Mexican Revolution Study Guide IB HOA
Which articles of the 1917 Constitution were in line with one of Madero's original goals for the Mexican Revolution?
Articles 2, 3, 27, 83, 123. An argument could be made that 130 does too, in that it decreases the power of the church as a competing identity (vs. Mexican national identity). Madero would have worried about 71/72/76 because it was not particularly democratic by removing a VP and weakening Congress.
Name 4 of Plutarco Elías Calles' goals as president of Mexico.
1) Promote Mexican nationalism and identity as the primary unifier of all people in Mexico 2) To follow through on Article 27, land reform, particularly the return of ejidos 3) To follow through on Article 123, worker's rights 4) To improve communications across Mexico, in order to unify the nation (transportation, trade, etc) 5) To promote/support the indigenous integration into Mexican society 6) To stand up to foreign nations and let them know that they cannot walk all over Mexico
Name 5 of the Calles Laws.
1. No foreign priests allowed in Mexico 2. All education to be controlled by the State 3. Monastic orders forbidden 4. Priests not to preach disobedience to the nation's laws 5. Respect to be shown for the government 6. All religious publications to be apolitical (have no political message) 7. No political meetings allowed in churches 8. All religious ceremonies to take place only in churches, under the government's supervision 9. No religious clothing to be worn outside of the church 10. Municipal (local) authorities fined if they did not enforce these laws
What was the Creelman Interview?
A 1908 interview between Porfirio Diaz and an American journalist, James Creelman, in which Diaz announced he would not run for office in 1910. This interview was published in newspapers and caused a flurry of democratic excitement in Mexico, as the 1910 election would be the first election without Diaz since the 1880s. Francisco Madero began his campaign.
How/when did the Cristero War end?
A truce was brokered in 1929 by US ambassador, Dwight Morrow: Calles Laws won't be repealed but won't be enforced.
Why was the Battle of Cuautla significant in the Mexican Revolution?
After this battle in the south, Diaz realized he could not win against the revolutionaries and began thinking about resigning. He did not resign yet, though.
Why was the Battle of Parral significant in the Mexican Revolution?
After this battle, Villa was put under the command of Huerta. Together, they defeated Orozco and Huerta was made Commander-in-Chief of the federal army. He used this power to arrest Villa. This pitted Villa against Madero.
Describe society during the Porfirato.
As Mexico modernized and became more urban, many people had to move to cities to find work. This broke up local, family and community bonds in Mexico; family and community centered around the indigenous pueblos and other rural town bonds; communal land ("ejidos") tied communities together before mass migration for industrial jobs. Work for the poor was quite awful: the average agricultural worker made 35 cents per day and most urban workers worked 12 hour days, 7 days each week. 29% of male infants died within the first year of life because of such bad living conditions. The value of money decreased so much that in 1910, money was worth only ¼ of what it was in 1810. Often, the Díaz government took the side of foreign capitalists in any disputes they had with Mexican labor, employing his feared police force—the rurales—to crush strikes or other protests. For example, in 1906, 3,000 Mexican workers at a US owned copper company asked to be paid equal wages to U.S. workers, who worked at the same factory (Mexican workers earned 3.5 pesos, American workers earned 5 pesos). Social evils of society, such as the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and crime were blamed on the poor and indigenous. The upper and middle classes benefit financially and materially from industrialization (the "owners"), and huge social divides result ("have" vs. "have nots"). Despite Constitutional reform in the 1880s that restricted the Church, Diaz did nothing to enforce the laws and allowed the Church to have tons of power. In exchange, the Church often ignored the needs of the poor.
What was the Plan de Guadalupe, who write it and when was it written?
As soon as Huerta gained control of the government in 1913, Venustiano Carranza, governor of Coahuila, rose up against him. Huerta was planning on putting his army buddies into all of the governorship positions in Mexico; Carranza knew his political days could be numbered. Carranza published the Plan de Guadalupe, which called for political reform, including the overthrow of Huerta and respect for the 1857 Mexican Constitution. He mentioned nothing about land reform. This was essentially a declaration of war against Huerta. His army became known as the Constitutionalist Army. Through the Plan de Guadalupe, Carranza declared himself to be the true leader of Mexico (of the "alternate," revolutionary government).
How did Venustiano Carranza first rise to prominence?
As soon as Huerta gained control of the government in 1913, Venustiano Carranza, governor of Coahuila, rose up against him. Huerta was planning on putting his army buddies into all of the governorship positions in Mexico; Carranza knew his political days could be numbered. Carranza published the Plan de Guadalupe, which called for political reform, including the overthrow of Huerta and respect for the 1857 Mexican Constitution. He mentioned nothing about land reform. This was essentially a declaration of war against Huerta. His army became known as the Constitutionalist Army. Through the Plan de Guadalupe, Carranza declared himself to be the true leader of Mexico (of the "alternate," revolutionary government). He set up a revolutionary government in Veracruz, which happened to be the same place that the Huerta government would face-off with the US government. Carranza and Huerta both fought off the US invasion that led to Huerta's resignation.
