not in direct competition with the in-group for resources Competent groups: high status within society Paternalistic: inferior, dismissed, ignored Contemptuous: resentment, annoyance, anger Envious: jealously, bitterness, distrust Admiration: pride and other positive feelings
Social Exchange Theory
We assign value to different courses of action, and choose the one with the highest value
Specific Real Area Bias
When people in a sample are selected from only a certain area
Incipient stage
When public begins to take notice of a situation they consider a problem
Compliance
change in behavior based on a direct request; person or group asks the individual to make the change typically has no actual power or authority to command individual, but ask him to change his behavior
Obedience
changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure
Internalization
changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group
Availability heuristic
a cognitive shortcut that focuses on making use of information that immediately comes to mind about some particular topic or issue. This immediate information then becomes the framework for judging the likelihood of events occurring
Group polarization
a dynamic that occurs in a group in which individuals take on views that reflect a more extreme position than they might hold privately.
self-efficacy
a feeling of not being able to make changes
Cortisol
a glucocorticoid that shifts body from using glucose as an energy source to fat (i.e. glucose-sparing effect)
James Langer theory
a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions and is one of the earliest theories of emotion within modern psychology. It was developed independently by two 19th-century scholars, William James and Carl Lange. The basic premise of the theory is that physiological arousal instigates the experience of a specific emotion. Instead of feeling an emotion and having a subsequent physiological (bodily) response, the theory proposes that the physiological change is primary, and emotion is then experienced when the brain reacts to the information received via the body's nervous system
Propriocentive Senses
allow humans to control their limbs without directly looking at them. It is the sense of location, position, orientation, and movement of various parts of your body with each other
Moderating Variable
alters the relationship between two other variables
Limbic system (3 components)
amygdala - emotional experiences; identifies/expresses fear and aggression hippocampus - forms memories cingulate gyrus - learning and memory
That's-not-all technique
an individual is made an offer but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected
Longitudinal Study
analysis of patients over time
Social anxiety disorder
anxiety that is due to social situations and persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situation that may result in embarrassment
Synaptic pruning
as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information
Method of loci
associating each item in the list with location along a route through a building that has already been memorized
Peer group
association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses; provide opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging
Diffusion of responsibility
assumes that individuals are less likely to intervene or help in a crisis situation when there are other individuals around.
Social construction model
assumes there is no biological basis for emotions but are based on experiences and situational context alone
Identity shift effect
afraid to be rejected by group so conform to norms of group.
Alzheimer's disease
age related dementia
Indirect therapy
aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of affected individual
Functional attitude theory
attitude has functions of knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense.
learning theory
attitudes can be developed through different forms of learning
Ego-defensive
attitudes that protect our self esteem or justify actions that are wrong
Differential association theory
deviance can be learned through interactions with others; intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior him- or herself
Differential association theory
deviance can be learned through others
sick role
deviant behavior person expected to display
Misplaced Familiarity:memory processes that make a stimulus seem familiar are _____ from those that help us figure out why it feels familiar.
different
Role conflict
difficulty in statisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles
Low-context communicators
direct communication, explicit descriptions and terms, speaking more and frequently raising their voices (animated, dramatic), and often being impatient to get to the point of the discussion
Stigma
disapproval attached to disobeying the expected norms so that a person is discredited as less than normal
racial discrimination not the same as racial stereotyping and prejudice
discrimination - stereotyping - prejudice -
Socialization
discussing of the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs
In drive reduction theory, the motivating drive comes from what?
disruption of homeostasis
archival data improves sample size or ecological validity?
ecological validity because the experiment has already been done and cant chance sample size of something already done.
institutionalized cultural capital
educational qualifications -people with degrees more cultural capital -people with degrees form Harvard have more cultural capital than people with degrees from DU
Harry Harlow's experiment
effects of early infant maternal separation (monkey baby wire with milk or cloth)(Hairy Harry Harlow is Hairy like a monkey cloth)
Expectancy value theory
effort depends on expectations of achieving goal
Resource mobilization theory.
emergence and evolution of social movements through a focus on organizational resources. Those can be material, moral, social-organizational, human, or cultural. The passage implies that the breast cancer movement was succesful because it managed to raise ongoing material support
Self-determination Theory (SDT)
emphasizes roles of ... Autonomy: need to be in control of one's actions and ideas Competence: need to complete and excel at difficult tasks Relatedness: need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships
stage 3 of level 2, "conventional morality," in Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development
emphasizes social approval. In other words, a person in this stage and level will make moral decisions based on whether he or she will be evaluated as a good person or a bad person Level 1, stage 1 reflects the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Individuals in this stage will make moral decisions based on whether they will be punished or not. Level 3, stage 6 reflects the post-conventional level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Individuals in this stage will make moral decisions based on their own guidelines or principles of justice.
Working memory
enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that information
Catecholamines or monoanimes or biogenic amines)
epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine
instinctual drift
established habits, learned via operant techniques, are eventually replaced by innate food-related behaviors
Disconformation principle
evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
Implicit memory: procedural
ex. retain skill of riding a bike
Cross-Sectional Design
examine a group of individuals at one point in time
Self-fulfilling prophecy
expectation create conditions that lead to confirmation of those expectations ex. people tell you a class is hard and most people fail, you start to get nervous and do bad, validating their opinion
speech shadowing
experimental subjects repeat speech immediately after it is heard
Game theory
explain decision making behavior
Dispositional attributions
explaining and attributing behaviors to the internal characteristics of a person, for example, explaining behavior due to the individual's personality disorders, mental illness, or personality characteristics
Opponent-Process Theory
explains continuous drug use where the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology (ex. body counteract repeated use of alcohol that will last longer than the drug resulting in withdrawal symptoms) Withdrawal creates dependence on drug
Incentive theory
explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments
explicit memory vs. semantic memory
explicit (very great detail of facts or events) semantic (general detail from world knowledge)
Attribution theory
focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior
Social cognition
focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior
Social construct
follow the traditional assumptions and perceive them as inevitable.
Altruism
form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at the cost to him or herself
Telencephalon
forms cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system
Diencephalon
forms thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland
Jean Piaget
formulated the stages of cognitive development. Adolescents begin to move into the formal operational stage, and they will typically begin thinking in a more abstract manner versus in a concrete way. Their thinking will move away from being based solely on personal experience
Adaptive
function of attitude that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed
Ego-expressive
function of attutude that allows us to communicate self identity such as wearing sports hat so you are identified as fan of the team
Feminist theory
gender inequality (work). Gender differences (norms), gender oppression (diff power and abuse), and structural oppression (race class)
Parietal lobe
general sensations (touch, temperature, pressure), taste, spatial reasoning
External Validity
generalizability of a study
Group conformity
group holds power over its members, creating group pressure that ultimately shapes members' behaviors; individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goals
altruistic behavior
help another person fitness at the cost of (your own? another person fitness?)
Implicit/Procedural Memory
conditioned associations/knowledge of how to do something (e.g. how to walk, other skills) Basal ganglia responsible for procedural memory of skills
Source-monitoring error
confusion between semantic and episodic memory (ex. a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else and later recalls the story as having happened to him or herself)
Corpus callosum
connects the two cerebral hemispheres
Game theory
decision making, predict interactions.
Episodic Memory
declarative memory of events you've experienced
What parts of the brain are important for declarative memory? procedural memory?
declarative: Hippocampus and medial temporal lobe procedural: cerebellum and striatum
Bystander effect
decrease likelihood of helping victim when others are present.
Parkinson's disease (biological)
decreased dopamine production in substantia nigra (layer of brain cells that produce dopamine to permit functioning of basal ganglia) Treatment: L-DOPA (precursor converted to dopamine once in brain)
Racialization
definition or establishment of a group as a particular race
Stage 3 of Sleep
delta waves, night terrors, somnambulism, nocturnal enuresis (bed-wetting); DEEPEST sleep
Alan Baddeley and Grham Hitch's working memory model
developed in two stages. In the first stage, the original working memory system components included the central executive, which is thought mainly to focus and divide attentional resources. They also included the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, which are thought to hold storage and rehearsal functions, to be subordinate to the central executive, and to be similar to short-term memory. That is, they store information for short periods of time, sometimes repeating or rehearsing it before its transfer to long-term storage. The difference between these two components lies in the type of information held: auditory for the phonological loop, and visual and spatial for the visuospatial sketchpad. The episodic buffer was a component subsequently added to the model. It is thought to act as an interface by integrating and storing information existing within the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into a multimodal gestalt or single episodic representation.
Kübler-Ross theory
developed the five-stage model of grief. People go through an emotional stage characterized by denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Her work with dying people and John Bowlby's attachment and loss theory influenced the development of this model
Sensory bias
development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population (ex. fiddler crabs are naturally attracted to structures that break up the level horizon because they may indicate a food source; male crabs build pillars around their territory to attract mates)
Semantic encoding
place meaningful context to how we encode information Semantic encoding is the strongest encoding and visual encoding is the weakest
Serotonin
play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming Oversupply of serotonin produce manic states while undersupply is thought to produce depression
Karen Horney - Object relations Theory
object refers to representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infanc; objects prsist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others
Object relations theory
object reflect parents based on subjective feelings and persist when adult and influence interactions with others.
Phenotypic benefits
observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex; traits indicate increased production and survival of offspring
Primary socialization
occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close
Groupthink
occurs when members begin to focus solely on ideas generated within the group while ignoring outside ideas; may limit to group's options or views
Retroactive interference
occurs when newly acquired information causes us to have trouble remembering old information.
Attrition Bias
occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study
Neurulation
occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds
Reversed attribution bias
often seen in depressed people; viewing their successes as caused by external factors and failures as caused by internal factors
Proactive interference
old information is interfering with new learning (ex. moved to a new address and had trouble recalling individual pieces of the new address)
Resocialization
one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change and can have positive/negative connotations
Empathy-altruism hypothesis
one helps another person when feeling empathetic regardless of the cost
Place Theory
one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the basilar membrane
Halo effect
one specific aspect of person can affect overall impression
Adaptation
one way the mind and body try to focus attention on only the most relevant stimuli, which are usually changes in the environment around us
Mediating Variable
one which explains the relationship between two other variables.
Confounding Variable
one which is not typically of interest to the researcher but affects the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
Rods
only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment called rhodopsin
Confounding bias
other variables interfere with cause and effect --> affects internal validity
Kohlberg
outlined stages of moral reasoning addressing how people reason their way through moral questions, and showed how this reasoning develops from children to adults
Piaget
outlined the stages of cognitive development that applies to children and adolescents
Identification
outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas
important first impressions are nonverbal like paralinguistic kinesics proxemics
paralinguistic - spoken communication that isn't words like tone/pitch kinesics - body language proxemics - physical distance between people
Knowledge
part of functional attitudes theory, it provides consistency and stability
anterior cingulate cortex does what? What might happen if damaged?
part of limbic system, for self - regulation, decision making, impulse control damage --> impulsive and aggression
fusiform gyrus
part of visual system in brain; deals with high-level visual processing and recognition
Experiment on misplaced familiarity
participants witness staged crime, shown mug shots, none of the mugshots were of the person but they identified someone. The person they pictured was just someone they saw in a previous photograph.
Sanctions
penalties for misconduct can be used to maintain social control and often include fines or incarceration
insight learning process
people and animals do not learn by operant conditioning or trial and error. Rather, they learn by having an insight or figuring out a solution for their problems. problem-solving attempts are meaning and purposeful, rather than random.
Maslow's self-actualization theory
people are motivated by needs, and these needs are hierarchical in that as human beings we strive to meet the needs on the lower rung of the hierarchy (i.e., physiological needs) before we can strive to meet our needs in the highest rung (i.e., self-actualization).
familiarity and recollection
people can tell whether they "remember" a prior event or whether they don't remember the event, but "know" that it happened. You notice a stimulus is familiar, think you know why but you're wrong and you attribute familiarity to wrong source.
Halo effect
people have inherently good or bad natures
Correspondent inference theory
people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental beavior when making attributions especially if the behavior is unexpected
Mere exposure effect/familiarity effect
people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently (ex. first hearing a song you hate, but after hearing it many more times, you like it)
Theory of symbolic interactionism
people relate things based on the meanings they have for them. Drinking coffee more a ritual than the drink itself
Third person effect
people say persuasive ads and commercials won't effect them, but will effect other people
Social facilitation
people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others
Yerkes-Dodson Theory
people tend to perform their best when they're moderately emotionally stimulated.
Attribution theory
people try to understand the cause behind other peoples actions/behaviors
Self-presentation/Impression management
people use specific strategies to shape what others will think of them
Endowment effect
people value things they own more than things they don't have
peripheral route processing
people who focus on superficial details such as appearance of person delivering the argument, catchphrases, slogans
frustration-aggression hypothesis
people will be more aggressive when frustrated; being hindered from a goal induces frustration
Social network theory
people's networks are important/necessary for the spread of ideas/resources. Weak ties are good because it allows sharing of new resources to a VAST network. E.g. people are more likely to get a job through an acquaintance than a friend
Cultural relativism
perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with recognition that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that of culture itself; just perceives other culture as different, not bad
General personality disorder: Cluster C - Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
perfectionistic and inflexible, tends to like rules and order not same as OCD because OCPD is life long while OCD is acquired
Projection areas
perform simple perceptual and motor tasks
Major depressive disorder
period of two weeks with at least five of following symptoms: 1. prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood 2. loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities (anhedonia) 3. appetite disturbances 4. substantial weight changes 5. sleep disturbances 6. decreased energy 7. feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt 8. difficulty concentrating or thinking 9. psychomotor symptoms (slowing down) 10. thoughts of death or attempts at suicide
Social reproduction
perpetuation of inequalities through social institutions
social reproduction
perpetuation of social inequalities through social institutions with each generation
Dysthymia
persistent depressive disorder where depressed mood isn't severe enough to meet criteria of major depressive episode; most of the time for at least two years
Generalized anxiety disorder
persistent worry about many different things for at least six months; is often accompanied by physical symptoms
Body dysmorphic disorder
person has unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness
approach-approach conflict
person must choose between two more or less equally desirable goals
avoidance-avoidance conflict
person must choose between two more or less equally unattractive or undesirable goals
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
personality assessment on psychological functions of sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Assume one type is more dominate than the others
William Sheldon's Somatotypes
personality types based on body types Type A: competitive and compulsive Type B laid-back and relaxed
General personality disorder: Cluster B - Borderline personality disorder
pervasive instability in terpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image; profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values; may use splitting (all good or all bad mentality) Suicide and elf-mutilation are common
General personality disorder: Cluster A - Schizoid
pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and restricted range of emotional expression NOTE: Schizotypal and schizoid are not the same as schizophrenia
Transference
phenomenon in which the client unconsciously transfers or redirects his/her feelings to the therapist or counselor
Actor-observer effect
phenomenon where individuals will attribute their own behavior to external events but explain the behaviors of other people by internal causes such as traits or character.
Juxtaposition
physically putting two things next to each other to compare
Cannon-bard theory of emotion
physiological + emotional same time (both at same time goes off like a cannon)
Anterograde amnesia
inability to form and therefore recall memories of recent events
Anterograde amensia
inability to form new memories
Dissociative amnesia
inability to recall past experiences, often linked to trauma Disociative fugue: sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily ctivities
source amnesia
inability to remember where/when/how you got the information from while still retaining the actual information
Retrograde amnesia
inability to retrieve old memories, or memories that were formed prior to the event that triggered memory problems (temporally graded amnesia is a particular type for Alzheimer's, even though they have hard time retrieving newer information)
Gross motor skills
incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion like sitting, crawling, and walking
Schizophrenia causes (biological)
increased dopamine, smaller frontal and temporal lobes and are abnormally structures, abnormalities in frontal portion of mesocorticolimbic pathway, genes, stress during pregnancy
Gentrification
increased neighborhood stratification, displacement of lower-income residents, expanded tax base for local gov't
Stimulants
increases release of neurotransmitters, or reduces reuptake of NT's E.g. caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines ("speed")
high-context cultures
indirect communication, talk less, rely on nonverbal cues, and are very comfortable with silences. They tend to use more formal language that emphasizes the hierarchical relationships of individuals
Alfred Adler's theory
individual psychology. His theory mainly developed concepts such as inferiority complex, overcompensation, and birth order.
Carl Roger's humanistic theory
individual who comes in for therapy is not a patient but a client, who has the capacity to grow. The only way the client can grow is through the therapist's unconditional positive regard toward the client, which is based on respect and empathy.
Deindividuation
individuals in a group setting lose individual identity
Reliance on central trait
individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver
Self-serving bias/self-serving attribution bias
individuals view their own success based on internal factors while viewing failures based on external factors
Grasping reflex
infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand
Moro reflex
infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms then slowly retracting their arms and crying
Freud - Instinct
innate psychological representation of a biological need Life instinct (Eros): promote individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, sexual need Death instinct (Thanatos): represent unconscious wish for death and destruction
Instinct Theory
innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli; people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts
Membranous labyrinth
inner ear structures bathed with this potassium-rich fluid called endolymph
Primary group
interactions are direct with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members, last long period of time,
Secondary group
interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds, last short period of time
Social exclusion
involves the lack or denial of resources, rights, goods and services, and the inability to participate in the normal relationships and activities, available to the majority of people in a society, often problem of being impoverished
Ethnographic methods
involving systematic observation of a complete social env't
Prejudice
irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity
Class consciousness
is a term used in political theory, particularly Marxism, to refer to the beliefs that a person holds regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests.
