Media, Campaigns, and Elections
In campaigning, what role is played by coattails?
"Coattails" refer to the idea that a popular presidential candidate can also improve the fortunes of other members of his party on the same ballot (Senators, Representatives, Governors, etc.). The thinking is that a popular presidential candidate can help party members in close races campaign, and turnout loyal supporters who will vote for members of the same party, and will make people want to give their candidate more loyal soldiers to effect his policy.
How does the electoral college work, why was it created, and what are two arguments against its continued use?
# of Congressional representatives + # of senators = a state's electoral votes. (So California, with 2 Senators and 53 Representatives, has 55 electoral votes.) There are 538 total. Whoever gets 50% +1 of a state gets all electoral votes. (With a few exceptions, like Nebraska and Maine). The electoral voters of a state are expected to, and almost always do, vote for who the voters selected, but they are not legally obligated to. A candidate must get reach over half of the total electoral votes to win the Presidency. If no one gets more than half (as happened in 1800, 1824, and 1876) the winner is selected by a vote of the House of Representatives. The electoral college was created to ensure a buffer btw the people and the president--to make sure that their selection was vetted by knowledgeable people. The electoral college makes small states more important than they would be if we used a mere national popular vote. It thwarts the popular vote from time to time; it makes voters in smaller states more important than voters in big states; it allows candidates to ignore most of the nation.
How is the media a scorekeeper?
(horse-race journalism)—who's in the lead at any given point? Who has momentum? Criticized for not focusing on the accuracy or merit of competing positions, simply how they are "playing" in the media.
What are three key differences between a primary and a general election?
- Primaries: lower voter turnout, and those are usually committed party activists, so candidate positions are more extreme; there is much less matching gov't $ available, so fund-raising is crucially important; campaigning matters more in deciding who will win, because voters can actually be swayed; - General Elections: Greater voter turnout; because many voters are not committed party activists, the candidates speak more moderately; there is more matching $ available, so the size of a war chest is not as important; campaigning doesn't matter as much, because the great majority of people will vote based on party; everyone can participate, regardless of political affiliation.
What are two ways in which political coverage has changed in the past few decades?
- Private life is not off limits—media looked the other way w/Harding + Kennedy . More focused on scandals—more adversarial "gotcha!" journalism (as Governor Palin often says). More shallow and superficial—little effort to adequately distinguish officials' positions and systematically explore consequences of different policy stances. Obviously, since the advent of television in the 50s and 60s, the appearance of candidates has come to matter substantially more. - Internet means information—true and false—spreads quickly; often little accountability before stories appear, as internet bloggers often move before they have two independent corroborating sources.
Define a "527" (or issue advocacy group), and give one argument for and one argument against them.
-527s are "issue advocacy" groups. They must be unconnected to an official campaign, but by emphasizing certain issues with a positive or negative flavor, they encourage people to vote one or another. They are not subject to campaign-finance rules, and are not required to disclose membership or sources of $. Swift Boat Veterans for Truth v. John Kerry are classic example. -For: Citizens have the right to participate in the political process -Against: Not accountable—voters don't know source or bias of ads; candidates sneakily avoid taking the blame for below-the-belt tactics.
List three political realignments from our history.
-Jeffersonian Revolution, 1800, disposing of the Federalist party -1912, Bull Moose Progressives -1968/1972 South-->GOP
Define a "PAC" and explain the rules governing its activities.
-PACs: Political Action Committee—post Nixon creation to permit groups of citizens to combine and support parties + candidates. -PACs can give 5k per candidate per election (primary & general are different elections, so 10k per election cycle), 5k to any other PAC during a year, and can give 15k to a party in a given year. must have at least 50 members. PACs may only receive 5k from a given individual or PAC during a given year, and not get directly from unions or corporations.
What is the nature of a primary caucus?
A primary caucus is when party members physically gather in a location, and make their preferences known by moving to one spot or another. Caucuses are dramatic and show citizen dedication, but they also are time consuming to participate in. Most states don't use caucuses, although some important ones that do are Iowa, Nevada, and Maine.
Which efforts to extend the electorate have been made through constitutional provisions?
African-Americans have the right to vote in federal elections. (15th) • Women have the right to vote in federal elections. (19th) • [Poor, in a way,—no poll tax penalty—24th Amendment] • People 18 years and older have the right to vote in federal elections. (26th)
Have studies indicated that this allegiance leads to a deep bias in the kinds of reporting different political actors receive?
But studies do not reveal that allegedly neutral national coverage is systematically tilted. There is, however, perhaps a mild social liberalism and mild economic conservatism.
What exactly did Citizens United v. FEC (2010) decide, and why was that case so controversial?