Who was Pancho Villa?
Despite employing 7,000 troops for the mission and offering a $50,000 reward for his capture, the US never caught Villa. This was called the "Punitive Expedition." Carranza forced US troops to withdraw, fearing the Villa was become too popular for his ability to outmaneuver the US. Villa was eventually killed in 1923.
Describe some of the fighting tactics used by both sides during the Cristero War.
Both sides did awful things. Extreme Cristeros tortured and murdered public school teachers, who were, to the Cristeros, the representatives of the federal government's anti-church agenda. Government forces executed priests and, on rare occasions, would rape nuns. Additionally, federal troops would slaughter entire villages that were suspected of supporting Cristeros. The Cristeros were face less organized than the federal troops and did not have any sort of central command. They blew up trains and stole weapons from dead federal troops. Women picked up weapons, sometimes as part of female brigades (Juana de Arco Birgades). Over 90,000 people died in the Cristero War.
Name 3 muralists and 3 goals of the Muralist Movement.
Diego Rivera 2) Jose Clemente Orozco 3) David Alfaro Siqueiros Goals: • Made goals of Revolution visible -- murals in public places • Made history accessible to everyone, regardless of education/ability to read • Show Indigenous as important part of society - respect • Show regular people in Mexico so people can be proud to see themselves represented as part of history • Communicate the ideals of the "cosmic race"
How long did Plutarco Elías Calles serve as president of Mexico?
Calles was in office for 1 term of 4 years and then hand-picked leaders for the next 6 years, serving as a "puppet master" behind the scenes. This 6-year period was known as the "Maximato." Technically, Calles was in power from 1924-1934.
What happened at the Aguascalientes Convention?
Carranza had already declared himself the president, but felt he should legitimize it, so he called the Aguascalientes Convention. The Constitutionalists believed that Mexico needed an improved constitution, which would include some land reform, decreased power for the Catholic Church, worker's rights and international trade regulations. They wanted the federal government to have more power. They believe in the importance of a strong constitution. On the other side, the Conventionists wanted land reform that would be led by the people. They said nothing about worker's rights and did not want changes to Church power. Obregón was the only revolutionary to show up. Carranza, Villa and Zapata all sent representatives. Obregón's charm won over many and he publically endorsed the Plan de Ayala, which called for wide-scale land reform. Obregón and the other leader's representatives also voted to dismiss Carranza, since Villa and Zapata refused to ally with him. Carranza refused to resign from his unofficial position as president. All representaives except the Carrancistas voted to have Eulalio Gutierrez become the president. The Convention was just about ready to declare Carranza a rebel who needed to be stopped, but Villa became impatient and sent 30,000 troops to Aguascalientes to pressure the delegates. Even though he had voted to dismiss Carranza, when faced with the Villista troops, Obregón chose to help Carranza. Many others followed, equally displeased with Villa's response. The Zapatistas stormed out and went home to Morelos to try to figure out land reform locally.
How successful was Carranza as president of Mexico?
Carranza was elected president of Mexico in 1917. As president, he ignored most of the Constitution because it was more radical than he expected. He had a momentous task ahead of him: stabilizing a very unstable Mexico (Six years of war left crops unharvested, fields destroyed, mines and factories closed. All the beef had been exported to buy weapons. Food, water and coal were all in short supply. Banks had failed. Illness was rampant. Carranza did nothing notable beyond creating the circumstances for the new Constitution to be written. In 1919, Álvaro Obregón announced he would run as president in 1920. Technically, Carranza's term in office had started in 1914 when he declared himself president. Obregón accused Carranza of betraying the Revolution; the military backed Obregón. Carranza tried to flee to Veracruz and was killed by Obregón's supporters en route. His train was ambushed. Obregón may have called for this.
In 1916, even though he was not yet the official president of Mexico, Carranza called for a Constitutional Convention to end the fighting and to write a new set of laws. The Constitutional Convention took place in Querétero from late 1916 to February 1917. What happened there?
Carranza, still believing himself to be the legitimate president, saw the incredible destruction of Mexico as a result of 6 years of fighting and called for a Constitutional Convention to figure out how to move forward as a nation. The Carrancistas were conservative and wanted political, not social reforms: they did not want to impact business owners to foreign investment. They wanted strong central government - even more power afforded to the Executive than was afforded in the 1857 Constitution. They did not want to include any social reforms in the Constitution itself, as they believed that they could pass laws to support social reform later. They wanted to slightly modify the 1857 Constitution to make it work better. In constrast, the Jacobins were more liberal and wanted social reforms: they wanted land reform, weakening the Catholic Church, redistribution of wealth, worker's rights and unionization. They believed in a strong federal government that would represent the people. They did not believe that laws would be passed later to deal with social reform - wanted this reform reflected in the Constitution for permanent protection. They wanted to pitch the old Constitution out and write a better one. The Jacobins prevailed, led by Obregon. Mexico wrote one of the most liberal constitutions of its time.