Relearning
is a way of measuring retention by measuring how much faster one relearns material that has been previously learned and then forgotten.
social transition
knowledge passed on in a group/society
Labeling theory
label affect how others respond to person and person's self image
Labeling theory
labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self image
Avolition
lack of drive to perform activities and pursue objectives
James
lange theory - stim. --> physiological arousal --> emotion (Lange simple stim and response)
Linguistic styles
language
Linguistic relativism
language a person speaks influences how they think
Dominant hemisphere (Left)
language, logic, and math skills
non-REM waves on a graph
large and big amplitude, slow would be deeper stage like 3/4
Propaganda
large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others
Door-in-the-face technique
large request is made at first and if refused, a second and smaller request is made
quasi-experimental
large sample size in which two groups of research subjects are examined along a particular outcome
Basic group dynamics larger groups vs smaller groups
larger groups - more stable (many ties/bonds), less intimate, smaller groups - less stable (if break single tie/bond), more intimate
Stage 2 NREM sleep
last about 10 to 20 minutes and is characterised by brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves (called sleep spindles). Dreams occasionally occur in this stage however are usually very brief and meaningless. Mostly theta waves present.
Social cognitive theory
learn attitudes based off of watching others
Social interactionist theory
learn language because want to communicate
Latent learning
learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
Associative learning
learning when one event is connected (i.e. associated) with another
Nonassociative learning
learning when repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus
Working-class parents
less likely to possess the cultural capital that facilitates these family-school interactions. they see school as the teacher's responsiblity
Prestige
level of respect shown to a person by others
Pons
lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla
Anterior chamber
lies in front of the iris
Jung - Persona
likened to a mask that we wear in public
"impulsively" portion of brain
limbic system
Long term memory
limitless warehouse for the knowledge that we are then able to recall on demand Elaborative rehearsal: information gets converted into long-term memory
Distant networks
looser and contain weaker ties, include acquaintances
Parkinson's disease (related to dopamine)
loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia where disruptions lead to resting tremors and jerky movements
Retrograde amnesia
loss of previously formed memories
Agnosia
loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds; caused by physical damage to the brain such as a stroke or MS
Trickle Down effect
lower class attempt to pretend to be upper class after prices of something has gone down. by Georg Simmel
Automatic processing
mechanisms that are involuntary or don't require attention
Hindbrain/rhombencephalon (3 components)
medulla, pons, cerebellum
Pressure for conformity (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
member pressure any in the group who express arguments against the group's stereotypes, illusions, or commitments viewing such opposition as disloyalty.
Collective rationalization (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
members discredit and explain away any positions contrary to group thinking.
Misinformation effect
memories altered by misleading info provided at the point of encoding or recall
Decay
memories are simply lost naturally over time as neurochemical trace of a short term memory fades
Schemas
mental representations that summarize what we know about a certain type of event or situation
Lawrence Kohlberg's theory if went beyond development stage
moral decisions like "killing a bad guy". preconventional (self interest) conventional (rules) post conventional (morals, principles, perspectives)
If Asian participants used ethnic identity as a central part of their self concept, how would they have tested on math performance?
more positive stereotype because they would be prone to stereotype threat
Opiates
morphine and codeine Opioids: oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin
Recency effect
most recent information most important.
Huntington's disease
nerve cells in brain break down over time. can have early onset (Hunts for brain cells)
Cannon-Bard Theory
physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously and independently. Annabel's brain released hormones at the same time that she interpreted the situation as happy and calm. The theory also states that behavioral expression is the last aspect - like when Annabel smiled.
Folkway
norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions such as shaking hands after a sports match
Stanley Milgram's experiment
obedience to authority figures (teacher learner electric shocks)(Being obedient if Stanford and milligrams)
Teacher expectancy
the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students
Gestalt laws
the law of similarity (group) the law of proximity (group) the law of Pragnanz (perceive reality in simplest form) NOT the law of discontinuation (lines)(it could be a side effect?)
Semantic Memory
the type of memory related to facts and information.
Language acquisition
the wat infants acquire their native language (parent's)
Attitude: behavioral
the way a person acts with respect to something (ex. avoiding snakes)
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft
theory distinguish 2 groups. communities which share beliefs, ancestry or geography. and societies which work together for a common goal
Carol Gilligan
theory of moral development - females make moral decisions based on ethics of care as opposed to males, who make moral decisions based on ethics of justice. In other words, females tend to make moral decision based on relationships and on the selves as interconnected with others.
objectified cultural capital
things which are owned and represent familiarity with high culture (books, classical music CDs, painting)
Perspective taking occurs during concrete operational stage
think something is in its original place
Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder)
two or more personalities recurrently take control of person's behavior
If change mental stress --> physical stress in experiment, Selye's general adaptation syndrome would say...
unnecessary, because the human response is not specific to the type of stressor
proletarian drift
upscale products become popular with lower class. not by Georg Simmel
Babinski reflex
upward flexing of the big toe whenever the outer side of the foot's sole is vigorously stimulated, such as through scraping. It disappear 18 week
Mixed methods approach
use both quantitative (stats approach of total claims) and qualitative (IN DEPTH ANALYSIS of subset of cases)
Operant Conditioning
use of punishment and reinforcement
Content analysis
used to make inferences about communication. ex. internet website would help determine which beliefs the organization publically emphasizes
front-stage self
using impression management to relay a certain perception of ourselves to others
Otoliths
utricle and saccule contain modified hair cells covered in otoliths As body accelerates, these otoliths resist that motion
Social capital
values or benefits that are associated with networks or groups of people
Mediating variable
variable can explain a relationship
Superior colliculus
visual sensory input
Frontal Lobe
voluntary movement, problem solving
factors of modernization theory for inequality
population growth, technology, cultural patterns
Vestibule
portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule sensitive to linear acceleration
Henry Murray
posited that all human beings have psychogenic needs that are basic and rooted in the unconscious. He identified 27 needs, and one of them is the need for affiliation.
Learning theory
posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning such as direct contact, influence from friends, parents, etc.
Cognitive Dissonance
presence of a discrepancy between what a person thinks or believes and the info they receive which supports another belief. People strive for internal consistency and will seek to reduce this conflict. (The respondent feels guilty but doesn't believe they were responsible, so they always 100% blame person at the bottom of the hill)
Recognition test
presenting a set of items to participants. The second stage of the test involves presenting both new and old items to participants. The task is to detect the items to which one was previously exposed
Confabulation
process of creating vivid but fabricated memories and thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories
Retrieval/recall
process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained
Observational learning
process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others
Secondary socialization
process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society; occurs outside of home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments
Recognition
process of merely identifying a piece of information that has been previously learned
Encoding
process of putting new information into memory
Shaping
process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors
Encoding
process of transferring sensory information into memory system
Adrenal cortex
produces corticosteroids such as cortisol
GABA
produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and play role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain GABA exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane
Choroid and ciliary body
produces the aqueous humor that bates the front part of the eye before draining into the canal of Schlemm
Indirect benefits
promoting better survival in offspring
Vygotsky Cultural and Biosocial Development
proposed the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language. As child develops, help from adults or other children can develop skills further
Gate theory of pain
proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain
Frataxin
protein paralysis
Informational support
providing information that will help someone
Incentive theory
pursue reward and avoid punish Tangible (extrinsic) rewards - material, car, $ Intangible (intrinsic) reward - feel good, heathly
McDonaldization
refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculabiity, and control in societies
Situational attributions
refer to attributing behaviors to external circumstances or the environment
Consistency cues
refer to consistent behavior of a person over time; the more regular the behavior, the more we associate that behavior with the motives of the person
Distinctiveness cues
refer to extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios; likely to form situational attribution to explain it
Variable-ratio Schedule
reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but the average number of performances to receive the reward is relatively constant FASTEST response rate
Variable-interval Schedule
reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time
Fixed-ratio Schedule
reinforce behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior Continuous reinforcement: fixed-ratio schedule in which behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
Fixed-interval Schedule
reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed
Pheromones
secreted by one person or animal and once bonded with chemoreceptors, compel or urge another to behave in a specific way
Some drugs recommended to improve memory like ______(less guarded/less cautious state of mind)
sedatives
Foraging
seeking out and eating food driven by biological, psychological, and social influences
Reference group
self-concept depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to
Implicit personality theory
set assumptions people make about how different types of people, traits, and behaviors are related. aka stereotyping
Parvocellular cells
shape is detected by parvocellular cells which have very high color spatial resolution and permit us to see very fine detail but have low temporal resolution
Cultural syndrome
shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme
Peer pressure
social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual
Proactive
social movements that promote social change
Reactive
social movements that resist social change (ex. white supremacist movement)
Groupthink
social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision
Racialization
social process by which a dominant group ascribes racial/ethnical identities to another group, whether or not those identities are felt as relevant to the labeled group
Master status
social status that has power to shape and define a person's identity which can be (+) or (-)
functionalist
society is made up of components within a system, and these parts work to serve a particular function
Ascribed status
socioeconomic status determined by external characteristics or outward appearances (skin color, gender, age)
Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory
standardized psychometric personality test that has multiple scales like hypochondriasis, depression, masculinity/femininity, and paranoia.
Groupthink
state of harmony within a group because everyone seems to be in agreement
Kurt Lewin's force field theory
state of mind depends on all the influences on the person at that time. 2 groups of influences which are assisting goal and blocking goal.
Expectancy-value Theory
states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and degree to which he or she value suceeding at the goal
Implicit personality theory
states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related
Cognitive neoassociation model
states that we are more likely to respond to others agressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain
Long-term potentiation
stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density
Eudaimonic happiness
strive for good virtuous life. community and live with a purpose. correlated with good physical and mental health (show report card and will pay for tuition)
longitudinal study
study same subjects over a period of time
Counterculture
subculture group gravitates toward identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores
snowball sampling
subjects refer other people (bias, non-random)
sometimes first process _____ so we know something is familiar but we don't know why it is familiar
succeeds
Choroidal vessels
supplies nutrients to the eye
Perilymph
suspends inner ear membranous labyrinth
Cultural lag
symbolic culture is slower to change than material culture
attrition bias
systematic loss or withdrawal of participants from follow up. (become depressed or noncompliant)
emulation of tactile representation
tactile information such as the weight or thickness of a book can influence how information is processed on a subconscious level
ectomorphs
tall, thin, lanky, and fragile looking.
Interaction process analysis
technique for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups
temporal lobe does what? hippocampus does what?
temporal lobe - primary auditory functions, such as the interpretation and production of speech hippocampus - learning, memory, anxiety, and stress regulation
Group polarization
tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group Risky shift: group makes riskier decisions than individuals Choice shift: groups shift toward caution
Social loafing
tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually
Mental set
tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
Overconfidence
tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
social loafing
tendency to exert less effort when being evaluated as a group
confirmation bias
tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs
Ethnocentrism
tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one's own
social facilitation
tendency to perform simple tasks better in the presence of others
role conflict
tension exists between different roles that a single individual holds; more internal e.g. black cop
role strain
tension that results from competing demands within the context of a single role e.g. patient translator has to take into account competing desires of patient and doctor
Catell Personality theory
16 personality traits that we all possess
When is stranger anxiety developed? And at which Piagetian stage of development?
8 months; Sensorimotor Period
PTSD
>4 weeks and have triggers
Working memory
A "storage bin" to hold memories that are needed at a particular moment in order to process information or solve problem.
Crowd
A group that shares a purpose
Inter-rater reliability
A measure of the degree to which two different researchers or raters agree in their assessment.
Awake
Alpha/beta (relaxed) waves, low amplitude, 8-12 Hz.
Capitalism
An economic system where resources and productions are mainly privately owned, and goods and services are produced for a profit.
Trait
An enduring, stable aspect of personality
Cultural capital
Benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills, for example using one's background or other intangible assets such as a college degree
Problem-solving dream theory
Dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping
Cognitive process dream theory
Dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
Jung - dichotomies of personality
Extraversion vs. introversion Sensing vs. intuiting Thinking vs. feeling
Algorithmns
Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem. This can be mathematical or a set of instructions, designed to automatically produce a desired solution
Attraction
Fostered by the proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity.
Correlation does not imply
Causation
Sleep deprivation
Causes REM rebound, which is earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal
Mitral/tufted cell
Cell that synapses with olfactory receptor in glomerulus, GPCR g protein will activate ion channel to let positive ions in
Sandra Bem's theory of masculinity and femininity
Certain traits linked M or F and reinforced by society culture norms. Gender stereotypes. F --> seek formal assistance.
According to Cognitive Dissonance, do people change their attitude to match their behavior, or vice versa?
Change attitude to match their behavior
Traditional economies
Consider social customs and economic decisions. Most common in Borough areas and involves bartering or trading.
Base rate fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
Strain theory
anomic conditions (excessive individualism, social inequality, isolation) can lead to deviance. by Robert Agnew. stressors or strains (e.g., social pressure) can trigger negative emotions, which then increase the likelihood of certain negative or deviant behaviors such as crime.
Foot in the door technique
ask for something small --> something bigger
System for multiple level observation of groups
based on the belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive
Schizophrenia: prodromal phase
before diagnosis, patient goes through evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences
Functional autonomy
behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior
family systems theory
behavior must be understood within the family system (function, role, boundary, communication)
Personality disorder
behavior that is inflexibile and maladaptive causing distress or impaired functioning ego-syntonic: individual perceives her behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with her goals Ego-dystonic: individual sees illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome
Fad
behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community
James-Lange Theory
behavioral and physiological aspects of emotion (like increased heart rate and shouting) lead to cognitive aspects of emotion (like understanding a situation is scary and feeling afraid).
Ganglion cells
bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells which group together to form the optic nerve
visual agnosia
can see but not recognize visual information
astereognosis
can't identify something soley on touch
Cultural relativism
Judging another culture based on its own standards
Xenocentrism
Judging another culture superior to own
Parallel play
children play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior
Countertransference
clinical phenomenon whereby the therapist or counselor consciously and unconsciously reacts to the client's experience. Sometimes this reaction involves an identification with the client's experiences. Victims of abuse often feel silenced because they do not feel they have any power or feel that the perpetrator will retaliate if the victim discloses the abuse.
Mnemonics
common way to memorize information particularly lists like acronyms and rhyming phrases
Bioluminescence
communicate using light (fireflies)
Stage 2
K-complexes/sleep spindles, moderate amplitude, 12-14Hz bursts.
Conflict theory
Karl Marx - Powerful will exploit weak. power differences in groups and contribute to maintain social order. Can lead to dominance. Upper class Owners and lower class workers have tension but can compromise make middle class. Thesis happy, antithesis not happy. Two opposing sides. About change.
Linguistic determinism
Language determines how we think
Denomination
Large, non-state sponsored religious organization
Dream types Latent vs Manifest
Latent - hidden content refers to the unconscious, underlying, symbolic meaning of the dream Manifest - the remembered plot
Hunger is controlled by the hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamus: promotes hunger Ventromedial hypothalamus: cues that we are full and promote satiety
Formal Norms
Laws
Covariation model
Likelihood to attribute to internal/external - consistency, distinctiveness, consensus
Whorfian hypothesis
Linguistic relativity hypothesis that suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language.
A researcher suggests that the benefits of bilingualism are related to the idea that the structure of language affects the perceptions of its speakers. This researcher is referring to which concept?
Linguistics relativity
Folkways
Norms that are less important (not strictly enforced) but shape everyday behavior ; when broken, do not
Folkways
Norms that are less important but cheap every day behavior. For example, style of dress or ways of breeding.
Sanctions
Positive, negative, formal, informal
Self-selection bias
Occurs when an individual inserts themselves into a group, causing a bias in the sample.
Case-control study
One type of retrospective study used to identify factors that may contribute to a specific medical condition by comparing a group of patients who already have that condition with a group of patients who do not.
Dependency ratio
People aged under 14 and over 65: 15-64
Peter Principle
People climb hierarchy until they reach a level of incompetence where they cannot advance
Rational choice theory of social movements
People compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and choose the one that fits them best
Dependency theory
Periphery countries will export resources to wealthy core Integrated into world-system as an undeveloped country
Where are rods located on retina?
Periphery of retina
Biological Perspective
Personality is due to innate biological makeup
Bureaucratization
Process by which organizations becomes increasingly governed by law and policy
An employee is concerned with making a good impression at a new job. Struggling with feelings of being overly challenged by having to learn new office software, he repeatedly calls his computer "dumb" and "stupid." According to psychoanalytic theory, this behavior results from:
Projection
Immature Defense mechanisms
Projection and Passive agression
Marxist Theory
Proletariat: "have-nots" Bourgeoisie: "haves"
Activation-synthesis hypothesis
Random activation of the brainstem that causes dreams
REM
Rapid Eye Movement, describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases
Conservative strategy to Signal detection
Reject unless you are certain the signal is correct (lots of misses)
Habituation
Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response
Iron Law of Oligarchy
Revolutionary organizations inevitably becomes less revolutionary as their organizational structures develop & become entrenched
Social exchange theory
Rewards and costs drive relationship decisions; individuals in society perform cost-benefit analysis to maximize their rewards in their relationships.
Transduction
conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in the nervous system
Basal ganglia
coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and spinal cord
Hypothalamus
coordinates many hormones, some of which are involved in mood regulation
Escape learning
Role of behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists like a headache
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
theta waves
Seen in stage 2 NREM sleep and for part of stage 3.
Political isolation
Segregated communities are politically isolated and have weaker influence on politics
Concentration
Segregation and clustering of different groups
Centralization
Segregation and clustering within the central area
Seismic sense
Seismic signals are produced by creating vibrational waves using a body part and an external substrate, such as water or soil. These waves are then captured by other organisms via many different structures
Cocktail party phenomenon
Selective attention is probably more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background (ex. talking to a friend at a loud party and hear your name being called)
Semiotics of culture
Semiotics of culture is the study of culture by examining the meanings of symbols, signs, and language
Convergence
Simultaneous inward movement of both eyes toward each other, usually in an effort to maintain single binocular vision when viewing an object.
Accommodation
The adjustment of a schema to take into account new experiences.
