Memory

Feeling of knowing judgements

This happens during retrieval on unrivalled items. Feeling of knowing refer to an estimation of the likelihood that an unrivalled item will be recognised.

Metamemory control

This is important in many aspects of human behaviour. When self-regulation is directed at memory, we call it "control processes". These processes take the output of monitoring and use that information to inform decisions we make.

Studying TOT

Try and get people to illicit them, through general information questions, if they cant recall it may be in their tip of tongue. Most of the time these states are found to be very accurate.

Methods of studying Autobiographical memory Private events

Trying to look at peoples memories in their early lives. Give people a list of cue words and get them to write down a memory that relates to this word.

Feeling of knowing

Type of metamemory. The predictions of future retrievability of a particular item. Instances where people can make judgements in the future.

Implicit memory

memory without awareness. Something we have deliberately tried to learn.

Accepted theory of flashbulb memories

There is ordinary mechanisms but the events are emotional.

Metamemory

Means our knowledge and awareness of our own memory processes, including the abilities to both monitor one's own memory abilities and control them.

Intrinsic cues of meta-memory

Characteristics of to be-leaned info itself. e.g if 2 words in word pair are related.

Unitary signal detection model

- Computational model of single memory strength signal that promotes theoretical transparency - generates testable predictions and indicates alternative interpretations of dissociations - Indicate alternative interpretations of dissociations Single memory strength signal that leads to priming and recognition and different tasks led to different sources of noise/error.

Long term factors affecting AM

- Emotions: people who are depressed recall particularly negative memories. Retrieve much less and detailed AM memories. - Self esteem: When influenced by strong negative emotions we access different aspects of our memory. When asked before and after an exam how much work a student had done, if the exam didn't go well they reported doing less work after.

Artificial grammar Reber *see mindmap

- PP asked to learn strings with three to eight letters in each string - intentional learning and direct recall -Reber was interested in the implicit learning that occurred.

two phases of implicit learning test

1) Acquisition phase: subjects are exposed to a string of letters that are consistent with the grammar 2) Testing phase: subjects knowledge of the grammar is assessed This leads from acquisition to testing

Challenge of the 'now,print' mechanism.

1) Are flashbulb memories as accurate as they seem 2) Whether one needs a special mechanism in order to explain them.

Retreieving positive events from AM

1)Effects of valence on self reference. 2)Valence of an event may directly influence way it is remembered.

multiple memory systems criteria needed in order to establish whether two memory systems are separate:

1. Class inclusion operations 2. Properties and relations 3. Convergent dissociations

Reminiscence bump

16-25 years old. The period of life when the most important things happen in our lives. Making this an important within what is sometimes known as the life narrative.

Example of a metamemory control process

Allocation of study time. Manner in which people choose to direct their study.

Memory probe method of autobiographical memory recall

Alternative to the diary method. First studied Galton. Gave PP a word and asked them to recollect an autobiographical memory associated with that word.

Self knowledge in autobiographical memory

How the specific memories related to this self knowledge, our self is our life narrative. Our life story.

Proximal learning

Argues an adaptive strategy is to study those items that have not yet been learned but are not too difficult. Choose to study items of intermediate difficulty under ordinary circumstances. However when we have lots of time to study we can study the difficult items, but when we are time restricted we study the easy ones.

Weakness with research surrounding autobiographical memory

Assumes participants are able to recall events and remember their AM and the situations that evoked them.

Mnemonic cues of meta-memory

Based on own internal memory state e.g whether can recall answer to question, or fluency with which answer comes to mind.

Indirect theory of metamemory

Based on the idea that we use a variety of cues, clues, tricks and heuristics to estimate the strength of an item in memory, which we cannot measure directly. It is like estimating the temperature on a cold day by seeing if your breath is visible.

Regional of proximal learning Son and Metcalfe

Challenged the results of the labour in vain effect. Argued that in some situations participants will choose to focus on the easy items, and in some they will focus on the difficult items. They key was the norm of the experiment: if the time is limited.

Sociocultural views

Changes in identity formation of individual is consistent with culture. 16 to 25 age range associated with changes in identify formation of individual. Particular decisions a person makes may vary in cultures. RB should consist of many memories consistent with culture traditions.

Analogy of control metamemory

Control devise is the thermostat, based on the temperature (monitoring) the thermostat device will either kick in the het or trigger the air condition. In terms of memory, control involves the behaviour we engage in to ensure learning.

Monitoring function of working self

Controls retrieve of information. 1) Coherence 2) Correspondence Working self integrates these into an autobiographical memory and balances.

Coherence of monitoring function of the working self

Creates consistency of the auto memories that you have, yields AM which are consistently with the working self.

Summary of feelings Frederickson

Despite people have their hand held in ice water, people were more likely to do it again if they were given cake after the experiment.

Game show paradigm

Developed by Refer. PP is given a question and as fast as possible, must either indicate the answer or simply that he or she knows the answer. Found that people could make the 'know it' response faster than could actually retrieve the answer.