Did everyone love Lázaro Cárdenas?
Cárdenas faced opposition from the Church, land owners whose land was being redistributed and even from some ejido members who were still poor despite their land gains. Saturnino Cedillo, the former Minister of Agriculture under Cárdenas, but also a small landowner who did not want to give up his land, tried to lead a revolt against Cárdenas, claiming that the central government was trying to control too much of peoples' personal lives. Cárdenas created the Bureau of Small Landholdings to help protect appropriate amounts of land for small farmers - removed the base for Cedillo's revolt. Cedillo was executed - unclear if Cárdenas had anything to do with it
Describe economics during the Porfirato.
Economic stability was Diaz's primary goal. He focused on industry and improving transportation - his government had built 15,000 miles of railroad by 1911 to help connect Mexico. He brought in foreign companies to mine, particularly for coal and petroleum. US companies eventually owned 75% of the mines in Mexico and 90% of all oil. Despite the huge amounts of coal and petroleum in Mexico, very few cities had electricity by 1910. Haciendas were large plantations which were meant to produce food for local populations, and while Diaz wanted to get rid to these to make farms forfood export, he allowed haciendas to grow and keep taking more land from the poor. Mexico had very diverse regions with many different needs: -North: Cattle, livestock, raw hide, corn, chickpeas - South: Mostly indigenous, communal land ownership -Mountains: Mining -tropics: coffee, sugar, vanilla, rubber Foreign investors and wealthy Mexicans were offered prime land and low taxes; often, this land belonged to the indigenous or poor who were forcibly displaced. They had no official land titles, and could not prove ownership. By the time Diaz left office, 95% of rural population owned no land and fewer than 200 families owned ¼ of Mexican land.
Calles had a "nickname." What was it?
El Jefe Maximo, because he was the behind-the-scenes leader during the "Maximato"
What important things happened on June 26, 1910?
Election Day/Madero's arrest
What did the Plan de Ayala say, when was it written and who wrote it?
Emiliano Zapata wrote it in 1911. It called for full-scale land reform and revolt against Madero.
How did Lázaro Cárdenas rid his government of Callista influence?
First, Cárdenas encouraged workers to strike for improved wages and conditions. The Minister of Agriculture, a Callista, tried to spread the message that Cárdenas was a radical, hoping people would revolt. The peasants did not buy this message. Cárdenas then dismissed Calles' entire cabinet, many governors, military commanders and members of Congress. All of these men were in these positions because of Calles. Cárdenas replaced them with his own men. Calles retired and went to the US. In 1935, Calles returned to Mexico to start a revolt against Cárdenas. Cárdenas had Calles arrested and deported.
Who was Emiliano Zapata?
He became the General of the Army of the South. His focus was to get land for his people. He appealed to landless peasants. In particular, he was fighting to help the people of his home state, Morelos. He had no ambitions of ruling Mexico and simply wanted his people to own their land and to be respected. He helped to get Madero into power, standing up to Diaz in battles like the Battle of Cuautla. When Diaz resigned in the 1911 Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, Zapata refused to lay down his weapons. He wanted to ensure that Madero would follow through with the promises he made in the Plan de San Luis Potosi. When Madero did not follow through, Zapata published the Plan de Ayala (1911), which called for full-scale land reform and revolt against Madero. After Madero's death in 1913, Zapata fought against Huerta. He sent representatives to the Aguascalientes Convention in October 1914. He did not want land reform to be directed by the federal government. After the Aguascalientes Convention, he allied briefly with Villa against Carranza. Neither wanted to be president, but they both wanted to influence the next president. Their alliance quickly fell apart after Villa's men went on a rampage in Mexico City, killing many of Zapata's men and raping women. Zapata went home to Morelos to focus on land reform. Carranza saw an opening and took advantage, gaining more and more power and support (he had already declared himself to be president). Carranza saw Zapata as a huge enemy, and by April 1919, had succeeded in killing Zapata.
What were some of Lázaro Cárdenas' biggest successes in land reform?
He distributed fertile land, most of it with irrigation/access to water. He distributed land based on ejido system - collective farms. He broke up the largest haciendas and took land from foreign companies. He created the Banco de Crédito Ejidal for loans and agricultural training. One example was at La Laguna, which was a hacienda in the North. Cárdenas himself came in 1936 to help with the redistribution of this hacienda. Peasants successfully shared equipment and seeds and this ejido was very productive. By 1940, ejidos were producing ½ of agricultural output in Mexico. In total, 1.5 million peasants got land under Cárdenas.
Who was Pascual Orozco?
He fought in the North to help Madero get into power. In fact, he was recruited by Madero to fight for Madero's cause. He helped to get Madero into power in battles such as the Battle of Ciudad Juarez. He was supposed to be in charge of the Northern armies, but Villa took over, as he was a better commander. This caused tension between Orozco and Villa. Orozco eventually led a revolt against Madero (Battle of Chihuahua, Parral) and was defeated by Huerta and Villa. He lost more and more credibility as the Revolution continued, since he let his men destroy villages that they took over.