Citizens United v. FEC (2010) said that the First Amendment requires allowing corporations and unions to advertise for candidates, so long as there is no coordination between them and the campaign itself. Many have objected to this ruling because those who advance policies congenial to corporations now may have a great advantage. Others support the ruling because they feel that corporations are legally people and should have the right to speak out on issues that concern them.
What are the rules governing the contributions corporations, unions, and individuals can make to candidates and parties?
Corporations and unions are never permitted to make direct political contributions to candidates. Individuals can give 2600 per election, to a candidate (or 5200 per election cycle), 5k to a PAC, and can give 32k to a political party in any given year.
Define gerrymandering
Gerrymandering is when states legislatures, usually once every 10 years after the census numbers are released, carve up districts in bizarre shapes in order to provide safe districts for members of different parties, to insure or work against minority representation. An intensely partisan process. Means the House is not competitive and also very partisan.
What are two arguments that it does not make a big difference?
It does not matter as much b/c we have matching funds in Presidential elections; because most people vote based on party anyway; because incumbency is so important in Congress; because the state of the economy is so important in who wins the Presidency; because a charismatic candidate can overcome a money disadvantage; although the better-funded candidate often wins, this presents a chicken-and-egg problem--they might have more money BECAUSE they have more numerous and excited supporters and would therefore have won anyway; because a candidate can do something entertaining and get free coverage.
What is the American rule on prior restraint?
It is very difficult to stop anything from being published, unless it presents a clear and immediate threat to personal or national safety—hence no "prior restraint." But once something is published, it can be penalized if it violates some law.
What is the American rule on libel?
Libel must be false, malicious, and written. If the material concerns a public figure (an elected or appointed government official, someone with fame or notoriety in the community (Paris Hilton), or someone who has injected herself into a public controversy (Donald Trump) it must be knowingly or recklessly false. If the material concerns a private citizen (us) it must only be negligently (carelessly) false. Courts don't want to discourage ("chill") public criticism.
Define malapportionment.
Malapportionment is when district lines are drawn such that the vote of a person in one district drastically outweighs the vote of a person in another (i.e. an Imperial County legislator--representing 175k people--and a San Diego County district--representing 3 million people, designed to represent urban and agricultural interests). Malapportionment is now illegal under the (Baker v. Carr) "one man-one vote" rule.
What is an argument that media is very important in deciding who wins and loses in political contests?
Media is important: Many thought the media liked Bush more than Gore ("the kind of guy you could have a drink with"), and Bush won. Many thought the media liked Obama more than McCain, and Obama won. Perhaps if reporters like a politician, they are less inclined to be critical or report embarrassing stories, and more inclined to be laudatory in their writing.
What is an argument that media is not very important in deciding who wins and loses in political contests?
Media isn't that important: Positive media coverage doesn't cause public to have general good feelings toward pols, generally good feelings toward pols cause positive media coverage (chicken/egg); Because of "selective attention," most people consume news that confirms their pre-existent worldviews (Jon Stewart, New York Times; Rush Limbaugh, Fox News). And for the same reason, people dismiss information they hear that threatens their pre-existent world view.
What are two arguments that money does make a big difference in determining who wins and loses in political races?
Money does allow candidates to reach more voters; to pay for more likely-supporters' registration; to get more television time; to get better and more numerous consultants and workers; especially important—like campaigning generally—in primaries.
What is the difference between a closed and open primary?
Most political primaries are some variety of closed, so only individuals who declare a party affiliation beforehand are allowed to participate. This limits "sabotage" by the other party. An open primary is one in which anyone may participate, regardless of party affiliation, and this allows all citizens to participate.
In campaigning, what role is played by national conventions?
National conventions are the dramatic party that happens in late summer or fall, where the nominee is selected by party delegates and the party platform is adopted. Because the primaries have already occurred, everyone already knows who the nominee will be. Conventions give parties a chance to lay their argument before the American people (particularly independents who haven't been following the primaries); to give important party members or constituencies the national spotlight; to fire up party loyalists who will then volunteer, vote, and give; and to enjoy the inevitable "bounce" in your party and candidate's favorability numbers in polls.
What are two positives of the arrival of the internet, and one negative?
Positives—more information is available; quicker response time; easier to support your chosen candidate. Negatives—often there are unaccountable bloggers who spread unsubstantiated smears; any gaffe lives forever; people grow used to free news, and don't wish to pay for it. This has hurt the newspaper industry, which needs money to do investigative journalism, pay reporters, and travel abroad.
What are some recent efforts that might limit the size of the electorate?
Recent efforts that might limit the size of the electorate are bids to end early or mail-in voting and requirements that voters show and ID. Defenders of these measures say they will save costs and help prevent voter fraud. Opponents of these measures say they put an undue burden on poor and minority voters, and that there is no evidence of systemic voter fraud.