Ecological validity
The extent to which a study is realistic or representative of real life.
Reliability
The extent to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.
Stigma
The extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society.
Social perception
The initial information we process about other people in order to understand their mindsets & intentions
Sensory memory
The initial recording of sensory information in the memory system that very quickly decays.
Group polarization
The intensification of preexisting views of a group, resulting in the average view of a member of a group being accentuated.
Reciprocal determinism
The interaction between a person's behavior, personal factors, and environment - behavior influences and is influenced by these factors.
Spacing effect
The longer the amount of time between sessions of re-learning, the greater the retention of the information later on
Cultural capital
The non-financial social aspects that promote social mobility (e.g. education, intellect, appearance).
Photopic vision
Vision at high light levels
Pleasure principle
Want things immediately
Belief bias
The tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than the use of sound logic.
Attitude influences Behaviour (theories)
Theory of planned behaviour, attitude to behavour process model , prototype willingness model, elaboration likelihood model (cognitive)
Embedded Field Study
This study would occur if the researchers posed as patients, for example.
Surface traits
Traits evident from a person's behavior.
Processing
Transformation of multiple neural signals into perception
Latent content
What is the hidden meaning in our dreams
Strain theory
When people are blocked from achieving a socially acceptable goal they will become deviant as a way to achieve it
Habituation
You become used to a repeated stimulus
Distress
a negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body. It happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you some way
Georg Simmel
influence religious studies
Bony labyrinth
inner ear bone
Abraham Maslow
maintained that the need to belong comes only after basic needs like food, water, and shelter in his self-actualization theory.
Context effects
memory is aided by being in the physical located where encoding took place
Anterograde amnesia
memory loss characterized by not being able to establish new long-term memories whereas memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact
Retrograde amnesia
memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury
Alzheimer's Disease
memory loss proceed in retrograde fashion with loss of recent memories before distant memories Associated with neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques Sundowning: increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening
collectivism
cultural value that emphasizes orientation toward the collective unit such as the family or the community
Broca's aphasia
damage to broca's area, speech comprehension is intact but patient has reduced/absent ability to produce spoken language
Depressants
depresses/slows down neural activity E.g. alcohol, opiates, heroin, tranquilizers
Seasonal Affective Disorder
depressive symptoms are present only in the winter months related to abnormal melatonin metabolism and treated with bright light therapy
Prevalence
describe how common a disease is
Schizoid personality type
detatched emotionally and doesn't like social gatherings
Participants told stories of indian folklore
elements of these stories seemed strange, participants recollection the parts that made no sense to them were left out or were reinterpreted on more familiar line. Result - they started weaving together what they did not understand to what they do understand in the real world. Weaving = problems b/c participants could nto keep track of what was actually in the stories and which came from their attempt to understand
Polyandry
female having exclusive relationships with multiple partners
Strain Theory
focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance; anomic conditions include excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation
Malthusian theory
focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder
Spatial inequality
how geography influences social processes, unequal amounts of qualities or resources and services depending on the area or location, such as medical or welfare
Syntax
how words are put together to form sentences
Implicit Bias
the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner.
Pineal gland
secrets melatonin and receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight
Michelangelo phenomenon
self is made up of intrapersonal self and ideas of your own abilities traits beliefs. ideal self can be sculpted with help from others.
Role
set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status
according to Ferdinand Tönnies and Emile Durkheim, modernity is essentially shaped by
the decline of small communities that offered a sense of purpose and belonging to their members and more impersonalized interactions.
proximal stimuli
the distal stimuli that reaches your senses
Internal Validity
the extend conclusions about cause and effect can be made
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
the hunger center because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids
Biologically speaking, pregnancy starts when
the zygote is formed
Max Weber
theories of symbolic interactionism emphasize how individuals relate to society, and one of his ideas was the concept of the iron cage. He believed that the experience of the "iron cage" led to disenchantment with society
Mental set
to switch one's perspective of a given problem. It is usually the fruit of past training or knowledge about how to solve a given problem. mental rigidity. (ex. cant find bottle opener would be mental set but not functional fixedness)
operationalize
to take a fuzzy, intangible concept and define it in more tangible, quantifiable terms e.g. measuring anger by facial expression, physiological symptoms, etc.
Haptic sense
touch
Fornix
used to help the hippocampus communicate with other portions of the limbic system
Mores
widely observed social norms
Positive symptom
only in people with mental disorders (thoughts, behaviors, emotions, sensory perception) (hallucinations, disorganized speech - not fluent, catatonic behavior - change muscle tone and behavior from not moving to aggression towards self and others
People also try just being more careful in their recollection
only relying on memories we're sure of. But confidence in memories we trust isn't
Stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychological development match phase with crisis
oral sensory phase = trust vs mistrust anal motor phase = autonomy vs shame and doubt latency phase = industry vs inferiority middle adult =
Stereotypes
oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics (gender, race, religion)
General personality disorder: Cluster A - Schizotypal
pattern of odd or eccentric thinking; have ideas of reference (delusions of reference) and magical thinking (superstitious or clairvoyance)
narcissistic personality disorders
patterns of arrogance, a lack of empathy, a focus on self, and a belief they are unique, and although they appear to be very self-confident and self-assured, when their self-esteem is threatened they become defensive. They also exhibit impulsiveness and tend to seek risks.
looking-glass self
people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how OTHERS view them
Law of pragnanz
perceptual organization will always be regular, simple, and symmetric
Ageism
prejudice or discrimination of the basis of a person's age
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
provides signals to stop eating
Attitude: affective
refers to the way a person feelings toward something and emotional component of attitude (ex. snakes scare me)
Criterion Validity
refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome
Prospective chart review
reviewing new, incoming data
Indicator trait
signify overall good health and wellbeing of an organism which increases its attractiveness to mates
Cognitive dissonance
simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions
Schachter
singer theory of emotion - cognitive arousal theory - two factor theory - arousal + label arousal --> emotion (singer artist need to label their art first)
Morphology
structure of words
Learning (Behaviorist) Theory
(B.F. Skinner) language acquisition by operant conditioning and reinforcement
Affect
A person's visible emotion at a specific moment.
Innate temperament
Hardwired behaviour that persists throughout life
Modeling
Imitation of an observed behavior.
Class consciousness
Lower class develops solidarity with people in own class
Universals
Patterns or traits that are common to all people.
Back stage
Social interaction where we "let down our guard" and be ourselves.
Trait theory is very similar to what?
Social-cognitive theory
Fecundity
The potential reproductive capacity of a female
Stage 2 of Sleep
Theta waves, K-complexes, sleep spindles
deprivation
loss of an attachment
Brainstem (3 components)
midbrain, pons, medulla
sick status
not a real term
Lowball
offer at really low price and after say yes, increase the price
Sclera
white of the eye
Age stratification theory
Age of generation should affect what they do
Inattentional blindness
Don't focus on something even when its in our directional field
Assortative mating
Individuals with similar genotypes/phenotypes will tend to mate with one another
Short-term Memory
Limited in duration/capacity; recall capacity ~7 itmes
Non-associative learning
No reinforcement required Habituation and sensitization
Generations
Silent, GI, baby boomers
Amalgamation
When different groups combine to form a new group
Anterior hypothalamus
controls sexual behavior
Network support
gives a person a sense of belonging
Serotonin
neurotransmitter for mood, sleep, appetite,
simple random sampling
number generator to select subjects
Mass hysteria
refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society
Libido
Natural energy source that fuels the sources of the mind
Herd Behavior
Non permanent loss of rational thought in a crowd
Dopamine-4- receptor
Thrill-seeker
Automatic processing
familiar or routine actions can be performed
Ach
neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle
Pons
regulates autonomic fxn's, coordinates mvmt and balance
Down Syndrome
trisomy 21 Alzheimer's disease
Type I error
Incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis ("false positive")
Upward/Downward Mobility
Positive or negative change in a person's class
According to Mead, the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self is the:
"I" NOT id, NOT ego, NOT me (self formed by interaction with others and environment)
Operant Conditioning
(B.F. Skinner) Negative reinforcement: increase frequency of behavior by removing unpleasant something Positive punishment; add unpleasant consequence
Basic model of emotional expression
(Charles Darwin) emotional expression involves a number of components like facial expressions, behavior, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes
DRM Paradigm
(Deese, Roediger, McDermott) hear list of words that are associated with one another, after hearing the list asked to recall. The root word of the list (like "sleep") is not listed, but participant says that he remembers that word because that's what it was associated with.
Dramaturgical approach
(Erving Goffman) Front stage: conforms to image he wants others to see Back stage: free to act like his true self
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft
(Ferdinand Tonnies) Gemeinschaft: refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography Gesellschaft: refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal
Second sickness
(Howard Witzkin) exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice
Conflict Theory
(Macro) Society is a competition of limited resources. There will be inequalities in resources. Championed by Karl Marx, Max Weber, Ludwig Gumplowicz. A major criticism of Conflict Theory is that it focuses too much on conflict and not on the role of stability of society; it ignores the non-forceful ways people reach agreements.
Functionalism
(Macro) Society is a living organism w/ many parts--each with a distinct purpose. Dynamic equilibrium is reached when the many parts work together to maintain stability. Structure provides manifest fxn's and latent fxn's. Championed by Emile Durkheim. This is the oldest sociological framework.
Symbolic Interactionism
(Micro) Examines relationship and interaction b/w individuals and society by focusing on communication--the exchange of information via language and symbols. It views the individual as active in shaping his/her society. Championed by George Herbert Mead.
Social Constructionism
(Micro) People actively shape their reality through assigning meaning to everything; therefore, it is constructed, not inherent. Everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect of society a certain way (e.g. money means financial value!)
Indirect transculture diffusion
(exchange western rings in china) Direct is usually neighboring countries Indirect can be spread media and internet
Nativist (Biological) theory
(Noam Chomsky) existence of some innate capacity for language Transformational grammar: changes in words that retain the same meaning (Ex. I took the MCAT vs. the MCAT was taken by me) Language acquisition device (LAD): theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules Critical period: language acquisition between two years and puberty Sensitive period: time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
Linguistic relativism
(Strong) Cognition and perception are determined by the language one speaks. (Weak) Linguistic structure *influences* cognition and perception.
Hypomania
(bipolar related disorder) patient does not have significantly impaired functioning or are there psychotic features but individual may be more energetic and optimistic
Catecholamine theory of depression/monoamine
(bipolar related disorder) too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania and too little leads to depression
the role of socialization in social reproduction
-Kohn, "Social Class and Parental Values" -Kohn's research suggests that working-class parents and middle-class parents try to instill similar values in their children -there is one major difference*
The strength of weak ties
-weak ties can actually be more beneficial than strong ones -strong ties are likely to inhabit your social world, have information you ahve, and know people you know -weak ties provide an "in" to new social worlds and access to new resources
social capital
-WHO you know -resource that can be used to obtain scarce resources -it generally involves access to information -"it's not what you know, it's who you know" -the middle class parents in this article possess a greater amount of social capital and they use it to facilitate their children's success in school
Pierre Bourdieu: Cultural Capital
-argues that social reproduction happens via cultural reproduction -people who embody working-class culture are less capable of successfully negotiating institutions such as education -parents' disadvantage is passed on to their children through their culture -argues that schools utilize particular linguistic structures, authority patterns, and types of curricula; children from higher social locations enter schools already familiar with these social arrangements. Bourdieu maintains that the cultural experiences in the home facilitate children's adjustment to school and academic achievement, thereby transforming cultural resources into cultural capital
"Social Class Differences in Family School Relations"
-author: Lareau -suggests that cultural capital matters for children's success in school because it affects parents' interactions with schools -more cultural capital in higher-class school ****see table 2 in reading
social networks provide access to important resources
-emotional support (shoulder to cry on) -companionship (someone to hang out with) -instrumental support (a ride home) -information(which bars have the best drink specials) -ideas and advice (what to do about relationship problems) -access to new ties (meet a friend of a friend taht knows about a job opening)
how are working-class networks different from middle and upper-class networks?
-middle and upper have more spatial reach -working class has more network density
cultural capital
-one of the ways that groups pass their position onto their children is through the acquisition and maintenance of cultural capital -cultural capital is a resource (much like financial capital or social capital) that allows people advantages in navigating dominant institutions and achieving upward mobility -familiarity with culture, how comfortable you are with the culture-- lower classes value upper-class culture
Karen Horney
-personality is result of interpersonal relationships -primary concept is basic anxiety -Neurotic needs: each needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable -Basic anxiety vs. basic hostility: vulnerability and helplessness vs. neglect and rejection
Social Networks
-social networks= the social ties that link people together -social networks link individuas to the larger society. because of this, they are a good way to think about social structure
Agape
1 of the 6 forms of love that is unconditional
Factors that affect attribution
1) Consistency: How often does the person act like this? 2)Distinctiveness: Is the person acting like that to everyone or just you? 3) Consensus: Are they the only person acting like this or is everyone?
Cross's Nigrescence Model of Cultural Awareness
1. Pre-encounter: African-Americans tend to view the majority Caucasian culture as being more desirable and would view a doctor of this race as being more skilled 2. Immersion-Emmersion: Someone in this stage would view the majority Caucasian culture with resentment and distrust and prefer to be treated by someone of his or her own race. 3. Internalization Stage: integrated aspects of his own culture with that of the majority culture and is working to rectify past racial injustices.
Impression management strategies
1. Self-disclosure: give info about oneself to establish an identity 2. Managing appearances: use props, appearance, emotional expression, etc with others to create a positive image 3. Ingratiation: use flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over 4. Aligning actions: make questionable behavior acceptable through excuses 5. Alter-casting: imposing an identity onto another person
Information processing model
1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision-making 3. Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (called situational modification) 4. Problem-solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem
Depression (biological causes)
1. abnormally high glucose metabolism in in amygdala 2. hippocampal atrophy after long duration of illness 3. abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) 4. decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine
Alzheimer's disease (biological markers)
1. diffuse atrophy of brain on CT/MRI 2. Flattened sulci in cerebral cortex 3. enlarged cerebral ventricles 4. deficient blood flow in parietal lobes -> cognitive decline 5. reduction in levels of acetylcholine 6. reduction in choline acetyltransferase (produces acetylcholine) 7. reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes 8. senile plaques of B-amyloid 9. neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein
McDonaldization
1. efficiency 2. calculability 3. uniformity 4. technological control
Bipolar disorders (biological causes)
1. increased norepinephrine and serotonin 2. higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder 3. higher risk for persons with MS
Alzheimer's disease (genetic component)
1. mutations in presenilin genes on chromosomes 1 and 14 2. mutations in apolipoprotein E on c'some 19 3. Beta amyloid precursor protein gene on c'some 21
Index of dissimilarity
100 = perfect distribution 0 = total segregation
Hippocrates medical theory of personality
4 basic temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic
Allport personality theory
4500 traits, cardinal, primary, and secondary
How many items can working memory store?
5 - 9 items (7 +/- 2 items)
Visual Cliff experiment R.D. Walk and E.J. Gibson
6 1/2 - 12 months won't crawl across glass table
Erik Erikson's ego integrity versus despair
65 and older typically reflect back on their life, examining what they have done and achieved. Those who master this stage well will feel satisfied that they have journeyed through their life with integrity. Those who do not master this stage will feel that they have wasted their life and may feel bitter
Capacity of working memory is
7 +/- 2 (5-9)
Flashbulb memory
A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.
Phonological loop
A component of working memory that allows us to repeat semantic verbal or written information to help us remember it.
Visuospatial sketchpad
A component of working memory that allows us to use mental imagery to help us remember semantic visual information.
Episodic buffer
A component of working memory that interacts with information in long term memory.
Social construct
A concept or practice that it's construct of a group, essentially, everyone in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, for example, money.
Incongruity
A conflict between the ideal self and the real self.
Aristarchic governments
A government controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power; the public is not involved in most political decisions.
Public
A group of individuals discussing a single issue.
Aggregate
A group of people who exist in the same space but don't interact or share a common sense of identity
Society
A group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area.
Out-group
A group that an individual does not belong to.
In-group
A group that an individual identifies that they belong to and believes to be an integral part of who they are.
Profession
A highly esteemed white-collar occupation that requires a great deal of education.
Law of Common Fate
A law of grouping that states that elements moving in the same direction at the same rate are grouped together.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
A law that states that the correlation between performance and emotional arousal is U-shaped.
Deindividuation
A loss of individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality.
Inter-rater reliability
A measure of the degree to which two different researchers or raters agree in their assessment
Symbolic interactionism
A micro level analysis that sees society as the build up of every day typical interactions.
Elaboration likelihood model
A model of persuasion that explains when people will be influenced by speech content versus other superficial characteristics.
Stimulus motive
A motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.
Self-determination theory
A need-based motivational theory that emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness
Rumination
A negative coping mechanism; dwelling persistently on negative thoughts that, in turn, intensify negative feelings
Informal norm
A norm that is generally understood but is less precise and often carries no specific punishments.
Formal norm
A norm that is generally written down (such as a law).
Learned helplessness
A perceived absence of control after exposure to repeatedly aversive stimuli that one is not able to escape or avoid.
Bystander effect
A person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.
Associative learning
A process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another.
Dishabituation
A process that occurs when a previously habituated stimulus is removed: response recovery occurs.
Correlational study
A research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other.
Taboo
A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom.
Subcultures
A segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society
Panic
A situation in which fear escalates to the point that it dominates thinking and affects entire groups
Slow wave sleep
A sleep state which notes the emergence of delta waves - usually in Stages 3 & 4 NREM sleep
Economics
A social science concerned with resources and their production, distribution, and consumption by both individuals and groups.
Anomie
A social state in which norms are weak; conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation
Racial formation
A sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created, inhibited, transformed, and destroyed.