Who was Pancho Villa?
He helped to defeat Diaz at the Battle of Ciudad Juarez and did lay down his weapons (briefly) after the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez. When Orozco turned against Madero, Villa turned against Orozco, fighting him at the Battle of Chihuahua and Parral. After Villa's defeat in Parral, Madero placed him under the command of V. Huerta. Huerta saw Villa as an enemy and did everything in his power to defeat Villa. He arrested him, but Villa got his hands on a disguise and walked out of prison. After Madero's assassination, Villa was very sad. He started forcing hacendados out of their homes and giving this land to his soldiers and their families as a "thank you" for their service. Villa also targeted Catholic Church holdings, believing that the Church took advantage of the poor.
Who was Francisco Madero?
He is typically considered to be the Father of the Mexican Revolution because he went up against Porfirio Diaz in the 1910 election, only to be arrested for doing so. He ran with the National Anti-re-election Party. He was let out of prison and escaped to San Antonio, Texas, where he wrote the Plan de San Luis Potosi, in which he laid out his goals for Mexico. He appealed to a wide range of Mexican society, including the landless peasants and middle class professionals. His vision for Mexican galvanized many people to fight, including (eventually) Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. When he became president in 1911, after the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, he failed to follow through on many of the promises he made in the Plan de San Luis Potosi (more on that later). He was assassinated after La Decena Tragica in 1913, a plot orchestrated by Victoriano Huerta and US Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson.
Who was Aquiles Serdan?
He tried to start the Mexican Revolution on November 18, 1910, two days early. He figured out the Diaz's army knew about the November 20 start date, so tried to begin it early. He was caught and killed and the Revolution did not start.
Who was Victoriano Huerta?
He was a drunk military commander who gained prominence under Madero. He helped to put Madero in power and keep him there by fighting against Diaz and eventually Orozco. Huerta turned against Villa, who had helped him defeat Orozco. Huerta wanted to become president of Mexico, so, with the help of the American Ambassador to Mexico, Huerta started a coup against Madero. Henry Lane Wilson thought Huerta's military experience would make him a strong leader, and could therefore help calm the Revolution. They convinced Felix Diaz, Porfirio Diaz's brother, to begin revolting against Madero. The revolt ended on February 18, 1913 with an agreement signed by Huerta that Madero would be removed from power. On February 21, 1913, Huerta had Madero and his Vice President, Pino Suarez, assassinated. Huerta declared himself to be president. Venustiano Carranza, the Governor of Coahuila in northern Mexico, began a revolt against Huerta. Villa joined with Carranza. The US refused to recognize the Huerta government since Huerta claimed power by assassinating Madero. In 1914, Wilson sent a ship to the harbor near Veracruz to monitor the situation in Mexico. Nine US sailors disembarked and went on land and Huerta had them arrested for trespassing. Upon their release, President Wilson demanded a public apology and a 21-gun salute from Huerta. Wilson wanted Huerta to surrender as the illegal ruler of Mexico and bow to the authority of the United States. Huerta apologized but refused to do the 21-gun salute. Wilson then began a full-on invasion of Veracruz. Huerta tried to resist, not wanting the US to intervene, but the American troops overpowered his. Huerta finally agreed to resign and he was exiled to Jamaica and/or Spain, but he immigrated to the United States in 1915.
How did Lázaro Cárdenas rise to prominence? Be sure to describe his campaign.
He was a strong general who fought with Calles during the Revolution. Calles then appointed Cárdenas the governor of Michoacán. From there, Cárdenas became the president of Calles' political party, the National Revolutionary Party (PNR). Cárdenas was more left leaning than other presidential hopefuls had been, so Calles put him forward as a candidate to appease the leftwing members of the PNR who were anxious to have a new kind of leader. Calles thought he could control Cárdenas. Cárdenas campaigned like no other presidential hopeful had in Mexico: he traveled across the country with a translator to meet with real people to hear about their needs. He traveled with a translator so he could also hear from indigenous people.
Who was the Secretariat of Public Education under Obregón?
Jose Vasconcelos
What was the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez?
In 1911, Diaz agreed to step down and Madero asked the revolutionaries like Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata to put down their weapons. Zapata and his men refused because Madero had not made good on his promises yet.
How did Álvaro Obregón gain power in Mexico?
In 1919, Álvaro Obregón announced he would run as president in 1920. Technically, the last president, Huerta, had left office in 1914. Obregón accused Carranza of betraying the Revolution; the military backed Obregón. Carranza tried to flee to Veracruz and was killed by Obregón's supporters en route. His train was ambushed. Obregón may have called for this. Obregón was elected in 1920 in a fair election, winning with 95% of the vote. He won on a platform of ending corruption, promising to provide "time, capital, education and...directing hand" to rebuild Mexico and the declaration that the Mexican Revolution was OVER: fighting now done, now it was time to institutionalize Mexican Revolution. His presidency marks the beginning of the "Post Revolutionary State Building" period.