Multiple memory systems

Direct and indirect tests of memory tap into different memory systems. Define memory systems by what they are not: - not a memory process - not a memory task - Implicit and explicit are not memory systems. These refer to situations in which memory is expressed.

Brewin - extreme emotions and AM

Distinction between verbally accessible memory, which links with normal memory system and situationally accessible memory, which is highly detailed when it occurs as a flashback but cannot be called to mind intentionally.

Nelson and Narens model of metamemory

Divided metamemory judgements into those that occurred at various stages of the memory process. The state memory is divided into: - Acquisition - Retention - Retrieval

Ease of learning judgements

Estimates how likely an item will be remembered in advance of actual studying and are predictions about how difficult that item will be to learn

Transfer appropriate processing

Explanations of dissociation between direct and indirect tests of memory. 1) according to this theory given type of processing will lead to better memory performance 2) direct and indirect memory tests require different retrieval operations 3) Indirect tests rely on perceptual processing. 4) Direct tests rely on encoded meaning of concepts

Extrinsic cues of meta-memory

External influences e.g nature of encoding and retrieval context, or amount of time to study.

Tip of the tongue states

Feeling that an unrecalled item will be recalled soon.

Recall-judgement recognition

First used by Joseph Hart to initiate the formal study of meta-memory. That is, the participant tries to recall the answer to general information questions. If unsuccessful the participant provides a feeling of knowing judgement for recognition of that item. A recognition test then is given to measure accuracy. People have said you have a rapid feeling of knowing which is based on cues and clues that you have. Remembering something about the context but not the item and if you remember something than in the future you are more likely to remember it.

Camera theory of flashbulb memory formation

Flashbulb goes off and you remember it all and the memories are strong and accurate. A unique special mechanism responsible for FM only. Originally called the 'now,print' mechanism by Brown and Kulik

Methods of studying Autobiographical memory Public events

Flashbulb memories. Research into openly public events. Creation of these memories through lab experiments.

Autobiographical memory: public events

Flashbulb memories. Research into terrorist attacks and things where people are aware of it happening.

Pollyanna principle

Focus on positive aspects of events. People more likely to recall positive events and positive aspects of complex event.

Labour in vain effect

Found that the lower the judgements of learning given to an item, the more time that person spent studying it.

Janssen et al 2011

Found that the reminiscence bump peaked between the ages of 6 and 10 years. They suggested that personal events from the bump are not recalled differently than events from other lifetime periods, there are just more of them.

Nelson and Leonesio labour in vain effect

Found that: 1) The relation between judgements of learning and study time was negative. Items with lowest JOL were given most study tie. PP focused on learning the most difficult items 2) PP when tested still remembered more items for which they had given high judgements of learning. Even though they spent more time learning the difficult items, easier words were remembered more easily.

Talrico and Rubin flashbulb memories

Found the same degree of loss of the 9/11 attacks for flashbulb and everyday memories, although participants believe that their memory of 9/11 was clearer.

Schwartz and Smith 1997 TOT

Further support for his heuristic view using fictional animal names. Presented with the names paired with name of a country and some were paired with line drawings of the animals. The encoding manipulation did not affect recall of animal names or the recognition of unrecalled names. This suggests that three conditions were composed of roughly equivalent items for which possible TOTs could exist. BUT rates of TOTs differed among conditions.

Neurological views of reminiscence bump

How the brain matures and up to the age of 25 it is a prefrontal maturity. Cultural universality. Young adults have the most efficient coding systems. - Maybe memories from this time period more salient because brain mechanisms responsible for creation working optimally to create strongest memories. - Supported by cultural universality of this phenomena

Monitoring dual memories hypothesis

If you cannot recall the item at the time of test, you are unlikely to get it later. So JOL serves as a dry run for the final test.

Individuals expectations affecting emotional memory

Individuals scoring higher on self-esteem measure biased memories about specific autobiographical events in positive direction, reverse true for those with lower self-esteem.

Incidental learning

Instructions require participants to focus on some information processing goal vs remembering the information.

Factors affecting JOL: Fluency and speed of retrieval

Intermediate JOLs had longest reaction time. These are the ones that are hard but possible to retrieve.

Procedural memory

Involved with learning behavioural and cognitive skills. Simple everyday activities.

Weakness in AM research

It assumes that pp are going to be able to recall events and remember their AM and the situations that evoked them.

Serial position curve of JOL

JOL were higher for items learned in the primacy recency parts of the curve compared to the middle of the curve.

Judgements of learning

Judgements whether the item has been learned already. These judgements can inform the individual as to which items being studied are likely remembered later and which items will not be remembered later. The judgements can also be directed at which items will be forgotten and which will not be forgotten.

Wagenaar

Kept a diary for over 6 years, on each day recorded 2 events, together with four features or cues to that event. Recorded a total of 2400 incidents. The who what and where cues were equally as good at evoking memory, whereas when cue, which simply provided the date, was much less efficient. He remembered emotional and pleasant events better than less emotional and less pleasant events. Could recall 80% of cues.