Moral Panic
A specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to social order
Communism
A specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the absence of currencies, classes, and states, based on shared economic, political, and social ideologies.
Reference group
A standard measure group to which people compare themselves.
Ascribed status
A status assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts.
Achieved status
A status that is considered to be due largely to the individual's efforts.
Language
A symbolic system that is codified for communication
Independent samples t-test
A technique used to test the hypothesis that the mean scores in some interval- or ratio-scaled variables are significantly different for two independent samples or groups.
Just world phenomenon
A tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.
Belief perseverance
A tendency to cling to beliefs despite the presence of contrary evidence.
Mental set
A tendency to fixate on solutions that have worked in the past but may not apply to the current situation.
Ethnocentrism
A tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture.
Representativeness heuristic
A tendency to judge the likelihoods of an event occurring as based on our typical mental representations of those events.
Availability heuristic
A tendency to make judgments based on how readily available information is in our memories.
Functional fixedness
A tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging.
Covariation model
A theory of attribution asserting that people rely on consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness of information when assigning causes for events.
Social cognitive theory
A theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their social environment as a basis for behavior.
Pluralism
A theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group.
Cognitive process theory
A theory that dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness
Cognitive dissonance theory
A theory that explains that we feel tensions when we hold two cognitions that are incompatible, and that *we modify our attitudes to match how we feel or decisions that we have made.*
Stress-diathesis theory
A theory that suggests how biological predipositions (such as genes or other biological traits) interact with environmental factors to result in disease.
Drive reduction theory
A theory that suggests physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce that need by engaging in a behavior.
Activation synthesis theory
A theory that suggests that dreams are byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep.
Social influence theory
A theory that suggests that people do and report what is expected of them.
Randomized controlled trial
A trial in which there is a treatment/control group for which individuals are selected randomly in order to measure the effects of the treatment.
Systematic desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
Nonassociative learning
A type of learning in which an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus.
Cohort study
A type of longitudinal study where a group of exposed individuals and a group of non-exposed individuals are followed over time to determine the incidence of disease or effectiveness of treatment.
Cross-sectional study
A type of observational study that involves the analysis of data collected from a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time
Hawthorne effect
A type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.
Church
A type of religious organization that is well integrated into the larger society.
Moderating variable
A variable that affects the size or direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Confounding variable
A variable that obscures the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Mediating variable (intervening variable)
A variable that operates in a causal sequence between independent and dependent variables.
Parvo pathway
A visual pathway responsible for perception of color and spatial resolution, but slow.
Magno pathway
A visual pathway responsible for perception of movement with low contrast.
Microsociology
Analysis of social life that focuses on social interaction; typically used by symbolic interactionists.
Aberle's categories are: alternative social movements reformative social movements redemptive social movements revolutionary social movements
Aberle's categories are: alternative social movements (which want limited change for specific individuals), reformative social movements (limited change for groups or whole society), redemptive social movements (radical change for specific individuals), revolutionary social movements (radical change for groups or whole society)
Intuition
Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence; people may have beliefs that are not necessarily supported by evidence, but that person "feels" to be correct
Agents of social control
Ability to attach stigmas to social behaviors (politicians, doctors)
Parasomnias
Abnormal behaviors that occur during sleep, usually occurring during Stage 3.
Depression causes (biological)
Abnormal decrease activity in frontal lobe, increased activity in limbic system, raphe nuclei of reticular formation releasing too little serotonin, Locus coeruleus (in pons) supplies too much norepinephrine, low ventral tegmental
Parasomnias
Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep including night terrors and sleep walking
Dyssomnias
Abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep.
Discrimination (sociology)
Acting a certain way towards a particular societal group.
Tragedy of the commons
Acting in ones own self interest contrary to group
Bloomers three tenents of symoblic interactionism
Action, different, change Act based on meaning we have, symbols are different for diff people, we can change our symbols
Social action
Actions and behaviors an individual performs because others are around.
Activist vs reactionary movement
Active - try to change aspect of society Reactionary - actively trying to resist change
Marijuana
Active chemical known as THC; exerts effects on cannabinoid, glycine, and opioid receptors, increases GABA and dopamine activity
Max attends a party and does not make eye contact with, or approach, his acquaintance, Sam. According to the actor-observer bias, which graph best represents how Max and Sam view this behavior?
Actors attribute their own behaviors to situational factors (not feeling well) whereas observers attribute actor's behavior to dispositional factors (social awkwardness)
Phonology
Actual sound of language; composed of building blocks called morphemes
Inferiority complex
Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences that drives one's personality to achieve superiority.
Erikson's theory of psychological development, which group are challenged with generativity vs stagnation?
Adults (mid-adults)
Ethnicity
Affiliation or identity within a group of people bound by common ancestry and culture.
Life course theory
Aging is a social, psychological and biological process that begins from time of birth to death What you do in your life can affect what you do later
Max Weber
Agreed with Marx that inequalities in a capitalist system would lead to conflict but did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable. Argued that there could be more than one source of conflict. Conflict theory.
Structuralist perspective
Aiming to provide equal education and training opportunities for all
Bandura's Requirement for observational learning
Am I Motivated? Attention, memory, imitation, motivation
Hereitability
Amount of variance that can be attributed due to genes in specific subgroups
Bureacracy
An administrative body and the processes by which this body accomplishes work tasks. Hierarchy of workers w/ specialized tasks and set procedures.
Intersectionality
An analytic framework for assessing how factors such as race, gender, and class interact to shape individual life chances and societal patterns of stratification.
Confounding factor
An extraneous variable in a statistical model that correlates (positively or negatively) with both the dependent variable and the independent variable.
Dynamic equilibrium
An idea of functionalism that involves many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability.
Retrograde amnesia
An inability to recall information that was previously encoded.
Sensitization
An increase in responsiveness to a stimulus due to either repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive stimulus.
Serial position effect
An individual is more likely to recall the first and last items on a list (primacy and recency effect)
Escape
An individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior.
Generalized other
An individual's internalized impression of societal norms. Related to the "me" (social self - influenced by the GO) and the "I" (individual's response to the "me" )
Glass ceiling
An invisible barrier that limits opportunities for the promotion of women in professional contexts.
Han's Eysenck's personality theory
Analysis of self reported questionnaires based off of introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability
Macrosociology
Analysis of social life that focuses on broad features of society, such as social class and the relationships of groups to one another; usually used by functionalists and conflict theorists
Jung - Anima vs. animus
Anima: feminine Animus: masculine Shadow: responsible for appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness sex-inappropriate qualities (ex. feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females)
Crude death rate
Annual number of deaths per 1000 people
General fertility rate
Annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age
Crude birth rate
Annual number of live births per thousand people
Class B personality type
Antisocial, Borderline, Narcissistic, Histrionic
Basic anxiety
Anxiety created when a child is born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults
Barbiturates
Anxiety-reducing and sleep medications; increase GABA activity which causes relaxation
Central sleep apnea
Apnea- but without blocking the airway (5+ apneas per hour)
Helping behaviour
Appears at age 2 where children offer things to other companions
Peg-word
Associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
Theory of differential association
Association with deviant people will increase likelihood of deviance
Family studies
Assumes that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals
Harry Harlow experiment
Attachment/comfort Baby monkeys were taken away from original parents and were given to two types of robot surrogate mothers. One was a wire-metal robot that provided milk nourishment, and the other was a cloth-covered robot that didn't provide nourishment. Monkeys preferred the cloth surrogate mother for comfort.
Expressive Movements
Attempt to foster individual change (for example, support groups)
Active Movements
Attempt to foster social change (for example, revolutions)
Pseudospeciation
Attempts to dehumanize other groups
Functional attitude theory
Attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense.
Situational Attribution
Attributing behavior to external causes
Situational attribution
Attributing behavior to external causes.
Dispositional Attribution
Attributing behavior to internal causes
Dispositional attribution
Attributing behavior to internal causes
Projection
Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person.
Impression management
Authentic self Ideal self: who we would like to be under optimal circumstances Tactical self: who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us
Rational-legal authority
Authority in which legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document.
Episodic memory
Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance.
Heuristics
Availability heuristic: used when we try to decide how likely something is (ex. students who do not truly problem-solve on MCAT questions will be tempted by familiar-sounding answers merely because they can recall the statement being mentioned in the passage)
Class C personality type
Avoidant, Dependent, and Obsessive compulsive
Self-consciousness
Awareness of one's self
According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders V (DSM-V), which is NOT autistic symptom? A. Verbal communication difficulties B. Loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities C. Limited and repetitive patterns of behavior D. Nonverbal social interaction
B. Loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities presupposes that the individual had interest in those activities at some point in his/her life Autistic people, on the other hand, are usually interested in a small set of subjects or activities, which stays constant throughout their lives
Learning (behaviorist) theory
B.F. Skinner - learn language trough operant conditioning via reinforcement. the pioneer of behaviorism. He believed that personality and human behaviors are reductionistic and deterministic. Also classical conditioning or a conditioned fear PTSD (BF, Behave, operant conditioning)
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Base: most primitive, essential, and important needs First four levels: physiological needs, safety, security, love and belonging, and self esteem Highest level: self-actualization
Behaviorist perspective
Based heavily on concepts of operant conditioning; Token economies used as rewards for positive behavior (ex. privileges, treats, other reinforcers)
Ethnicity
Based on culture, beliefs, religion
Race
Based on physical characteristics (social construct)
Basilar tuning
Basilar membrane is organized in a certain way that we can hear frequencies from 20-20000 hz
alpha waves
Become slightly higher in amplitude that beta waves and less frequent. Seen in stage 1 NREM sleep
Trained incapacity
Become so specialized that you are losing touch with overall goal
Incentive Theory
Behavior is shaped by incentives
John Bowlby's attachment theory
Behaviors from emotional attachment between infant and parent (baby name their bowl Bowlby and get attached to things)
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Behaviors that affirm original stereotypes.
Taboo
Behaviors that result in disgust towards the violator. There is often a moral or religious component to the taboo, for example, Muslims eating pork.
Labeling theory
Behaviour is deviant if people are judged and labeled that way, primary and secondary deviance
Group behaviour
Behaviour of a large number of individuals that act together - Strongly connected, long term, strong norms
Collective behaviour
Behaviour of a large number of people rapidly and randomly behave in one way (e.g. fads, mass hysteria, mobs) - Loosely connected, short term, weak and murky norms
Explicit/Declarative Memory
Being able to "declare" or recite what is known (e.g. facts, memories) Two types: episodic and semantic
Self-efficacy
Belief in one's own competence and effectiveness or ability to "get things done".
optimism bias
Belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us
Optimism bias
Belief that bad things happen to other people, not us
Just world phenomenon
Belief that people get what they deserve and that the world is fair
Theory of Planned Behavior
Belief, attitude, subjective norms --> intentions --> behavior
Posterior chamber
Between the iris and the lens
Specific real area bias
Bias that occurs when people are selected in a physical space.
Self-selection bias
Bias that occurs when people being studied have some control over whether or not to participate.
Production based families
Bigger families because they can produce more
Depth (Monocular and binocular cues)
Binocular - Retinal disparity and Convergence Monocular - Relative size, Interposition, Relative height
Fundamental Attribution Error
Blame negative act on situation and not self.
Mixed economies
Blend elements of command and market economies with both public and private ownership. United States.
Proprioception
Bodies recognition of where you are in space
Heroin
Body metabolizes heroin to morphine
Sect
Breaks away from denomination to a more pure fundamental
Iconic Memory
Brief photographic memory for visual info, which decays in less than a second
Iconic memory
Brief photographic memory for visual information, lasting fractions of a second.
Pierre Bourdieu suggests that middle-class children have "cultural capital," which refers to a set of symbolic assets that can convey privilege in society, such as tastes, knowledge, and skills. With this comes a "set of ingrained dispositions that dictate cultural behavior." Which of the concepts below is the name that Bourdieu gives to this? A. Anomie B. Praxis C. Habitus D. Ascribed status
C Bourdieu identified that middle-class individuals possess a higher level of cultural capital, and he used the concept of habitus to describe the set of dispositions that lead behavior and taste. On the other hand, anomie is a sense of "normlessness," or lack of understanding of the prevailing norms and values. "Praxis" is a Marxist term meaning practical action based upon theory. "Ascribed status" is a term employed by Ralph Linton to describe a status or social position that is fixed at birth and not achieved or chosen. None of these terms was used by Bourdieu to describe a "set of ingrained dispositions that dictate cultural behavior."
Parkinson's Disease
CNS disorder cause tremors (Parallel parking test nervous and start shaking like tremors)
Stimulant drugs (examples)
Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, meth
Gordon Allport
Cardinal traits: traits around which a person organizes his or her life Central traits: major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, like honesty and charisma Secondary traits: other personality characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one's personality that only appear in closer groups or specific social situations
Which term refers to closed status positions that hinder social mobility
Caste systems
Race
Categorizations of people based on perceived physical characteristics.
Myers briggs personality test
Categorizes you into four of sixteen personality types
Representativeness heuristic
Categorizing items on a basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category (ex. a standard coin that is flipped ten times in a row and lands on heads every time. What is the probability of the coin landing on heads the next time? Probability is still 50% but people will overestimate or underestimate the prediction)
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
Caused by a deficiency of thamine and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills
Behaviorist Theory/Perspective
Championed by B.F. Skinner. Personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on one's environment. All behavior is learned from the env't via punishment and reinforcement. Therapy = use classical and operant conditioning to correct personality
Humanistic Theory/Perspective
Championed by Carl Rogers. Humans are inherently good and have free will. Goal is for humans to realize their potential. People choose behaviors consistent with their self-concept, and when they encounter experiences inconsistent w/ self-concept, they feel incongruence. Therapy = make people feel good about themselves
Psychoanalytic Theory
Championed by Sigmund Freud. personality is shaped by person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. LARGELY shaped by early caregivers (e.g. childhood). Therapy = help patients become more aware of unconscious motives and strengthen Ego
Transduction
Change of energy from one form to another
Accommodation
Changes the shape of the lens
Internalization
Changing one's behavior to fit into group while privately agreeing with ideas of the group.
Sublimation
Channeling aggressive behavior or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities.
Stage 1 NREM sleep
Characterised by small, irregular waves (a mixture of theta and alpha waves) this is a brief, transitional stage lasting between 5 to 10 minutes. marked by a decline in breathing and pulse rates, body temperature and muscle tension. This stage is often skipped after the first full sleep cycle. mix of alpha and theta waves.
Secondary deviance
Characterized by a severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label that can result in further deviant behavior.
Insecure attachment
Children who will exhibit significant distress upon caregiver departure OR demonstrate indifference to departure and return.
Secure attachment
Children who will exhibit some distress when caregiver leaves, but upon return is easily consoled.
Freud - Defense mechanisms
Clash of id and superego Main defense mechanisms: 1. repression - ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to unconscious 2. suppression - deliberate, conscious form of forgetting 3. regression - faced with stress, older children return to earlier behaviors like thumb-sucking, throwing temper tantrums, clinging to their mothers 4. reaction formation - individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites 5. projection - attribute their undesired feelings to others 6. rationalization - justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society 7. displacement - describes transference of undesired urge from one person or object to another 8. sublimation - transformation of unacceptable urges into socially accepted behavior
Personality Disorders
Class A - Weird Class B - Wild Class C - Worried
Ivan Pavlov experiment
Classical conditioning with dogs and salivation. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = food unconditioned response (UCR) = salivation conditioned stimulus (CS) = bell conditioned response (CR) = salivation in response to the bell
Social isolation
Community may separate from mainstream and isolate themselves
Paired samples t-test
Compare the means for a given variable for two separate observations of the same group.
Global stratification
Comparing the wealth, economic stability, and the power of various countries.
Assumptions of rational choice theory
Completeness, transitivity, independent of irrelevant alternatives
Basal nuclei
Composed of gray matter. Coordinates and processes voluntary body movement, implicit/procedural memory, eye mvmt.
Functionalism
Conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs, each of which has a distinct purpose.
Implicit memory (procedural)
Conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something.
Secondary reinforcer
Conditioned reinforcer
Social disorganization theory
Conditions of neighbourhood shapes the likelihood that person will become involved in street crimes (e.g. broken windows theory)
Timothy Leary "reality tunnel" individual's perception filter similar to which? A) Parson's gloss B) Bloom's taxonomy C) Confirmation bias D) Metacognition
Confirmation Bias (how people interpret) Gloss (social system --> consensus in perception --> written and unwritten rules like the bro code) Bloom (educational objective cognitive, affective, or psychomotor) Metacognition (human observe own mind)
Cultural congruence
Cultural congruence refers to a cultural match between the provider and client levels in order to provide services that meet the cultural needs of the clients.
Implicit (nondeclarative) memory
Consists of our skills and conditioned responses
Cochlear implant
Contains a speech processor and a stimulator which will process sound and directly stimulate auditory nerve
Placebo comparator
Control arm of experiment
Experiment with forgetting
Control group learns items on list A, tested after specific interval. Experimental group learns A but also learns items on list B during same retention interval. Result marked an inferiority in performance of experimental group . List be interferes with recall of list A. No interference is observed between dissimilar sorts of material - learning to skate doesn't unto learning of words. If new learning is consistent with old, no disruption. It actually helps memory
Statistical adjustment
Controlling for confounding variables that could affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Beliefs
Convictions or principles that people hold
Hawk Dove Game
Cooperation: both the donor and recipient benefit from cooperating Spite: both donor and recipient are negatively impacted Selfishness: donor benefits while recipient is negatively impacted
World Systems Theory
Core nation - more econ + government developed Periphery Nation - less econ + government developed
Harlequin ichthyosis, a rare genetic disorder, causes the skin to become thick and scaly. Flaking skin behind the eyelids of individuals with this condition is most likely to damage which structure of the eye?