What did Calles do about the Treaty of Bucareli?
In January of 1927, he revoked it. Calles believed in Article 27, particularly when it came to returning the ejidos and removing foreign powers from Mexico. He tried to cancel the contracts of all foreign oil companies and was immediately called a communist by the US. At right around the same time, the Soviet Union opened it first embassy and it happened to be in Mexico. The US started calling Mexico "Soviet Mexico." Calles then canceled some permits for some US companies to drill for oil in Mexico and the US nearly declared war on Mexico.
In February of 1926, Calles created the National Bank of Agrarian Credit. What was its purpose and was it successful?
It was designed to finance regional and local agricultural societies, like ejidos. However, quite quickly, the National Bank of Agrarian Credit began, started giving out loans to people who really didn't need them, such as Álvaro Obregón.
In August 1925, Calles created the National Bank of Mexico. What was the purpose of the bank?
It was to be a central bank (run by government), which could regulate currency and create stability in the economy. Mexico's economy had not been stable since the Revolution began.
What challenges did Madero face as he was assuming power/ruling Mexico?
Madero continued to rely on the rurales to enforce his rule in the countryside. He also continued to enforce the ley fuga, in which suspected criminals could be shot on the spot without a trial. He kept the draft as well. These were the types of policies he promised to abolish when he got to power. He told people that he would get to changes in time, but Zapata did not believe him and ultimately published the Plan de Ayala, which called for the other throw of Madero. Many cientificos were also able to keep their positions in government. Leon de la Barra was interim president while Madero was fighting in the Revolution, and he was a cientifico who did his best to block everything Madero wanted to push through. Additionally, Madero demobilized most of the revolutionary armies as part of the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, which meant that he was under the protection of the federal army, which did not support him. These were some of the reasons that Madero's rule became known as "Porfirismo without Porfirio," as nothing really changed under Madero.
Why is February 14, 1911 an important date for Madero/Mexican Revolution?
Madero returned to Mexico for a second time, this time finding that the Revolution was actually underway.
What were some of Lázaro Cárdenas' biggest failures in land reform?
Most of this is not necessarily a failure of Cárdenas, but these were issues that came out under him. 1.5 million peasants got land under Cárdenas, but this was only 40% of the rural poor. The Banco de Crédito Ejidal did not enough money to keep up with the demand. Hacendados were allowed to keep some land for themselves, and regularly kept the best land. They would also hire thugs to harass the peasants. The ejidos were owned by the government (Article 27), so the peasants weren't technically independent farmers. Despite all of these gains, poverty was still pervasive. In 1940, 26.6% of the population could not afford to buy shoes. In areas with higher native populations, this number was 75%. Outside of Mexico City, 80% of the population did not have access to indoor plumbing or sewage disposal.
How did Mexicans respond to the creation of PEMEX? How did foreign companies respond?
Mexican citizens paraded in support. Foreign companies boycotted Mexican oil, leading to a huge loss of income for Mexico.
When Madero was in power, how successful was his Department of Labor?
Not very. It was staffed with mostly conservatives who did not support labor/worker's rights andthey were more focused on appeasing the land and factory owners than on helping the workers. Workers went on a few strikes and Madero negotiated a few better wage deals, but for the most part, this department represented the people who certainly did not need government protection.
What was the Treaty of Bucareli (1923)?
Obregon made a deal with the USA that said he would honor any foreign ownership in place before the 1917 Constitution, particularly when it came to foreign oil companies 21% to 34% of Mexico's economy depended on oil sales, so Mexico's economy was completely tied to foreign oil ownership. Essentially, the Treaty of Bucareli meant that any foreign companies that already owned property in Mexico could keep it. This Treaty violated article 27 of the 1917 Constitution.
How successful was land reform under Álvaro Obregón?
Obregón chose a former Zapatista as the Minister of Agriculture, responsible for organizing land distribution. However, the Ministry of Agriculture was fairly unsuccessful. The average wait time to receive land was 4 years. Less than 1/3 of the people who applied for land received it and the land that was handed out tended to be of poor quality. Obregón set up the National Agrarian Commission to study the issue of land reform, but it did not accomplish anything. Obregón ensured that the rich kept their land, including himself. He gave more land than Carranza, but this was not saying much. In order to pay back the $1 million in debt Mexico owed to foreign nations, Obregón slashed funding for loan programs that would give peasants money to buy tools and seed to cultivate the land.
How/when did Plutarco Elías Calles become the president of Mexico?
Obregón wanted Calles to be the next president. Calles won 1924 election with 84% of vote. This was one of the first peaceful transitions of power since the Mexican Revolution began.
Why was the Battle of Ciudad Juarez significant in the Mexican Revolution?