What role did "soft money" used to play in elections?
Soft money (illegal since McCain-Feingold, 2002), was unlimited money that went to parties for "party-building efforts"—i.e. get out the vote, voter registration, and informing the public about important issues.
In campaigning, what role is played by "front-loading"?
States that hold their primaries early have more influence over the eventual nominee, since a number of early wins can be decisive, because that creates momentum; insures continued matching funds; and keeps the support of party leaders. So states have been trying to "front-load" their primary date so they get more attention from candidates and have more of a say. Frontloading is bad because voters don't have time to weigh the relative merits of candidates; and states who have later primaries are basically just rubber-stamping a foregone conclusion; finally, front loading drastically increases the importance of relatively small, unrepresentative states such as Iowa and New Hampshire.
Define a "Super-PAC" and explain the rules governing its activities.
Super-PACs: Organizations that may raise unlimited money from individuals, corporations, or unions, and must disclose their donors. They may advocate for a candidate, but must not coordinate their activities with or give money to a candidate.
What is the function of Democratic super-delegates?
Superdelegates: elected party officials (members of Congress, Governors, past Presidents) who can vote for whichever primary candidate they choose. About 1/3 of total votes. These people's job is to make sure that the passion of party members does not end up selecting an ultimately unelectable candidate. • The McCain-Feingold Law of 2002: imposed campaign finance limits—no soft money, $2600 per person, per election, prevented "electioneering" communications mentioning candidate by name w/n 60 days of general, 30 days of primary. Designed to limit the influence of big money in politics, it has been severely limited by recent Supreme Court decisions that see it as inconsistent w/the First Amendment.
What is the function of the "winner-take-all" system more extensively used in the Republican Primary?
The Republicans have a winner-take-all primary—if you get 51% of a state's vote, you get all the delegates. Democrats have proportional system—if you get 51% of votes, you get 51% of delegates. This made recent Democratic campaign in primary go on for much longer than the GOP race, where a candidate can more rapidly acquire an insurmountable lead. And it matters--if Democrats used the Republican system, Hillary Clinton would have become the nominee in 2008.
What role did and does federal matching funds play in elections?
The federal government will match the money raised by major party candidates for the presidency up to a certain amount (91m in 2012). However, the candidate must then "only" spend the match + the money raised (182m in 2012). But because the cost of presidential campaigns has accelerated so much recently, the two major parties have opted out during the last few election cycles.
How has the internet changed politics?
The internet has made fund-raising easier; it has made attacks spread instantly, but has also made it easier to respond instantly; it has allowed politicians to have their programs instantly accessible to voters 24/7; it has allowed politicians to stay in touch with their supporters and their interests in a much more comprehensive fashion
Most national reporters belong to which party?
The minority of national reporters who are willing to state their political allegiance identify as Democratic (makes sense b/c of higher education, urban locale, questioning nature of profession).
Define "valence" + "position" issues and explain which is more important in modern campaigns.
Valence issues are issues everyone agrees about—better education, honesty, patriotism, competence. They are more important in deciding who wins--the question is only "who do you think is more likely to satisfy you on these issues?" Policy issues spark disagreement—stay in or leave Iraq; raise or decrease taxes; drill for more oil or don't drill. They are less important in deciding who wins.
What is political realignment or critical election?
When an old party essentially disappears, or a large part of a party carves itself off to take a new direction, or a large group of one party's constituents joins another party
How is the media a watchdog?
looking out for scandals, any hint of impropriety—"the people's check" on government, generally.
How does the media embody infotainment?
one word for the tendency of news to be very superficial in the sorts of stories it runs, failing to delve deeply into the cause, nature, and effects of important phenomenon (9/11, Katrina). Also the tendency of news to focus on sensational issues—serial killers, the kidnapping of attractive people, the lives of celebrities. The criticism is that the media fails to adequately serve its democratic function of informing the public on important issues.
What are spots?
paid-for ads of candidates (I'm Rai Wilson, and I approved this message). Often conveys something of the candidate's proposed program, but b/c directly managed, obviously always slanted toward the sponsoring candidate's view.
How is the media a gatekeeper?
perhaps most important role. Helps set the "public agenda" by deciding what issues we will see as critically important (kidnapping, swine flu, global warming, torture).
What are sound-bites?
short clips of a candidate saying something (Read my lips...). 40 years ago they were almost a minute long; now they are about 7 seconds long. No substantive position can be conveyed in such a short time.
What are visuals?
short, superficial clips of a candidate doing something entertaining (kissing babies at a fair). Content free, but at least not directly managed by the candidate.