Cornea in direct contact
Correlation numbers on a table
Correlations vary from −1 to 1. The greatest positive correlations translate to stronger associations r = _____.
Compassion fatigue
Counselors get strained with exhaustion from hearing stories of violence
Skeptical perspective
Critical of globalization & considers today's international processes as becoming regionalized rather than globalized.
Normative culture
Culture that follows the major culture
Active comparator
Current widely used therapy
Differential Association
Deviance is caused by hanging out with deviants. Criticism: People are reduced to their environments
Labeling Theory
Deviance is the result of society's labels. Uses deviance as a social construct. Criticism: Deviance is assumed to be automatic; ability to resist social expectation is ignored
Ideal observer to signal detection
Difference between signal and noise = d' d'/2 = ideal observer (maximize hits minimize misses)
Diffusion of innovation theory
Different rates that new ideas are adopted (innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards)
Instinctive drift
Difficulty overcoming instinctual behaviors
Nuclear family
Direct blood relations
Side-effect discrimination
Discrimination by one institutiuon inadvertently causes discrimination by another
Past-in-present discrimination
Discrimination in the past comes forward to present and causes someone to be discriminated (e.g. slaves were freed, but they still poor)
Discrimination
Discrimination is a behavior while prejudice is an attitude
Recognition-primed decision model
Doctor's brain is actually sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern. Over time, the doctor has gained an extensive level of experience that he or she is able to access without awareness
Change blindness
Don't recognize a difference between previous and current state
Cooperation
Donor and recipient gain benefit at the same time.
Selfishness
Donor gains benefit at the expense of recipient.
Spite
Donor incurs a cost in order to prevent recipient's benefit.
Altruism
Donor incurs cost in order to provide benefit to recipient.
3 "happy" neurotransmitters
Dopamine, Norepinephrine, & Serotonin
Activation-synthesis theory
Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry; activation can mimic incoming sensory information, but consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences
Drive Reduction Theory
Drive: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals ex. person feels very hungry and stomach is uncomfortable so he goes and buys food to reduce hunger
Hallucinogens
Drugs include LSD interact with various neurotransmitters especially serotonin
Functional fixedness
Duncker's candle problem: you walk into a room and see a box of matches, some tacks, and a candle. Your task is to mount the candle on the wall so that it can be used without the wax dropping on the floor. Definition: inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
Sensory adaptation
Ear (dampening of sound by inner ear muscles) Touch (sensory receptors become saturated) Smell (sensory receptors become desensitized) Sight (pupil dilation and constriction)
Command economies/planned economies
Economic decisions are based on a plan of production in the means of production are often public. Includes socialism and communism.
Racial formation theory
Economic, social, political factors result in socially constructed races
Hallucinogens (examples)
Ecstasy, LSD, Marijuana
Cannon-Bard Theory
Emotion is not dependent upon physiological response. A certain physio response is not specific to a certain type of emotion (e.g. heart racing could mean fear or excitement). The two are two separate experiences that happen at the same time.
Four types of social support
Emotional, esteem, informational, tangible
Pluralism
Encourages racial and ethnic variation within a society
Labelled lines model
Every taste cell has their own line towards a specialized part of the cortex
Charles cooley
Everyone a person interacts with can shape our self-identity
Drive-Reduction Theory
Everything is motivated by a desire to reduce the drive that calls for a need (e.g. lack of food --> hunger --> eating)
Rational Choice theory
Everything people do is fundamentally rational (cost-benefit analysis of actions) 3 assumptions: completeness, transitivity, independent of irrelevant alternatives
Theories on Motivation
Evolutionary (instinct), Optimum arousal, cognitive (intrisinc and extrinsic), maslows heirarchy, Drive reduction theory, incentive theory,
Reaction formation
Expressing the opposite of what one really feels when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling.
Exchange theory
Extension of rational choice theory; focuses on interactions in groups where an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and avoiding certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments
Extrinsic Motivation
External forces, coming from outside oneself; rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved
Behavioural compliance
Externally following behaviour to get a reward (but not internalizing)
Anxiety disorders (types)
Generalized anxiety disorders, phobia, panic disorder, OCD, PTSD
Sensitive period (critical period)
Genetically determined age range during which a certain aspect of a child's development is especially susceptible to environmental conditions.
Carl Rogers - Requirements for Humanistic
Growth promoting climate - Genuine and unconditional positive regard Self-actualization is a constant growing process
Biological causes of depression
HPA, monoamine hypothesis, increased norepinephrine, decreased serotonin, decreased activity in prefrontal cortex
Lemon juice on tongue --> salivation. Continue process --> salivation decreases over time. Research studying what?
Habituation and dishabituation
Hypnagogic/hypnompic hallucinations
Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
Ecstasy
Hallucinogen and amphetamine; causes increased heart rate, blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia
Cerebellum
Hand-eye coordination, complex mvmt's, smooth execution of muscle mvmt Located in back of the brain
Primary groups
Have a sense of belonging and shared identity, group members are close to you and care about you
Somatosensation
Have four modalities: pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature
Privilege
Having social advantages that someone else lacks.
Ipsilaterally
Hemispheres communicate on the same side of the body
Social potency trait
Highly correlated in twins, determines how well someone takes charge and leads
Traditionalism
Highly correlated in twins, determines how well they follow authority
Confounding factors
Hidden variables not directly tested for that correlate in someway with the independent or dependent variable and have an impact on the results
delta waves
High amplitude, low frequency waves. Seen in stages 3 & 4 NREM sleep - mainly stage 4.
Garcia's Taste aversion experiment
High radiation, low radiation, no radiation after sweet water - highest was aversive to sweet water afterwards
Signal detection theory (4 outcomes)
Hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection
Robbers Cave experiment (Muzafer Sherif)
Hostility toward out-group; favor toward in-group White, middle-class boys' camp divided into two groups: The Eagles and The Rattlers. Through a series of competition, each in-group established different out-group prejudices and in-group favoritism.
Milton Gordon's assimilation theory
How immigrants adopt culture norms
Self concept
How individuals perceive or evaluate themselves (categorical self + exsistential self)
Power
How much influence one exerts in society to achieve their desired goals.
Reliability
How stable consistent and replicable an experiments results are.
Pre-screening/advertising bias
How volunteers are screened or where advertising is placed might skew the sample
Categorical self
How we understand ourselves as an object with properties
Medicalization
Human conditions get defined and treated as medical conditions
Social exchange theory
Human relationships are formed by cost-benefit analsis and comparison of alternatives
Social interactionism
Human social processes play a major role in language acquisition in conjunction with operant conditioning - Vygotsky
Problem-solving
Humans and chimpanzees alike will often avoid trial and error learning and instead take a step back, observe the situation, and take decisive action to solve the challenges they face
Nativism (universalism)
Humans have a language acquisition device (LAD) that allows the mind to gain mastery of language in early childhood - humans have an innate ability to learn language; thought determines language.
Lateral Hypothalamus
Hunger
Mead's theory of Identity (I, Me)
I = spontaneous, autonomous part Me = part formed in interactions with others and general social env't
Big Five Personality Model
ID distinct personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotion stable)).
Id, ego, superego
Id - survive + reproduce, immediate gratification ego - mediate between id and super ego and conscious mind superego - perfectionist, idealist, judgeing pride and guild.
Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Perspective
Id: primal, inborn urges to survie and reproduce -Pleasure principle: aim to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension -Primary process: id's response to frustration -Wish fulfillment: mental imagery like daydreaming to fulfill need for satisfaction Ego: operations to reality principle (taking into account objective reality) -Secondary process: guides or inhibits activity of id and id's pleasure principle -Superego: personality's perfectionist, judging actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures Conscience: collection of improper actions for which a child is punished Ego-ideal: proper actions for which a child is rewarded
Karl Marx
Identified with conflict theory. Argued that internal tensions would leave to the self-destruction of capitalist society.
Spontaneous recovery
If an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited
Cost signaling
If someone acts altruistically with us we believe they have more resources and have the ability to gain more resources
Minimal justification principle
If someone does something that does not align with their attitudes with little justification, there is greater cognitive dissonance than if they have a rationale.
8 Factors for group think
Illusion of invulnerability, Collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping, pressure for conformity, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, mindguards
Which statement explains why looking at a dimly lit object with peripheral vision at night results in the clearest image of the object? When one looks to the side of an object
Image falls in the periphery of the retina, which is denser in rods NOT the fovea --> clearer, has 2 images --> clearer, has 1 image --> clearer
Method of loci
Imagining moving through a familiar place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered.
Echopraxia
Imitation of the movements and gestures of another.
Worlds-system theory
Importance of world as a unit Core countries, periphery, semiperiphery
Shadowing
In a dichotic listening experiment, _________ refers to the procedure that is used to force participants to pay attention to a specific message among competing messages.
Social desirability bias
In research study, people will try present themselves in a more favorable light. Sensitive topics can lead to under reporting.
Ethnographic study
In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation in social settings.
In-group and Out-group
In-group: social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging or identifies as a member Out-group: social group with which an individual does not identify Negative feelings towards an out-group are not based on a sense of dislike, but favoritism for the in-group and absence of favoritism for the out-group
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to encode new memories.
Belief perseverance
Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to contrary
Fixation
Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.
Federalist government
Include a governing representative had the shares powers with constituent groups.
Parliamentary government
Include both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected; members of the executive branch are accountable to members of the legislature.
Presidential government
Include organizing branches, as well as a head of state.
Socialism
Includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs. Private property is limited and government intervenes to share property amongst all. Everyone is given a job and everyone is provided with what they need to survive. The economy is usually centrally controlled and run by the government.
Depressants
Increases GABA receptor activity causing inhibition and increases dopamine levels
Identity
Individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong
Attribution Theory
Individuals attribute behavior to internal or external causes
Cost-benefit analysis
Individuals make rational economic decisions to minimize costs and maximize benefits.
Rational choice theory
Individuals rank and choose options in their society in order to maximize personal gain.
Dissassortative mating
Individuals with dissimilar genotypes/phenotypes will tend to mate with one anothter
Selective exposure
Individuals' tendency to favor information that reinforces preexisting views while avoiding contradictory information. Mechanism for decreasing cognitive dissonance.
Temperament
Innate disposition and is consistent through life
Progressive view of institutions
Institutions were artificially produced and need to be redesigned if they are to be helpful
Conservative view of institutions
Institutions were formed out of human nature and are naturally positive
Manifest function
Intended and obvious consequences of a social structure.
Social Cognitive Theory/Perspective
Interactions between people and environment/interactions influence behavior. Observational learning forms personality. Focuses on how people respond to events, and how past experiences shaped that. Bandura experiment w/ children beating up dolls! Therapy = Substitute rational/accurate thoughts in place of irrational ones
Skeptical perspective of globalization
Internatinonal processes are regionalized not globalized Countries borders are not becoming less important, third world countries are not integrated
Characteristics of Innate behaviours
Intrinsic (special to humans) Stereotypic (same every time) Inflexible Consummate (fully developed first time seen)
Characteristics of Learned behaviours
Intrinsic, Permutable, adaptable, progressive
Intrusions from schematic knowledge
Intrusion error can occur from blurring together an episode in our life with broader knowledge of the world. Studied by Frederic Bartlett
Intrusions from Semantic Associations
Intrusion errors can be made even if the participant is warned that they're likely to make the error
The Misinformation Effect
Intrusion errs involve information about an event that you learned after the event was over Ex: you witness a crime and see thief flee in blue car. Next day read an account of the crim and learn that another rwitness reported that the thief had a green car. The misinformation often incorporated into the participants memory and they misremember the original event. basically, people remember things that didn't actually happen
PTSD
Intrusion symptoms: recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress Avoidance symptoms: deliberate attempts to avoid memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with trauma Negative cognitive symptoms: inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others Arousal symptoms: increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior
Learning performance theory
Involves learning something without actually performing the behavior.
Construct validity
Is used to determine whether a tool is measuring what it is intended to measure (ex. does a survey ask questions clearly?)
accomodation
Jean Piaget; new information causes you to revise your existing schema
Cerebrum
LARGEST part of brain and contains the four lobes
Oligarchic governments
Leaders can be elected or an elected, the public may have the power to elect a presentation, but people have little influence. Controlled by a small group of people with shared interests.
Which side of the brain contains language comprehension/production?
Left
Law of Continuity
Lines are seen as following the smoothest path.
Linguistic matching
Linguistic matching refers to matching the provider and the patient based on language
Neologisms
Made-up words that typically have only meaning to the individual who uses them.
Magical contagion
Magical contagion is a heuristic that leads people to avoid contact with an object or individual who is perceived to be "contaminated." In other words, if an object is viewed as bad or immoral, people will avoid it. If people consider that money has been obtained in an immoral manner, they will more likely feel guilty spending it. Or if food drops to the ground, they might feel that it has been contaminated.
hypothesis reason for sleep
Memory consolidation hypothesis argues that REM serves to consolidate, at a synaptic level, the memories created during that day's awake period, thereby supporting learning processes. Non-REM stage 2 serves to consolidate memories at a system level. The two-process model suggests that there are two processes to promote wakefulness (process C) and sleep (process S). Whereas wakefulness is regulated by circadian rhythms, process S is a homeostatic drive. When C is progressively activated, S is progressively shut down in an approximately 24-hour cycle, thereby affecting the body's concentration of hormones and neurotransmitters during the course of the day. The neuroregenerative metabolic theory offers that energy resources are limited in certain animals, for example those that hibernate under harsh environments as well as individuals with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. This suggests that metabolic stress triggers degenerative processes and sleep counteracts such effects, making it key in regenerative and energy conservation processes. NOT Sleep physiology and architecture state that a sleep cycle is composed of REM and non-REM periods. A non-REM period includes stages 1, 2, 3, and 4, each representing a continuum of increased depth. It lasts an average of 70 to 120 minutes. The first cycles are shorter, and the specific duration of each stage varies during the course of sleep, throughout lifespan, and across genders. BECAUSE it states process but not propose a reason for it
Semantic memory
Memory for factual information.
Echoic memory
Memory for sound, lasting about 3-4 seconds.
Echoic Memory
Memory for sound, which lasts 3-4 seconds
Semantic network
Memory is a network of interconnected ideas and organizes ideas in which concepts are linked together based on similar meaning
Chunking
Memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning (ex. ENALPKCURTRACKSUB into BUS CAR TRUCK PLANE)
Thomas Szasz
Mental illness is a myth
Eustachian tube
Middle ear is connected to the nasal cavity, which equalizes pressure between the middle ear and environment
Social anomie
Mismatch between personal or group standards and wider social standards (lack of social ethic and absence of legitimate aspirations)
Vygotsky sociocultural development
More knowledgable other, babies have elementary functions, language is main means by which aduilts transmit info to children, private speech
Language
Most highly developed symbolic system
Target Characteristics
Most important in elaboration likelihood model - characteristics of person receiving message
Controlled (effortful) processing
Most new or complex tasks require undivided attention
Extrinsic Motivation Theory
Motivation comes from external rewards like money, fame, prizes.
Opponent Process Theory
Motivation comes from the contrasts in opposing stimuli (e.g. pain and pleasure) E.g. Opiate addict says that opiates aren't enjoyable for him anymore, but the withdrawal symptoms are too much, so he will keep using them anyway.
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation that comes from within oneself; driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment
Opponent process theory
Motivation that stems from the contrasts in opposite stimuli, like pain and pleasure: when one is experienced, the other is suppressed.
Acetylcholine
NT found in both central and peripheral nervous systems and used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles Used mostly by the parasympathetic nervous system
Transformationalist perspective
National governments are changing but it is difficult to describe change so simply
Transformationalist perspective
National governments are changing, world orders are changing, but unclear as to how. New world order design is developing, outcome of globalization is unknown.
Endorphins
Natural painkillers that are peptide NT
Group selection
Natural selecting for groups
Kin selection
Natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors by enhancing reproductive success of relatives.
Social Control Theory
Need social network and control to reg. it's members by supporting pro-social behaviors. Domestic Violence is triggered from the lack of regulations and cohesive networks in society.
Obsessive compulsive personality type
Need to be in control, perfect, ordered, focus on control
What economic model was installed in the developing world in the 1990s as a consequence of the implementation of the Washington Consensus?
Neoliberalism social and economical policies that increase inequality
Neuroplasticity
Neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli
Conversion disorder (hysteria)
Neurological symptoms that seem to have been caused by worry and anxiety (psychological stress or trauma)
Hans Eysneck personality theory
Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Psychoticism
Classical conditioning
Neutral stimuli: stimuli do not produce a reflexive response
Conflict theory
New society as a competition for limited sources.
Retroactive interference
Newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously.
Mores
Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and are often strictly enforced. For example, animal abuse and treason.
Rural rebounds
Tendency for people to mvoe out of city and back out to rural area
Stanley Milgram experiment
Obedience to authority vs. personal conscience Subjects were assigned to be 'teacher' and confederates were assigned to be 'learner'. Authorities would advise teachers to give electric shocks to learner if they got a question wrong on a verbal test (shocks get successively more severe). Most subjects were willing to obey authorities even if it meant delivering a lethal shock.
Relative height
Objects are perceived to be taller when they are farther away (monocular cue)
Law of Similarity
Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together.
Pygmalion effect
Occurs when leaders articulate high expectations for followers; in many cases these expectations alone will lead to higher performing followers and teams.
Amalgamation
Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group distinct of the initial groups. A + B + C -> D
Self-reporting bias
Occurs when subjects skew their responses, often to impress or appease researchers.
Functionalism
Of you that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs each of which has a distinct purpose.
Fluid intelligence
One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.
Crystallized intelligence
One's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.
George herbert mead
Only certain people can influence our perception of self during certain periods of our lives (e.g. infants are really egocentric and don't care about others)
Endogamy
Only people within own group are viable marriage partners
Identification
Outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally adopting these ideas.
Stereotypes
Oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics.