Pancho Villa helped Pascual Orozco capture Ciudad Juarez, resulting in Diaz's choice to go into exile. He signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, which paved the way for Madero's rise to power.
Who was Pancho Villa?
Pancho Villa led the armies of the North after proving himself to be a better military commander than Orozco, who Madero had appointed. He was a bandit who fought for small farmers, industrial workers, muleteers and more. It is unclear whether he was fighting for a cause or because he enjoyed the violence. His right-hand-man was "El Carnicero" (the butcher), who was basically Villa's personal assassin. He supported Madero throughout the fighting and Madero's term in office. He was somewhat considered to be a "robin hood" who would steal land and horses from rich hacendados and give them to the poor. He wasn't particularly interested in land reform or democracy, but wanted Northern Mexico to be able to focus on dealing with its own needs without the interference from the federal government
Why is November 20, 1910 an important day in Mexican history?
This was the date that Madero said the Revolution should start in his Plan de San Luis Potosi. This was also the date the Madero came back to Mexico from Texas, only to find that the Revolution was not underway, so he went back to Texas.
When and why was the Cristero War fought and who was it fought between?
The National League for Religious Defense was created even before Calles became president, as Catholics saw the restrictions Calles placed on churches as governor of Sonora. When he became president, he put in place the Calles Laws. The Church went on strike, refusing to perform religious services, which caused uproar in the population. Conservative landowners, wanting to get back at Calles for the limited land reform he enacted, funded armed rebel groups. These groups called themselves Cristeros, after their cry "Viva Cristo Rey" (Long Live Christ the King). The federal government and the Cristeros fought for 3 years.
What were some of Lázaro Cárdenas' biggest successes in education?
The 1934 "Six Year Plan" demanded the 15% of state budgets must be dedicated to education. The number of primary schools grew from 8,477 at the beginning of his term to 12,879 at the end. 54% more students began attending primary school. Hygiene, sex education, anti-alcohol campaigns and farming were introduced to the curriculum, making learning very relevant for students. Teachers helped to glorify indigenismo, in which native culture and language were put forward as symbols of the Mexican national identity. In 1936, the Department for Ingenious Affairs was created as a branch of the Secretariat of Public Education. The Department of Indigenous Affairs helped to re-write some textbooks to stress the importance of the indigenous in Mexican history, particularly during the Revolution. Figures like Emiliano Zapata were emphasized. Progressive towns that supported Cárdenas saw huge increases in literacy.
Name the Secretary of Public Education and the Under-secretary of Public Education under Plutarco Calles.
The Secretary of Public Education was José Puig Casauranc and the Under-secretary was Moisés Sáenz.
What is PEMEX?
The nationalized Mexican oil company, created in 1938. The Mexican government owns it. Cárdenas was able to nationalize it became of the Expropriation Law of 1935
What do the Partido Nacional Revolucionario, the Partido Revolución Mexicana and the Partido Institucional Revolucionario have in common?
They are the same political party, which ruled Mexico from 1929 to 2000 and again from 2012- present.
Who were the rurales?
They were the rural police force that Diaz used to enforce his rule. Peasants were terrified of them. They followed the ley fuga, which allowed them to shoot suspected criminals on the spot, no trial needed. Despite promises to make life safer and better for peasants, Madero kept the rurales and his reliance on them was 1 reason his rule was labeled "Porfirismo without Porfirio"
What are 8 things the Plan de San Luis Potosi said?
This document highlighted the inequalities in Mexico and put forward a plan for how to make positive changes. It discussed: 1) democracy 2) fair elections 3) the removal of Diaz and the científicos from office 4) the restoration of indigenous land holdings ("ejidos") 5) dealing with economic inequalities in Mexico 6) no re-election of government officials 7) that government should listen to the will of the people 8) that the 1910 elections should be considered null and void, as Diaz rigged them 9) Madero becoming the president 10) Mexicans picking up their weapons to fight on Nov, 20, 1910
In September of 1925, Calles created the National Road Commission. What was its purpose and was it successful?
This organization was to improve transportation across Mexico to help with trade and connectivity. It planned to build 10,000 km of roads in 4 years and managed to build 7,000 km, financed through taxes on gasoline.
Explain La Decena Trágica.
This period lasted from February 9-19, 1913. Felix Diaz, Porfirio Diaz's brother, rose up against Madero at the request of Victoriano Huerta and US Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson. Huerta put down the uprising and signed a treaty that would remove Madero from power. Therefore, this event ended with a coup d'état against Madero. Huerta and Wilson then took it a step further and had Madero and his VP, Pino Suarez, assassinated.
Describe politics during the Porfirato.