Diary studies - Wagenaar

Kept a diary for over 6 years, on each day recorded two events, together with four features or cues to that event. Recorded a total of 2400 incidents. Then tested his memory by selecting an incident at random and cueing himself with one, two or three retrieval cues. The who what and where cues were equally as good at evoking memory, whereas the when cue, which simply provided the date, was much less efficient. For example ' can you remember where you were on this date'. Not many people can. He remembered emotional and pleasant events better than less emotional and less pleasant events. He could recall 80% of cues.

Activation view of implicit memory data

Least popular of the four. Holds that the priming seen on indirect tests is attributable to the temporary activation of pre-existing representations. Activation is automatic without the need for internal processing.

The working self - proposed by Conway

Made up of a complex set of active goals and self-images. This modulates access to LTM and is also influenced by LTM. Way of encoding information about what is, what has been and what can be. To be effective it needs to be coherent and correspond reasonably closely to outside reality.

Theory of representation - Conway

Major theory that organises research on AM. Argued it was a hierarchical model. States how our memory is stored, organized and retrieved.

Alternative explanation for common dissociation

Manipulation affects recognition but little/no effect on priming. So if you ask people to think about the meaning of the word and what it looks like they think more about the meaning.

Declarative memory

Memory about facts and events, those memories that can be "declared".

Autobiographical memory: private events.

Method of study. Trying to look at people memories in their early lives. Give people a list of cue words and get them to write down a memory that relates to this word. Diary studies.

Priming score of 0

No difference and any positive value means a better performance for the experimental group.

Metamemory monitoring

Occurs whenever we take measure of our own mental states. This means when we judge whether or not we think we can remember something. If we don't know something how do we make a judgement on it. Monitoring can occur at either the time of learning or the time of retrieval. Either semantic or episodic information.

Autobiographical memory

Our own personal memory. - specific memories - self- knowledge

Autobiographical memory

Our own personal memory. Specific memories and self knowledge.

Direct test

PP are made aware of particular learning episode to be recalled and test instructions made direct reference to learning episode

Intentional learning

PP aware there will be a memory test and tries to memorise the information.

Son and Metcalfe region of proximal learning study

PP given short passages of text to study and told to master all of them. The topics were varied. After pp had read all the passages, some were told they would have 30 minutes to study some were told they had 60 minutes. Both groups were told the optimum time is 60 minutes. - 60 minutes: chose the hardest passages - 30 minutes: pattern is reversed. positive correlation between JOL and study time.

Memory accessibility model

Past feelings cannot be stored or recalled. We rely on semantic memory to reconstruct past emotions because event specific details fade quickly with time.

Direct access theory of metamory.

These theories refer to the idea that the judgements we make are based on the same processes that allow us to remember in the first place.

Bernsten and Rubin 2008: telephone survey

People's recurrent memories got more positive as they got older. Concluded that flashbacks are not the same, people with PTSD have things in common with normal course of life.

Retrieval of emotional memories from AM

Positive events come to mind more readily than negative events - this has been linked to self-image. Encoding: perhaps our experience at the time and how we encode it changes how we store this memory.

Subliminal perception

Presentation of the stimulus so quickly or quietly that is not consciously perceived.

Repetition priming

Processing something a second time, benefits from it being processed previously.

Reappearance hypothesis

Same memory image, can disappear then reappear over and over again.

Explicit memory

Sit people down and get them to deliberately learn something. Intentional learning and direct tests.

Involuntary memories - Bernsten and Rubin

Suggested that flashbacks that occur in PTSD do not represent a different kind of memory. 40% reported recurrent memories: likelihood of increasing if they were closer to the tsunami

Schwartz 2002 TOT

TOTs are caused by inferential or indirect processes. Clues and cues that we can recognise and retrieve that allows us unconsciously to infer that the item is likely to be remembered.

Flashbulb memories

Term applied to the detailed and apparently highly accurate memory of a dramatic experience

Indirect tests

Test of memory. Subjects not intentionally learning the items and are not aware of the relationship between the test and the study phase.

Implicit learning: indirect test of implicit memory

The process by which knowledge about the rule governed complexities of the stimulus is acquired independently on conscious attempts to do so. Examine how people learn artificial grammars.

Autonoetic consciousness

The process of recollecting detail as familiar and allow the rememberer to reflect on contents of episodic memory. Life time memories are much quicker retrieved than others. This is how they structure the hierarchy

Cultural beliefs affecting emotional memory

The types of emotions that are valued in our culture can influence how individuals remember emotions.

Correspondence of monitoring function of the working self

We have a filtering system that we only pay attention to certain memories at a time. Match between a relieved memory and an actual event.

Memory fluency

Why the reminiscence bump happens. Events during this time are novel and highly memorable. Many first experiences which makes them better remembered. However only 20% of memories retrieved are actually of first time experiences.

Emotional factors influencing autobiographical memory Kensinger 2006

Yankees and Red sox baseball game. The fans of the team that lost had more consistent memories over time compared to happy emotions who were overconfident with their memories. Positive events lead to more distortion and overconfidence, negative events lead to less overconfidence and more accuracy.