Pull factors
Positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant
Decision paralysis
Paralyzed by too many decisions
Paternalism
Paternalism in medicine refers to the belief or behaviors that convey that decision making about the patient's health is best left in the hands of health care providers
Factitious disorder
Patient wants to be in the sick role (falsification of signs and symptoms, not on purpose)
Charles cooley looking glass self
Persons self grows out of societies interpersonal interactions and perceptions of others 3 Components How we must appear Imagine and react to what we feel their judgment is Develop our self through judgment
Neighborhood-level socioeconomic inequalities are most likely to affect physician-patient interactions through which phenomenon?
Physical boundaries create social boundaries and close networks which develop their own cultures NOT Socioeconomic inequalities
Material culture
Physical objects that are particular to the culture. For example, clothing hairstyles food and home design.
Somatic symptom disorder
Physical symptoms that seem to have no medical or mental disorder related to it Excessive worrying about health
James-Lange Theory
Physiological response leads to emotion. Only once the physiological response is felt, the emotion is experienced because a certain physiological response is paired with an emotion (e.g. heart racing --> experience fear).
Nucleus accumbens
Pleasure center of brain where dopamine is released
Traditional authority
Power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice.
Traditional authority
Power due to customs, traditions, or accepted practice.
Charismatic authority
Power due to persuasion.
Charismatic authority
Power due to the power of persuasion
Socioeconomic status
Power, property, and prestige
Resource mobilization theory
Practical constraints of social movements, need to acquire resources, mobilize people
Formal norms
Precisely defined and written down norms. Often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them.
Kohlberg
Preconventional morality -Obedience: avoiding punishment -Self-interest: gaining rewards (instrumental relativist stage) Conventional morality -Conformity: emphasis on "good boy, nice girl" seeking approval of others -Law and order: maintain social order in highest regard Postconventional morality -Social contract: views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure greater good with focus on individual rights -Universal human ethics: decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles
Preparedness
Predisposition to learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts (ex. bird pecks when searching for food)
George herbert meads stages of self and development
Prepatory stage: children act through imitation Play stage: become aware of importance of social relationships and understand attitude, beliefs, behaviours Game stage: generalized other (everyone else), I and Me
Whole report
Presented 3x3 array of letters and participant is asked to list all the letters she say, she was able to identify 3 or 4
Partial report
Presented 3x3 array of letters and participant is asked to list the letters of a particular role, she can do so with 100% accuracy
Groupthink
Pressure not to "rock the boat" in a group by providing a dissenting opinion, resulting in a paradoxical state of harmony.
Avoidance learning
Prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
Insight learning
Previous skills to find insight to solve a new problem
Primary and secondary deviance
Primary - behaviour that isn't that bad not much backlash Secondary - behaviour that is strongly stigmatized
Tonotypical mapping
Primary auditory cortex has parts specialized for varying frequencies
Procedural justice
Procedural justice, as the term implies, refers to the belief that fairness lies in following the dispute process
After initially learning to ride a bike, riding a bike becomes easy for an individual. Each time the individual rides a bike thereafter, what type of memory is being used?
Procedural memory because it is performance of a particular type of action
Assimilation
Process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his own culture to adopt those of a different culture
socialization
Process of learning and becoming acclimated to the standards, expectations, and culture of society
Anticipatory socialization
Processes of socialization in which a person rehearses for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.
Meninges
Protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid
Racialization
Racial identities can be ascribed to you even if you do not ascribe to those characteristics
Mcdonaldization
Rationalization of fast food
Disorganized attachment
React by being frightened or frightening in moments of stress, unpredictable, confusing, erratic behaviour
Phasic receptors
Receptors that are quick to return to normal firing rate (important in sensing things such as texture or vibrations)
Tonic receptors
Receptors that are slowly-adapting and take longer to return to normal firing rate (important for temperature and proprioception)
Dishabituation
Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred
Displacement
Redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one.
An immigrant teen starts to reject the ethnic customs of his family and instead identifies himself as an American by dressing, speaking, and acting in ways that are associated with American culture. In this scenario, Americans become which type of group for the teenager?
Reference group NOT assimilated group
Procedural bias
Refers to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses.
Ethnic identity
Refers to one's ethnic group in which members typically share a common ancestry
Perception
Refers to the processing of this information that make sense of its significance
Social reproduction
Refers to the structures and activities in place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next.
External validity (generalizability)
Refers to whether the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and other people, controlled by: random sampling, situational control, and cause/effect relationships.
Internal validity
Refers to whether the results of the study properly demonstrate a causal relationship between the two variables tested.
Colour constancy
Regardless of lighting, our brain perceives colour to be the same for an object
Is reinforcement or punishment more effective at modifying behavior?
Reinforcement!
Shaping
Reinforcing of smaller intermediate behaviors necessary to achieve the final desired behavior.
Ventral tegmental area
Releases dopamine in the dopamine reward circuit (within midbrain)
Ecclesia
Religious group that includes most members of society and holds power
Prospective memory
Remembering to do things in the future.
Prospective memory
Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future; remains mostly intact when it is event-based (ex. remembering to buy milk while passing by grocery store)
Within-subjects experiment
Research design in which each subject experiences every condition of the experiment.
Between-subjects experiment
Research design in which each subject experiences only one of the conditions in the experiment
Sensitization
Response increases every time after stimulus
Medulla oblongata
Responsible for breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
Encoding specificity effect
Retrieval of information is improved when conditions of recovery are similar to the conditions when information was encoded (a type of context effect)
Fundamentalism
Return to strict religious teachings and beliefs
Sanctions
Rewards or punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms.
Ludwig Gumplowicz
Said that society is shaped by war and conquest. Conflict theory.
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Satiety (leptin)
REM sleep
Sawtooth waves, bursts of quick eye movements, low skeletal muscle movement = "paradoxical sleep"
Piaget's terms
Schema: organized patterns of behavior and thought; can include a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events Adaptation: as a child proceeds through the stages, new information has to be placed into the different schemata -Assimilation: process of classifying new information into existing schemata -Accommodation: process by which existing modified to encompass this new information
Foot-in-the-door technique
Small request is made and after gaining compliance, larger request is made
Explicit memory: semantic memory and episodic memory
Semantic: facts that we know (names of bicycle parts) Episodic: our experiences (time patient learned to ride a bike)
Exsistential self
Sense of being separate and distinct
TrpV1 Receptor
Sensitive to both heat and pain (either causes change in conformation which signals to brain)
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage: -Circular reactions (Primary and Secondary) -Primary: repetition of body movement that originally occurred by chance (ex. sucking thumb) -Secondary: manipulation is focused on something outside the body (ex. throwing toys from a high chair) -Object permanence: marks beginning of representational thought, child understands objects continue to exist outside of view Preoperational stage: -Symbolic thinking: ability to pretend, make-believe, have imagination -Egocentrism: inability to imagine what another person may think or feel -Centration: tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, inability to understand conservation Concrete operational stage: -Children understand conservation and perspectives of others; ability to engage in logical thought working with concrete objects or information Formal operational stage: ability to think about abstract ideas
Treisman's Attenuation theory
Sensory Register -> attenuator -> perceptual processes -> cognitive processes
Deutsch and Deutsch Late selection theory
Sensory Register -> perceptual processes -> selective filter -> cognitive processes
Broadbent's early selection theory
Sensory Register -> selective filter -> perceptual processes -> cognitive processes
Which type of memory would most likely be activated first during the computer task with lights, before working memory is activated?
Sensory memory NOT Short term memory
5 HTTLPR
Serotonin transporter that has been implicated with depression in stress situations but lower levels of depression w/o stress
Glycine
Serves as an inhibitory NT in the CNS by increasing chloride influx
General adaptation syndrome
Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion.
Sham compartor
Sham therapy created for experiment
Shape constancy
Shape of an object is same even if it is reoriented
Group
Share common characteristics such as values, interests, ethnicity, social background, family ties, and political representation; sociologists see social interaction was the most important characteristic
Self-disclosure
Sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with non-judgmental empathy
Collective Behavior
Short lived behavior that describes the actions of group
Secondary groups
Short term groups that are goal directed
Which psychologist devised a theory on defense mechanisms of the ego?
Sigmund Freud
In the passage, the term "latency" is used to situate the onset of some unhealthy behaviors and lifestyles of adolescents. Which author adopts this term to describe a stage of human development; what is his/her approach to human development; and how could that stage be succinctly described (author; approach; description, respectively)?
Sigmund Freud; psychoanalytic approach; interiorization of social norms 4th stage of sexual development, preceded by oral, anal, and phallic stages and followed by the genital stage from age 6-puberty. @ this stage the libido or psychic sexual energy develop self by learning social norms instead of sexuality which was dormant or latent
Proximity
Simply being physically close to someone
K complex
Single but large high-voltage spike of brain activity that characterizes stage 2 NREM sleep.
False consciousness
Situation in which people in the lower classes come to accept a belief system that harms them; the primary means by which powerful classes in society prevent protest and revolution.
Social network creates social inequality
Situational: socioeconomic advantage Positional: based on how connected one is within a network or one's centrality within network
Size constancy
Size of two objects are probably similar regardless of distance from eyes
Atonia
Skeletal muscle paralysis, associated with REM sleep
Microculture
Small groups or organizations that affect a person during a portion of their lifetime (can't support for entire life)
Gatekeeping
Small number of people and corporations control what material is being presented in media
Prestige
Social status based on the respect given by others.
Helping to instill norms and values related to violence and violent behavior, media exposure is an aspect of which process?
Socialization (norms + values) NOT assimilation (immigrants)
Interactionist perspective of deviance
Society is a product of everyday interactions and these interactions are what are the basis of deviance
Obstructive sleep apnea
Soft tissue around oesophagus contracts and blocks airway (15+ apneas per hour)
Latent learning
Something is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior until it is required.
Memory intrusions. Two ways?
Sometimes new information sits "side by side" with old = danger of mixing up memories. Sometimes new information replaces old information
Left hemisphere
Speech production and language are located in this dominant hemisphere
Norms
Spoken or unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of a society's members.
Describe the 4 stages of non-REM sleep aka synchronized sleep
Stage 1: Transition from wakefulness --> sleep. Eye movements are slowed and EEG shows low brain wave activity Stage 2: EEG activity increases. Record spikes called K complexes Stage 3: stop eye movement, wave frequency decrease and amplitude increase. Considered Deep sleep Stage 4: Record delta activity and considered deep sleep.
Which stage of sleep is the deepest sleep? Which stage of sleep do dreams occur in?
Stage 3/4. REM sleep.
Androgyny
State of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine
Weber's law
States that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for difference to be perceptible.
Generalization
Stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response
Absolute threshold
Stimulus someone can reliably detect 50% of the time (varies between person as well as situation- if person is adapted or expects it, threshold is lower)
Subliminal stimulus
Stimulus someone cannot reliably detect 50% of the time
Lazarus Theory
Stimulus → cognitive appraisal to label the emotion → physical response
Cannon-Bard Theory
Stimulus → emotion + physical condition (independent)
James-Lange theory
Stimulus → physical condition → emotion
Schacter-Singer Theory
Stimulus → physical response → cognitive appraisal to label the emotion
Evolutionary stable strategies
Strategies that will tend to persist within a population once they are prevalent
Evolutionary game theory
Strategy of each individual and depends on strategy by others (not conscious)
Adler's Theory
Strives for superiority Inferiority complex: sense of incompleteness, imperfection, inferiority Creative self: force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality Style of life: represents the manifestation of creative self and describes person's unique way of achieving superiority Fictional finalism: individual more motivated by expectations of future than past experiences
Tuskegee Syphilis Study
Study in African Americans withhold info that had syphilis and withhold treatment
Functionalism
Study of structure and function of each part of society; when all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state
Symbolic interactionism
Study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols
Teacher expectancy theory
Teachers from expectations of individual students, and once they form them, they tend to act towards the student with the expectations in mind.
Which statement about technology is most consistent with social constructionism?
Tech is embedded with the values of groups who created it (What is this hippy shit?) NOT tech is build from the collective effort of innovators (because it is not a social product)
Physiological zero
Temperature judged to this normal temperature of the skin
Social mobility
The ability to move up or down within the social stratification system
Optimism bias
The belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us.
Confidence interval
The chance that the mean falls between the given lower and upper bound.
Assimilation
The conformation of experiences into existing schemas.
Stage 4 NREM sleep
The deepest stage of sleep, delta waves are dominant (low frequency high amplitude). this stage is usually reached about an hour after sleep begins. This stage lasts about 30 minutes.muscles and organs are relaxed and we hardly move in this stage. present in the first 4 to 5 hours of sleep however in the last 2 or 3 hours we often dont decent into this stage or stage 3 of sleep.
Globalization
The exchange of ideas, information, and culture across international borders.
Identity formation (individuation)
The development of a distinct individual personality.
Intragenerational mobility
The differences in social class between different members of the same generation
Malthusianism
The idea that the geometric growth of population and the arithmetic growth of of resources would cause a horrific decay, forcing the population to decline.
Symbolic interactionism
The idea that the mind and self emerge through the micro social process of communication or use of symbols. Interaction between individuals and environment/society constructs a shared meaning.
Absolute poverty
The inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities for life within a society.
Relative poverty
The inability to meet the average standard of living within a society.
Anomia
The inability to name objects.
Personal construct
The individual is a scientist who devises and test predictions about the behavior of others. Based on this the individual can begin to anticipate others actions. Anxiety is caused by someone unable to predict his or her environment.
Primary deviance
The initial violation of a norm or law that does not affect a person's self esteem.
insula
The insula of the brain is implicated in conscious urges and emotions. Therefore smokers with brain damage involving the insula would be more likely to quit smoking more easily without relapse than smokers without brain damage to the insula.
Healthcare disparities
The population specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and the quality of healthcare across social groups.
Social capital
The potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility.
Endogamy
The practice of marrying within a particular group.
Sapir Whorf hypothesis
The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its respective speakers conceptualize their world. That is, it affects their world view or otherwise influences their cognitive processes
Statistical power
The probability that a test correctly rejects the null hypothesis; the ability to correctly determine a significant effect if the effect does truly exist. P = 1 - P(type II error)
Medicalization
The process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as medical conditions, and thus become the subject of medical study, diagnosis, prevention, or treatment.
Impression management
The process by which people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others.
Consolidation
The process by which short term memory is converted into long-term memory.
Generalization
The process by which stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response.
Socialization
The process of accepting and implementing norms and values in a community/society.
Role exit
The process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on another.
Acquisition
The process of learning the conditioned response.
Resocialization
The process of removing the behaviors and roles we have developed over time and replacing them with newly-learned behaviors and roles.
Socialization
The process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society
Secularization
The process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies.
Racialization
The processes of ascribing ethnic or racial identities to a relationship, social practice, or group that did not identify itself as such.
Stage 3 NREM sleep
The start of the deepest periods of sleep, and lasts for about 10 minutes. Characterised by the appearance of slower waves (longer wavelength) with much higher amplitude knows as delta waves (he stage is a mix of theta and delta waves). heart rate, body temperature and blood pressure continue to drop, individual becomes less responsive
Master status
The status by which a person is most identified.
Social reproduction
The structures and activities and a place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next. (Cultural & Social Capital)
Sociobiology
The study of how biology and evolution have affected human social behavior.
Sociology
The study of how individuals interact with, shape, and also secretly shaped by, the society in which they live.
Demography
The study of human population dynamics including the size, structure, the distribution of the population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration.
Psychophysics
The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them (e.g. JND)
Iron law of oligarchy
The tendency of a bureaucracy to become increasingly dominated by a small group of people.
self-serving bias
The tendency to attribute successes to ourselves but failures to the environment/situation
Affect heuristic
The tendency to consult one's emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively.
Confirmation bias
The tendency to search for information that confirms preconceived thinking.
Activity theory
Theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby.
Strain theory
Theory that deviance is a natural reaction to disconnect between social *goals* and social *structure.*
Differential association theory
Theory that deviance is learned through interactions with others.
Labeling theory
Theory that society creates deviance by identifying particular members as deviant regardless of their behavior.
Rogers' Unconditional Positive Regard
Therapist accepts client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote positive therapeutic environment
Cognitive behavioural therapy
Therapy that uses thought patterns and environment changes
Howard Gardner's Theory of Intelligence
There are multiple intelligences; renewed interest in social intelligence
Raymond Cattell's Theory of Intelligence
There are two types of intelligence: Fluid (Gf): ability to problem-solve on the spot Crystallized (Gc): ability to recall and apply learned info
Rational choice theory
There is a simple instrumental reason for all choices: it provides the greatest reward at the lowest cost. Concerned with decisions made between multiple courses of actions and measurable resources.
cultural variance model
This is a created and ambiguous phrase that could refer to a methodology of statistics or differences in cultures
Undifferentiated
Those who achieve low scores on both masculine and feminine
Prejudice
Thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience.
Which are more stable social ties? Dyads or triads?
Triads because in a dyad, only one person needs to break the single social tie
Bipolar Disorder types
Type 1: Mania + possibly depressive episodes Type 2: hypomania + depressive episodes
Type A vs Type B personalities
Type A: ambitious and outgoing Type B: relaxed and introverted
False consciousness
Unable to see oppression/expolitation
Fundamental Attribution Error
Underestimating the impact of the situation & overestimating the impact of a person's personality
Fundamental attribution error
Underestimation of the impact of a situation (situational) and overestimation of the impact of a person's personality (dispositional).
Feminist theory
Understanding both the social structures contributing to gender differences, and the effects of gender differences on individual interactions.
Latent function
Unintended or less recognizable consequences of a social structure.
Odds ratio
Used to compare the relative odds of the occurrence of the outcome of interest (e.g. disease or disorder), given exposure to the variable of interest (e.g. health characteristic, aspect of medical history). OR=1 Exposure does not affect odds of outcome OR>1 Exposure associated with higher odds of outcome OR<1 Exposure associated with lower odds of outcome
Ego
Uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id, ruled by the reality principle.