This period was when Porfirio Diaz was in power in Mexico and was a cruel dictator. He was elected in 1876 and changed the Constitution to not allow re-election of presidents and universal voting rights as well as the separation of church and state. He hand-picked his successor in 1880, but then came back in 1884, changed the Constitution to allow re-elections and then rigged elections until 1911 so he could maintain power. He led a government of "científicos" who believed in positivism, which basically meant that they governed by focusing on science and not politics. Científicos were selected based ontheir knowledge or skills, not in democratic elections. The politic system was fairly closed. In order to vote,Mexicans had to have an honest means of earning a living, meet a minimum wealth requirement, beliterate and have served in the military or done something else to prove level of patriotism. Since so few people could vote, the political system was corrupt and unrepresentative. The interests of the few guided government, and those in charge tended to be creoles (of pure Spanish blood - though Diaz was a mestizo). By 1910, only 20% of Mexicans could read. Diaz's "pan o palo" guided his rule of the country - bread or stick - ie "do what I say or else." The "rurales" enforced Diaz's rule. In 1908, Diaz announced he would not run for re-election, which caused a number of opposition parties to ready themselves for the first real election since 1876 (Creelman interview). In 1909, he changed his mind and decided to run in 1910, and then jailed all of the presidential hopefuls, including a man name Francisco Madero.
Explain some the reforms that Jose Vasconcelos put in place to change education.
Vasconcelos believed that indigenous traditions were holding Mexico back from making progress as a modern nation. He wanted to bring the indigenous people into modern society and help them to see themselves as Mexican. On the one hand, he wanted to improve literacy and teach everyone in Mexico about the great revolutionary history. On the other hand, he was quite racist and determined to eliminate much of the indigenous cultures. He was an advocate for teaching Mexican culture, and did not want women baking US cakes, for example, but sent readers to indigenous community full of works by the likes of Dante and Homer. He seemed either confused about what constituted Mexican Identity, or in denial that Mexican Identity should be based on the indigenous cultures who had flourished there long before the conquest. He built hundreds of libraries and stocked them with hundreds of books, but did not focus on actually improving literacy. His rural schools focused on traditional subjects, which likely included reading, but also on the dangers of alcohol and the importance of hygiene. His model was paternalistic and focused more on what he thought the indigenous needed; he never asked what the indigenous people most needed. He focused on a "aesthetic culture" which attempted to rid Mexican culture of foreign influence, but ironically, he focused more on foreign than nataive culture: Spanish over indigenous languages, classically trained artists over indigenous art forms, to name a few.
What was the relationship like between Carranza and Villa?
Villa had been helping Carranza to fight against Huerta, but Carranza was worried about howpopular Villa was becoming in the north, so he put forward General Alvaro Obregon as his new favorite general, setting off a competition to get to Mexico City first. Once Huerta was gone, Villa and Carranza realized that there was now a power vacuum. Carranza sent Obregón to Mexico City with orders to beat Villa there - he who controls Mexico City controls Mexico. Carranza controlled many coalmines in the north and he cut off Villa's coal supply, so Villa was unable to fuel the final leg of his trip to Mexico City. Additionally, President Wilson stopped supplying Villa weapons and began supplying them to Carranza, mostly because he did not want any one group to grow too powerful in Mexico. This caused greater tension between the two.
Who was Pancho Villa?
Villa ruined it when his men went on a rampage in Mexico City, killing Zapatistas and raping many Zapatista women. When US President Wilson recognize the Carranza government, despite no official elections being held, Villa attacked Columbus, NM in 1916 to try to provoke US intervention. Villa believed that the US would turn on Carranza, but in fact, the US turned on him. General John Pershing was charged with finding and capturing Villa.
Who was Pancho Villa?
Villa was careful to protect US property in Mexico. In a show of gratitude for this protection, President Wilson's government sold weapons and ammunition to Villa. Villa became one of the most respected men in Northern Mexico, becoming the Supreme Chief of the Division of the North (guerilla army). The poor and downtrodden people of the North began to see that their lives could change, since one of their own (Villa) had become so powerful. Villa and Carranza started to butt heads, even though Villa was supporting Carranza. Carranza was worried that Villa was too popular.
How successful was land reform under Plutarco Elías Calles?
While he handed out more land than any president who had come before, he too handed out land that was not easily cultivated and did not provide loans for tools or seeds.
Explain some the reforms that José Puig Casauranc and Moisés Sáenz put in place to change education.
While their reforms were not perfect, they were somewhat better than Vasconcelos'. They did not ask the indigneous communities what they most wanted/needed, but they did focus a little more on indigenous tradition. They helped to make schools less reliant on federal money by turning schools into productive centers, where students raised gardens, bees and animals to sell. This not only ensured a budget if the federal government cut education spending, but also cultivated skills that were likely to help these communtiies in the future, and were part of their traditions (farming). Rural schools un Saenz were meant to assimilate native Americans into modern society, but schools were in the communities, and students were not forced to leave home, unlike the US and Canadian system of Indian Residential Schools. In rural schools, there were attempts to change indigenous belief systems through the introduction of science to counter traditional beliefs. Saenz created model primary schools in some of the large cities to train teachers in the best methods of teaching, which was better than what Vasconcelos did, which was to publish a magazine, El Maestro, to train teachers. La Casa de Estudiante Indígena brought 200 indigenous students to Mexico City to study, with they hope they would go back to their villages, but instead, students stayed in the city. Central Agricutural Schools taught farming tecniques, which wasn't really needed; what people needed was better land than had been given out thus far as they already had the know-how to farm.
Was there any opposition to Lázaro Cárdenas' education reforms?
Yes. Conservative towns that tended to side with the church refused to comply with new curriculum. 200 teachers were killed in such towns, and many other teachers have their ears cut off for not listening to God. There were not all that many of these towns, but the few that did exist made their existence very known.
What were the "ejidos"?
communal land holdings that many indigenous communities owed together. These groups would farm the land together and provide for their whole community. Under the Porfiriato, ejido lands were often given away to foreign owners/companies and because the indigenous often did not have proper land titles (b/c land was passed down generation to generation), they could not prove ownership. One of Francisco Madero's goals in the Plan de San Luis Potosi was to get the ejido land back into the lands of the indigenous communities they originally belonged to.
What did Article 123 of the 1917 Mexican Constitution say? How effective was it?
• 8-hour workday • Equal pay for equal work, regardless of sex or nationality. (meant to counteract issues with differential pay between Mexican and American workers on the border) • Companies required to pay in money, not goods. • Overtime pay mandated. • Social Security system • Women and children not to work on any dangerous jobs. • Women given a month a paid maternity leave. • No other Constitution in the Americas protected workers this much. • Effective? Unions could now regulate punishment. Firing a worker without just cause was no longer acceptable. Mexican workers had job security and union leaders who tried to keep them safe. For first time, Mexican workers could save money because they were paid more fair wages. Women and children better protected than they had ever been in the industrial sector of Mexico (and better protected than woman and children in the US)
What did Article 27 of the 1917 Mexican Constitution say? How effective was it?
• All land in Mexico belonged to the government. • Government was only body that could grant people ownership of land. • Government could revoke private ownership rights at any time. • "Only Mexican [citizens]...and Mexican companies have the right to acquire ownership of lands, waters" etc. • Foreign companies would be given land titles upon the consent of the government; could exploit resources, but would not own land rights. • Religious institutions no longer allowed to own land. • Any land purchased since 1876 would be reviewed and titles could be revoked. • Effective? For landless peasants/village communities whose land had been taken over by hacendados, this article gave them hope, as they now had a legal right to reclaim land (ejidos). The federal government would run land reform and preference Mexican citizens, particularly those who did not own land. Foreign companies became fearful of losing their land in Mexico and therefore losing investments, but this did not begin to happen until Calles' rule.
What did Article 3 of the 1917 Mexican Constitution say? How effective was it?
• Kids ages 4-15 must attend four+ years of free elementary school. • Religious education not permitted in public schools. • Education should teach democracy, nationalism, respect for the dignity of mankind and "equality of rights of all men." • Effective? This article faced huge opposition from the Catholic Church, as 90% of the population was Catholic. Carranza gave less than 1% of his budget to education, so most states could not build new schools to help meet these new demands.
What did Article 71/72/76 of the 1917 Mexican Constitution say? How effective was it?
• No Vice President and a weak Congress. • Effective? For Carranza, this was really the only part of the Constitution that he liked because it gave the president nearly total power.
What did Article 83 of the 1917 Mexican Constitution say? How effective was it?
• Presidents, governors and mayors could not be elected for a second term. • Presidential terms = 6 years. • Effective? While this was a fulfillment of one of Francisco Madero's original goals for the Revolution, it was eventually revoked.
What did Article 130 of the 1917 Mexican Constitution say? How effective was it?
• Roman Catholic Church in Mexico was recognition as a legal entity. • Priests not allowed to vote/participate in politics • # of priests per state was limited. • Religious education in public schools forbidden. • Religious schools could stay open if taught nationalist curriculum only • Religious rituals outside of churches banned - no display of religious belief in public. • All churches/church-affiliated organizations (monasteries, for example) became the property of the government of Mexico. • Effective? Mexican Bishops demanded Carranza remove the anti-church laws; did not repeal Article 130, but did not enforce. Plutarco Elias Calles would later try to enforce laws as president. Result: Cristero War from 1926-1929 over religious freedom in Mexico. Many teachers in Catholic schools fired: not enough pupils and as a further result, many Catholic schools shut down. Many children could not travel to the nearest public school; over a million children were therefore unable to attend school
What did Article 2 of the 1917 Mexican Constitution say? How effective was it?
• The rights of the indigenous people must be respected/protected. Indigenous communities can decide their form of "social, economic, political and cultural organization." • Indigenous people can run for office and all barriers to success must be fixed (schooling, language barriers etc). • Effective? This helped to establish equality in the eyes of the law. While many indigenous learned Spanish, some said that this eroded indigenous culture. Others said it helped them to participate in the broader creation of a Mexican identity. This helped set the tone for the education and muralist movement in the 1920s.