Base rate fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information.
Manifest content
What happens in our dreams
Healthy user bias
When a sample population is healthier than the general population
Bilateral descent
When kinship groups involve both the maternal and paternal relations.
Gender bias
When men and women receive different treatment for the same illness
Wage gap
When men and women report consistent differences and income.
Motion parallax
When moving fast, objects close to you appear to be moving quick whereas objects in the distance appear to be closer
Spreading activation
When one node of our semantic network is activated, like seeing the word "red," the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated
Internal Validity
When the results of the study properly demonstrate a casual relationship between the two variables tested
Intergenerational mobility
When there is an increase or decrease in social class between parents and children within the family
False consensus
When we assume everyone agrees with what we do
Projection bias
When we assume others have the same beliefs we do
Multiculturalism/pluralism
Where cultures coexist, no hierarchy
Rational - legal authority
Where legal rules and regulations a stipulated in document like the Constitution. Many corporations like healthcare organizations work like this.
Welfare capitalism
Where most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society.
Double-blind experiment
Where neither the participants nor the researchers know which participants belong to the control group or the test group
Short-term memory
Where new information sought to be remembered resides temporarily and is then encoded to long-term memory or forgotten.
Construct validity
Whether a tool is measuring what it is intended to measure; for example does a survey ask questions clearly?
External validity
Whether the results of the study can be generalized to other situations and people. Limited to the independent variable.
Glass Ceiling Effect
Women encounter barrier in career and cant get higher position
Raphe nuclei
Within reticular formation, supplies serotonin to the rest of the brain
Reading sentence with target word uses what type of memory?
Working memory engage phonological loop NOT procedural memory
Wax Weber in Economy and Society
World flying mysticism - religiousness associated with mysticism like Buddhism World rejecting asceticism - religion driven self discipline reject society and prefer supernatural Inner World asceticism - concentration of activities that lead to salvation
Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law that postulates performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level Lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks Higher levels are optimal for activities requiring physical endurance and stamina Simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks
Does a p value of 0.0102 have a confidence level of 99%?
Yes it is okay to round
Sensitization
You grow increasingly responsive to repeated stimulus
what strongest support that something heritable?
a pair of monozygous twins reared together, both presenting the symptoms
Semantic priming
a particular word prepares or primes a person to figure out another word that may not be recognizable
Bystander effect
a person is less likely to help others when other bystanders are present
embodied cultural capital
a person's character and way of thinking
Fisherian/runaway selection
a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time
Eustress
a positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating.
Habituation
a reduction in response following repeated stimulation
hypnogogic state
a state experienced just before falling asleep and is characterised by slow, rolling eye movements and deep relaxation
independent stressor
a stressor that happens regardless of your personal behavior, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, etc. e.g. get hit by drunk driver
dependent stressor
a strssor that happens to you that was caused or worsened by your own behavior, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, etc. e.g. you hang out with the wrong crowd
Selection Bias
a type of bias related to how people are chosen to participate. In this case, people who witnessed unethical behavior in medical school may have been more likely to respond to the survey.
Social Desirability
a type of bias related to how people respond to research questions.
Reconstructive Bias
a type of bias related to memory: we may not remember as accurately when under high amounts of stress
Conditioned Memory
a type of memory that is formed based on your associations between two things. For example, if your professor rings a bell at the end of the exam, you will remember the bell as the sign that the exam is over.
Power
ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles and their ability to control resources
ecological validity
ability to generalize to real world
Divided attention
ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
Theory of mind
ability to sense how another's mind works (ex. friend is interpreting story while you tell it)
Parallel processing
ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion
Perceptual organization
ability to use these two processes (Bottom-up, top down) to create a complete picture or idea
Innovation
accept cultural goals but reject the structural means to achieve them. Which leads to deviance and crime
Appraisal model
accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression
Which statement best explains meritocracy in terms of status? Meritocracy occurs when selections are made based on:
achieved status rather than ascribed status
James Marcia four ID statuses
achievement (commitment to self chosen goals and principles), foreclosure ( commitment to paternally chosen goals and principles), identity diffusion (absence of goals and principles), and moratorium (struggle with setting up goals and principles which leads to ID crisis)
Discrimination
acting a certain way toward a group
Arousal theory
action for optimal arousal levels
deviance
actions that defy dominant social norms; they are relative and contextual
Self discrepancy theory
actual self (how we see us), ideal self (want), ought self (think others think of us), closer these 3 things are will increase self esteem
Secondary drives
additional drives not directly related to biological processes (ex. getting into medical school, becoming a physician, desire for love, achievement)
Alfred Binet's Theory of Intelligence
administered IQ tests to schoolchildren (70, 100, 130)
Mindguards (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views
Association area
area that integrates input from diverse brain regions ex. multiple inputs may be necessary to solve a complex puzzle, to plan ahead for the future, or reach a difficult decision
Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
argues that delusions, halucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain
How would the James-Lange theory of emotion explain the aggressive emotions experienced by the participants in the experimental condition? Participants experience physiological arousal from watching violent programs and:
arousal --> aggressive emotion NOT simultaneous NOT interpret arousal --> aggressive emotion NOT fight/flight --> aggressive emotion
REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
arousal levels reach wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed Paradoxical sleep: one's heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but individual is still asleep
Temporal lobe
auditory/olfactory, short term memory, emotion, language comprehension, interpretation of visual stimuli
The Western biomedical model of disclosing explicit information about the prognosis of an illness is based on:
autonomy - respect decision need sufficient info to make decision. NOT patient-centered communication because it is behaviors that promote respect, mutuality
Middle-class parents
aware of curriculum, aware of their children's performance in school, and feel comfortable discussing education and learning with teachers and administrators
Role partner
behaviors and expectations change with the person with whom one is interacting
Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation
behind around others will increase performance of familiar things and decrease performance of unfamiliar things
Dodson law of social facilitation
being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at and hinders performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks)
Illusion of morality (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
belief that the group's decisions are morally correct
Self-reference effect
best recall info that can relate to their own exp
Serial position effect
better remember things at beginning or end of list
primacy effect
bias towards first option on list
Fundamental attribution error
biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions
Attachment with primary caregiver
biological bond between a child and the primary caregiver, can serve as a protective buffer against stress for the child. He argued that the experience of early attachment with the caregiver forms the child's mental representation of the world, self, and others. Trauma such as child abuse can disturb children's representation of the world. Blame own actions on abused as a child.
Avoidant Avoidant Conflict
both options are unappealing
Bottom-up processing
brain takes up individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is Without this, it would be like we're looking at objects for the first time everytime
Anomie
breakdown in stability in a society that causes alienation. This can then cause social problems including suicide.
ecological validity in shock if wrong answer experiment
can generalize to real life setting
Pre-operational stage
cannot interpret other people's perspectives and are egocentric (only understand their own perspective). Therefore, assume that a person knows just as much as they do even if they are not present and were not told the information.
Sever corpus callosum
cant verbalize street names on right or left side of road
Marxism
capitalism is criminogenic because inequality makes crime inevitable. Some capitalism even rewards crime.
Attachment type: Ambivalent attachment
caregiver has an inconsistent response to child's distress; child will be very distressed on separation from the caregiver but has a mixed response when the caregiver returns
Role performance
carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role; individuals can vary in how successful they are at performing a role
3 elements of social identity theory
categorization, identification, and comparison
Parasomnia
category of sleep disorders that involve abnormal and unnatural movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, or dreams that occur while falling asleep, sleeping, between sleep stages, or during arousal from sleep.
Contralaterally
cerebral hemisphere communicates cross-sided
Parkinson's disease
characterized by : bradykinesia (slowness in movement) resting tremor (appears when muscles are not being used) pill-rolling tremor (flexing/extending fingers while moving thumb back and forth, rolling something in fingers) masklike facies (static and expressionless facial features) cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement) shuffling gait (stooped posture) Depression and dementia common symptoms
General personality disorder: Cluster C - Dependent
characterized by a continuous need for reassurance and depend on specific person to take actions and make decisions
Illness Anxiety disorder
characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition
Bipolar disorder
characterized by both depression and mania; manic episodes are characterized by abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week with at least three of the following: 1. increasing distractibility 2. decreased need for sleep 3. inflated self-esteem or grandiosity 4. racing thoughts 5. increased goal-directed activity or agitation 6. pressured speech 7. high risk behavior
Conversion disorder
characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions; begin soon after individual experiences high levels of stress or traumatic event (ex. women goes blind after watching son die tragically)
Errors of growth
child applies a grammatical rule in a situation where it does not apply (ex. runned instead of ran, funner instead of more fun)
Role taking
child begins to understand the perspectives and roles of others
Attachment type: disorganized attachment
child show no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence, but can show a mix of different behaviors; disorganized attachment associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver and a red flag for abuse
Attachment type: Secure attachment
child will be upset when caregiver leaves and will be comforted by the return of the caregiver
Attachment type: Avoidant attachment
child will show little or no distress when the caregiver leaves and little or no relief when the caregiver returns
Parts of the brain while writing
cingulate cortex sits in the frontal lobe and plays a role in initiating the writing process. The visual cortex identifies the paper and also creates the internal image of the letters. The left angular gyrus is responsible for the conversion of letter sequences into words. The corpus callosum connects the separate processes that take place in the right and left hemispheres of the brain, and the parietal lobe transmits the signal to the motor cortex, which then coordinates the appropriate physical movement that enables people to write.
Ivan Pavlov's experiment
classical conditioning (dog bell saliva) (can be fear response to body sensation)
Ganglia
collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system
Iris
colored part of the eye composed of the dilator pupillae and constrictor pupillae
Cyclothymic disorder
combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive disorder
Case Control Design
compare information about individuals with a disease or condition against people without the disease or condition
Twin studies
comparing condordance rates for a trait between monozygotic and dizygotic twins, are better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics
Conflict Theory has to do with:
competition, unequal power/authority/advantages, limited resources, status
Retinal vessels
complex intermingling of blood vessels between sclera and the retina
Forebrain (prosencephalon)
complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
autonomic nervous system
comprises three subsystems: sympathetic (or efferent), parasympathetic (or afferent), and enteric has a independent reflex activity
Feminist Theory
concerned w/ social experiences of both men and women and the disparity between these two experiences
Double Approach Avoidance Conflicts
consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics
Fluid intelligence
consists of problem-solving skills, which peaks during early adulthood
Explicit (declarative) memory
consists of those memories that require conscious recall
General personality disorder: Cluster B - Histronic personality disorder
constant attention-seeking behavior; often wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted; seductive behavior to gain attention
Weber's law
constant ratio between change in stim magnitude needed to produce a just noticeable difference and magnitude of original stim (Like a spider web small inside and bigger outside has a constant ratio and is light enough to feel a difference)
Contact hypothesis
contact hypothesis argues that the best way to deal with prejudice is to bring people of different groups together so they can begin a dialogue to appreciate common experiences and backgrounds
Septal nuclei
contain one of the primary pleasaure centers of the brain
Elaboration likelihood model
continuum based on processing of persuasive information; based on central route processing and peripheral route processing
sucking reflex
contraction of the muscles that surround the mouth. It can happen when the area is stimulated or in the absence of stimulation, such as during sleep. maintained throughout infancy or beyond
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
controlling alertness and wakefulness In the sympathetic system, promote fight-or-flight response and mostly produced by the adrenal medulla
Hindbrain
controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes like sleeping and waking
Superior colliculus
controls some responses to visual stimuli and reflexive eye movements
culture of poverty
controversial theory first formulated by Oscar Lewis after his ethnographic work in a village in Mexico. He argued that poor people share a distinct culture of their own. It is not a macrosociological theory that aims to explain poverty patterns or differences between groups such as race/ethnicity
Matrifocal
couple gets married --> move in with wife's family
Vagus nerve
cranial parasympathetic nerve that exerts control of heart rate and GI activity
Associative learning
creation of a pairing or association either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response
Genetic compatibility
creation of mate pairs that have complementary genetics; attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for disease-carrying allele
Illusion of invulnerability (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking
Stanley Millgram
demonstrated that participants would follow orders of a superior if instructed to go against their conscience.
Symbolic ethnicity
describes specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life
Incidence
describes the number of new cases of a disease during a specific time interval
Stroop Effect
describes the phenomenon in which it is harder for an individual to reconcile different pieces of information relating to colors than information that is consonant.
group think
desire of harmony within group
flashbulb memory
detailed/vivid memory that is stored on one occasion and is retained for a lifetime; usually happens during traumatic or important events
Dorsal Pathway
detecting spatial location
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the body
means ends analysis
determine end goal and steps needed to achieve it
stratified sample
divided into subgroups then randomly selected to ensure groups are equally represented. I guess all stratified samples are randomized
Ginkgo biloba
does improve memory for certain groups of people
Hypnotized witness mentally returns to the scene and can recall. Hypnosis _______ improve memory.
does not
Extrinsic motivation
doing an activity as a means to an end and because it will lead to a specific outcome, such as parents' approval
Top-down processing
driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectations Allows us to quickly recognize components based on these expectations Would have difficulty discriminating similar objects without this processing
Drive reduction theory
drives help motivate people to survive. primary for bio processes and secondary for emotional. eliminate uncomfortable states.
Role exit
dropping of one identity for another
Humanistic theory
explores the influence of the parents' positive regard on the offspring's development client-centered therapy individual who comes in for therapy is not a patient but a client, who has the capacity to grow. However, the only way the client can grow and undergo a constructive personality change is through the therapist's unconditional positive regard for the client, which is based on respect and empathy. Can be applied to any other relationship like child-parent
Priming
expose stim. and prime info so easier to remember
Attitude
expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario
construct validity
extend of instrument measuring
Adaptive value
extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species thus leading to adaptation through natural selection
Julian Rotter's locus of control theory
extent to which people believe that circumstances are controlled by their own behavior (internal locus of control) or by outside forces (external locus of control).
Stigma
extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society (ex. HIV, obesity)
General personality disorder: Cluster C - Avoidant
extreme shyness and fear of rejection; sees herself as socially inept and socially isolated despite intense desire for social attention and acceptance
prosopagnosia
face blindness - unable to recognize familiar faces
Interpersonal attraction
factors that affect attraction including similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity
Short term memory
fades quickly around 30 seconds without rehearsal and limited to 7+/-2 rule
apperceptive agnosia
failure of perception so fail to recognize
explain "tip of the tongue" phenomenon
failure of the retrieval component of memory. shows the problem of partial recognition in free recall. Retrieval of the memory works only partially, providing only components of the memory.
Panic disorder
fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, sense of unreality
Agoraphobia
fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape
Separation anxiety
fear of being separated from the parental figure
EPI
fight flight stress
NE
fight flight stress
Material support
financial or material contribution to another person
Primacy effect
first impression most important Or used when shown something in series, one after the other compared to all at once
Direct benefits
fitness of species; provide material advantages, protection, emotional support
plantar grasp reflex
flexing of the toes whenever the sole of the foot is gently caressed. The toes curl inward. disappear 6 weeks
Force field theory (Kurt Lewin)
focus on current state of mind
Capitalist economies
focus on free market trade with little intervention from central governing bodies; a private owner or corporation maintains and profits from the success of the business which encourages division of labor, where specific components of a larger task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals, promoting specialization and efficiency
Humanistic perspective
focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization
Social Interactionist Theory
focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes where language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate in a social manner
macrosociology
global cross culture phenomena, social relevance, social groups, family structures are common in every culture
Just-world hypothesis
good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people
Just-World hypothesis
goods things happen to good people and bad to bad people
Display rules
govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree
General personality disorder: Cluster B - Narcissistic personality disorder
grandiose sense of self-importance, preoccupation with fantasies of success, need for constant admiration and attention, feelings of entitlement
Sherif's Robbers Cave experiment
group membership and conflict and competition over resources (in group vs out group) (Twenty-two boys randomly placed in either the "Eagles" or "Rattlers" groups. Time was given for the boys in both groups to bond with each other by having them do activities, with T-shirts given out with the name of their group. After this initial bonding time, it was announced that there would be a series of competitive games and a prize for the winning group. Each group began to show competitive and aggressive behavior, marking off its territory and flinging taunts at the other. Sherif's findings showed how in- and outgroups can be easily formed whereby those in the ingroup begin acting in a prejudicial manner toward those in the outgroup.)
Group polarization
groups tend to strengthen the preexisting views of their members
Reference groups
groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves
Ampulla
hair cells are located here in the semicircular canals
Cochlea is tonotopically organized
hair cells are vibrating gives the brain an indication of the pitch of sound
Neustress
happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly affect you. For example, news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world may be very stressful, but your body doesn't perceive that stress as good or bad for you so you aren't affected.
Universal emotions?
happy, sad, anger, fear, disgust, surprise
Somatic symptom disorder
have at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition
Magnocellular cells
have very high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution so it can provide a blurry but moving image of an object
Fovea
highest concentration of cones
Bipolar cells
highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones
Catecholamine
hormone
Cortisol
hormone
Mate bias
how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate
Family ecology theory
how families are affected by the environment around them and how the environment is influenced by the families. Family ecology theory is equally interested in natural physical-biological environments, human-built environments, and social-cultural environments. Neighborhoods are one vital component of the human environment
intersectionality
how identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification e.g. mistreatment at work can happen cuz you're black AND cuz you're a woman
Religiosity
how religious one considers him/her-self
Construct Validity
how the terms are defined.
Carl Rogers' person-centered theory
humanistic theory that focuses on a client's growth, which can be facilitated by the therapist's unconditional positive regard and empathy for the client.
Herbert Spencer superorganisms
humans evolved from organism structure into a society that can adapt to circumstances
frontal lobe is responsible for
hunger, thirst, sex drive
Bipolar II disorder
hypomania with at least one major depressive episode
amplitude
in terms of brainwaves refers to the size of the peaks and troughs
positive emotion happiness
joy and happiness --> pursue novel experiences
Sensory memory
iconic (visual) and (echoic) memory in which the memory lasts a very short time like under one second
Primacy effect
idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions
Albert Bandura's Reciprocal determinism
idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation
Constancy
idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment
spreading activation model
ideas or concepts are represented by nodes. Similar concepts are located close to one another. When asked to recall, name something not on list but similar.The stronger the relationship or association between (similar or dissimilar) concepts, the larger the representative link that connects them. When one node is activated, the activation spreads through the network, and more quickly where strong links exist. This is the reason for naming this model "spreading activation." It was developed to explain how semantic memory was organized, namely, like a network
collective identity
identity shared by multiple people and share same values and beliefs
Carl Jung's archetypes
images and symbols, are elements of the collective unconscious
Tectorial membrane
immobile membrane
Negative symptom
impairment that is present in people in general (function, thoughts, behaviors, emotions, sensory)
frequency
in terms of brainwaves refers to the number of waves per second
Michaelangelo phenomenon
interpersonal self: manner in which others influence creation of the ideal self
Cognitive process
interpretation of bodily sensation and act upon that interpretation
melting pot goal
interracial marriages are commonplace.
external/extrinsic motivators
introduced as an OUTCOME of a response; we then perform that behavior to get that outcome
Nondominant sphere (Right)
intuition, creativity, muscle cognition, and spatial processing
Social capital
investments people make in society in return for rewards like through social networking
Cued-recall test
involve presenting a list of items to participants. Participants are then asked to remember the items of the list with the help of memory cues. For example, to recall the word "apple," the drawing of an apple tree or the word "fruit" can be presented as cues during the recall task. Many types of cues or hints can be used, but they must be related to the target to be remembered
Fine motor skills
involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing specific and delicate movement
Frontal Lobe
involved in humans' ability to project future consequences of current actions
maintenance rehearsal.
involves shallow processing. Shallow processing involves the repetition or rehearsal of superficial aspects of the material, such as the font used
Halo effect
it is the tendency to allow a general impression about a person(I like judy) to influence other more specific evaluations about a person(judy is trustworthy, Judy can do no wrong)
Hedonic happiness
living in the moment that is short term and fleeting like food and money
Broca's area
located in front of inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex
Wernicke's area
located in superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe; responsible for language comprehension
Olfactory chemoreceptors
located in the olfactory epithelium in upper part of nasal cavity
vestibular sense
located in the vestibular labyrinth of the inner ear. Via mechanoreceptors in the hair cells, the labyrinth receives and passes on sensory information critical for the organism's sense of balance and gravity, spatial orientation, motor coordination, body position, and gaze stability during head movement.
Parietal lobe: Somatosensory cortex
located on postcentral gyrus and involved in somatosensory information processing
Frontal lobe: Primary motor cortex
located on precentral gyrus (in front of central sulcus that divides frontal and parietal lobes) and initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward muscles
Ethnic enclaves
locations with high concentrations of one specific ethnicity
long term memory vs short term memory biology process differences
long term synthesis proteins via the intervention of cytoplasmic and nuclear molecules, while short term memory does not
Stereocilia
long tufts on top of hair cells that sway back and forth causing the opening of ion channels Hair cells are connected to the tectorial membrane and the hair cells are involved in amplifying the incoming sound
purposive sampling
look for certain characteristics of study sample
Cerebellum
maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements as well as speech
essentialism
maintains that there is a set of characteristics that can be applied to a specific form of entity (a group of people, animals, objects, etc.).
fundamentalism
maintenance of strict adherence to religious code instead of shifting towards rationality and scientific thinking
Bipolar I disorder
manic episodes with/without major depressive episode
General personality disorder: Cluster A - Paranoid
marked by pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives and may be in prodromal phase of schizophrenia
Inclusive fitness
measure of an organism's success in the population; based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, the ability of the offspring to then support others; promotes altruistic behavior which can improve fitness and success of a species as a whole
Biopsychosocial approach
method assumes there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's behavior
Organ of Corti
middle scala housing the actual hearing apparatus and composes of thousands of hair cells bathed in endolymph
Threshold
minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception
Absolute threshold
minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system
False consciousness
misperception of one's actual position in society. expounded by some Marxists for the way in which material, ideological, and institutional processes in capitalist society mislead members of the proletariat and other class actors.
Intrusion errors
mistakes about the past in which other information is mixed into your recall
Mesomorph
muscular, bony, and athletically built more confident, assertive, powerful, and adventurous
Strain theory
natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure (ex. American dream hard to acquire because education/opportunity not available to all)
Primary drives
need for food, water, and warmth, which motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis
Self-enhancement
need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures
Push factors
negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave
Singlism
negative stereotyping and discrimination directed toward people who are single
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
neurodegenerative disease that has memory loss as its main symptom. Anterograde and retrograde amnesia are often present, and the individual is unable both to transfer new information to long-term memory storage and to retrieve information from long-term memory storage, principally memories of events that took place before the onset of the disease. Additional symptoms include mental confusion, ataxia (lack of motor coordination), hallucinations, and ophthalmoplegia (eye muscle weakness). It is usually associated with deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) caused by alcohol abuse, malnutrition, or infections such as HIV/AIDS.
voxel based morphology
neuroimaging to look at brain anatomy. Stress --> reduce hippocampal gray matter volume
Mirror neurons
neurons are located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and hen that individual observes someone else performing that action
Linguistic isolation
new languages and dialects are formed making integration harder
cultural capital
non-financial social assets that promote upward social mobility e.g. knowledge, skills, education
Paralanguage
nonverbal aspects of communication such as tone, pitch, loudness, and tempo of speech that convey meaning and emotions
Social cognitive theory
postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others
social capital
potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility e.g. Dr. Scott Lee, my family friend, can get me into medical school cuz I know him
Matriarchical
power and authority run in the female line
Ethnocentrism
practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture
Carl Rogers
practices client-centered, person-centered, or non-directive therapy Rogers believed people have the freedom to control their own behavior and are neither slaves to the unconscious or subjects of faulty learning
Gestalt therapy (humanistic)
practitioners take a holistic view of the self, seeing individual as complete person
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional
pre-operational stage sensorimotor stage concrete stage formal operations stage
pre-operational stage: lack consistency and egocentric sensorimotor stage: explore world with senses rather than thinking concrete stage: thinking in particular situations and in concrete formal operations stage: thinking theoretically, counterfactually, strategically, and abstractly
Prejudice
preconceived opinions or attitudes that are usually negative and not based on any facts or experience. Prejudice is an attitude and discrimination is actually acting on that feeling
Game theory
predicts large, complex systems (e.g. the overall behavior of a population)
reasoning portion of brain
prefrontal cortex
Urban decay
previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time
secondary reinforces are what?
primary - needs like food and water secondary - conditioned like money and grades
Abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs
priorities needs (Abraham Lincoln had to prioritize stuff cause was leader)
Incubation
problem solving technique, step back from problem and focus on other activities which allows them to adopt different perspectives
Insight
problem solving technique, sudden realization, associated with intuition and sensing personalities, but not thinking types.
Anticipatory socialization
process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships (ex. marriage)
Cultural assimilation
process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group, mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one
Conflict theory proposal to reduce social gradient in health. (huge difference in economic statuses of classes)
put hospitals under state control rather than market control (market control of health system dictated by $, so should provide system access to all) (giving more power to the patients is wrong answer)
Racial formation theory
racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors
Randomized Controlled Trials
randomly assign participants to one of two groups: an experimental group and a control group
Delirium
rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes; can be caused by electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, etc.
Bureaucracy
rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control with characteristics such as paid, non-elected officials on a fixed salary, regular salary increases, seniority, etc.
PTSD
re-experiencing traumatic event through flashbacks and nightmares, hypervigilance to one's surroundings, and avoidance of similar situations
Balloon ride thing experiment
real life photo photoshopped into balloon ride. People recalled vividly (even though it didn't happen) the event
Priming
recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
Amacrine and horizontal cells
receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before the information is passed on to ganglion cells Accentuate slight differences between the visual information in each bipolar cell and important for edge detection
Urbanization
refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration
Displacement
refers to forgetting in short-term memory. It refers to how old items are displaced and replaced by new information, and consequently the original information cannot be easily retrieved
Nonverbal communication
refers to how people communicate, intentionally, or unintentionally, without words such as facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, etc.
Individual discrimination
refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group
Kinesthetic sense or proprioception
refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in space
Institutional discrimination
refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution
External Validity
refers to the generalizability of the research to settings beyond this study
Difference threshold/JND
refers to the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference
Two-point threshold
refers to the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli
Subliminal perception
refers to the perception of a stimulus below a given threshold
social reproduction
refers to the process through which stratification systems reproduce themselves across generations -people tend to follow in their parents' footsteps in the class hierarchy
Response bias
refers to the tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors
Medulla
regulates autonomic functions (e.g. blood pressure, digestive system, breathing)
Limbic System
regulates emotion and memory
Homeostasis
regulation of internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions; homeostasis contains negative feedback loops
Gentrification
reinvestment in lower income neighborhoods in urban areas, which results from the influx of more affluent groups. With the arrival of more affluent residents, housing demand increases and generally results in a decrease of affordable housing for lower income residents. It would increase neighborhood stratification, displace lower income residents, and expand tax base for local government
Consensus cues
relate to extent to which a person's behavior differs from others; likely to form dispositional attribution about person's behavior
Attribution theory: situational (external)
relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure ex. friend nominated for academic reward, you believe it is due to luck
Attribution theory: dispositional (internal)
relate to the person whose behavior is being considered including their beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics ex. friend nominated for academic reward, you believe it is because she is hard working
Drug addiction
related to mesolimbic reward pathway including nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, and connected by medial forebrain bundle This pathway involved with motivation and emotional response as well as positive reinforcement and substance use
Emile Durkheim
relation between suicide rates (dependent variable) and social change. anomie theory postulates that people commit suicide because they do not have any bonds or attachments.
Psychophysics
relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke
Midbrain
relays auditory/visual information, RAS (arousal/awareness)
posterior pituitary
release ADH and oxytocin
Adrenal medulla
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system
Depth perception
rely on monocular and binocular cues
physical landmark processing
remember physical spaces such as locations and terrains. people sometimes remember the exact position of a paragraph inside a book
Esteem support
reminding someone of the skills they possess to tackle a problem can bolster their confidence
Gentrification
renovation of urban areas in a process of urban renewal (as people move from rural/suburban areas into urban areas)
Opponent process theory
repeat take drug, body will counter it. problem is counter when no drug and get withdraw.
Maintenance rehearsal
repetition of a piece of information to keep it within working memory or store it into short-term then long term memory
Lowball technique
requester will get an initial commitment from an individual then raise the cost of the commitment (ex. boss ask you to head committee with a time commitment of five hours per month of meetings; you agreed to head the committee, but discover there are written reports and presentations required as well)
Meissner corpuscles
respond to light touch
Free nerve endings
respond to pain and temperature
Ruffini endings
respond to stretch
Osmoreceptors
respond to the osmolarity of the blood
Duplexity or duplicity theory of vision
retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors: light and dark detection and color detection
Context effect
retrieval cue by which memory is aided when a person is in the location where encoding took place.
Serial position effect
retrieval cue that appears while learning lists; higher recall for the first few and last few items on the list
Interference
retrieval error caused by the existence of other information
Memory problems involve
retrieval errors (attention to meaning, reinstate psychological context of learning).
Aging does NOT reduce one's ability to ____________?
retrieve general information
meritocracy
reward according to merit/talent
continuous reinforcement
rewarding the desired behavior every time it is committed; unambiguously shows what is the desired behavior
Vestibular sense
rotational and linear acceleration
response set
rote responding, or answering the questions in a rote manner. For example, research participants may simply go down the instrument and select the response that falls in the middle (central tendency bias). To prevent rote responding, researchers can vary the format of the questions, invert the answering scale, or intermix the correct choice. These strategies aim at forcing participants to read and think about the question before answering, and prevent such research biases
base of Abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs, what is the base?
safety needs
Acute stress disorder
same PTSD symptoms last for less than one month (but more than three days)
encoding specificity
same contextual cues are present during memorization and recall, it is easier to remember information
Variable-Ratio Reinforcement
schedules tend to produce the highest response rates that are the most resistant to extinction,
predictive validity
scores of something predict something else. (mother eff-ing MCAT)
REM waves on a graph
small amplitude could be REM, waking, light sleep, non-REM stage 1/2
Although many patients wait up to six weeks for an appointment at a busy clinic, an acquaintance of one of the clinic's physicians is regularly seen with less than a week's notice. This scenario best illustrates the use of:
social capital (using social networks to gain)
Weak ties
social connections that are personally superficial but are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals (ex. social media)
Ethnicity
sorts people by cultural factors such as language, nationality, religion, and other factors One can choose whether or not to display ethnic identity, while racial identities are always on display
Conduction aphasia
speech production and comprehension are intact but patient unable to repeat something that has been said because connection has been lost
Cultural diffusion
spread of norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture
retrieved words that were related to the words on the list, but had not actually appeared is due to...
spreading activation
underserving poor theory
the "deserving" or "non-able-bodied," was introduced by the Victorian-era Poor Law in 1834. It describes the belief that poor people only deserve welfare support when they are physically or mentally unable to provide for themselves.
Privation
the absence of any form of attachment to anyone, including caregivers
Cognitive dissonance
the discomfort produced when an individual has two thoughts or behaviors that are inconsistent. In order to reduce the tension, one of the thoughts or behaviors will be modified. Therefore an investor might continue to invest in something that has declined in value simply to confirm a previous decision. Cognitive dissonance is one explanation for the concept of "throwing good money after bad money."
Pygmalion effect
the expectations of performance. If someone is led to expect that an individual or group of individuals will perform well, then he/she will perform well. Some argue that the home advantage can be explained by the referees expecting the home team and their players to perform well, and therefore their decisions may be unconsciously biased toward that expectation.
Jim and his wife see several photos of one of the islands of Hawaii as they review a travel brochure. The white sandy beaches and the blue water evoke feelings of peacefulness and serenity. Jim immediately feels the muscles in his neck and shoulder relaxing. The muscles in his jaw also relax, and he begins to smile. He then experiences the emotion of happiness. This can best be explained by:
the facial feedback theory - facial expressions can trigger emotional experiences. A frown would trigger feelings of sadness, anger, or some other unpleasant feeling
Excessive stereotyping (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
the group construct negative stereotypes if rivals outside the group.
reference groups
the group that an assimilated group admires and tries to emulate
Recency effect
the most recent information we have about an individual that is the most important in forming our impressions
Beneficence
the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest
Downward comparison
the process wherein individuals compare themselves with those who are worse off than themselves
George Kelly's Personal Construct Psychology
thought of the individual as a scientist who devises and tests predictions about behavior of significant people in his or her life
Prejudice
thoughts, attitudes, feelings someone holds about a group that are NOT based on actual experience
Another example of intrusion from schematic knowledge
told story about trip to dentist. When asked to recall, participate talked about the patient visiting the waiting room even tho it wasn't mentioned
Verbal communication
transmission of information through the use of wods, whether spoken, written, or signed; dependent on nonverbal cues for receiver to understand sender's full meaning
Virtreous
transparent gel that supports the retina
Direct therapy
treatment that acts directly on the individual such as medication or periodic meetings with a psychologist
Socialist economies
treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system
Noise trials
trial to measure response bias in which the signal is not presented
Classical Conditioning
two stimuli are paired and response to one stimuli changes (e.g. Pavlov's dogs experiment)
Alzheimer's disease
type of dementia characterized by gradual memory loss, disorientation to time and place, problems with abstract though, and tendency to misplace things
Cognitive dissonance
uncomfortable internal state is evoked when individuals observe an inconsistency between two or more of their own attitudes and/or behaviors
planning fallacy
underestimating the amount of time it takes to complete a task
Discrimination
unfair treatment and harmful actions against others based on their membership in a specific social group
Self determination theory
universal need autonomy (control own actions), competence (excel at hard stuff), relatedness (feel accepted and wanted)
Archetypes of mother and child
unlearned and are from the collective unconsciousness and serve to help individuals organize how they experience events. The archetype of the mother represents comfort, and the archetype of the child represents innocence
Attitude: cognitive
way an individual thinks about something, justifying for the other two components (ex. snakes can be dangerous)
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
we feel tension when we hold two thoughts that are incompatible. In order to reduce these unpleasant feelings of tension, we change our worldviews to match our behaviors/actions
Hierarchy of salience
we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment
intrinsic motivation
we perform a behavior because it is inherently rewarding, or for the sake of doing it
Law of Symmetry
we tend to perceive stimuli as grouped symmetrically around a center point.
Self-reference effect
we tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives
generalized other
when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society
Identity shift effect
when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group and start to experience internal conflict
approach-avoidance conflict
when one goal has both positive and negative effects that seem desirable and undesirable at the same time
Martin Seligman's learned helplessness theory
when people are in situations where they perceive have no control, they will eventually just give up. The theory of learned helplessness has been used to explain depression
Malthusianism catastrophe
when the amount of resources are insufficient to support a given population
feminization of poverty
why women in general are at the greatest risk of poverty throughout developed and undeveloped countries alike. Both structural and cultural factors have been cited as contributing to poverty among women, such as lower incomes and social and cultural norms that impede women's access to formal employment.
Instinct theory
william james - motivations are innate and fixed behavior through evolution
Self-censorship (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
withholding of opposing views Illusion of unanimity: false sense of agreement within the group
Wright Mills
wrote The Sociological Imagination, thought about self and society regarding methods and sociological principles.
