MGMT-464: Chapter 5 - Foundations of Employee Motivation

Notes from Slide 142

Job enrichment: modifying a job to give employees an opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. Job enrichment is achieved by vertical loading, which consists of giving workers more autonomy and responsibility. Job enrichment is the practical application of Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory.

The What and Why of Motivation

Motivation: the underlying psychological influences over our behavior or thoughts (the fuel that drives results and performance) • Direction • Intensity • Persistence Types of Motivation • Extrinsic • Intrinsic

Self-determination theory

Assumes that three innate needs influence our behavior and well-being: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. This theory focuses on needs that we are born with which are proposed to produce intrinsic motivation, which in turn is expected to enhance task performance.

Content theories of motivation

Based on the idea that an employee's needs influence his or her motivation.

Hygiene factors

Cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction and include company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one's supervisor, and working conditions.

Motivating factors/motivators

Cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction and include achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement.

Scientific management

Conducts a business by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning • Plus: increased efficiency and productivity • Negative: Encourages repetitive jobs which may lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, stress, and a low sense of accomplishment and growth

Safety

Consists of the need to be safe from physical and psychological harm.

Expectancy Theory

Holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes. The essence of Vroom's expectancy theory described in Figure 5.8 is that motivation is the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific task situation. • Expectancy: an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. • Instrumentality: the perceived relationship between performance and outcomes. • Valence: the positive or negative value of a reward or outcome.

Content theories

Identify internal factors such as needs and satisfaction that energize employee motivation.

Motivating factors or motivators

Including achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement—cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction.

Job enlargement

Involves putting more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty

C

Jane believes if she works hard and takes an online class she will receive a promotion. What element of motivation does this represent? a. justice theory b. equity theory c. instrumentality d. valence e. expectancy

Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals)

Represent "employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development.

Expectancy

Represents an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance.

Job crafting

Represents employees' attempts to proactively shape their work characteristics.

Persistence

Represents for how long that activity is the focus of one's attention

Intensity

Represents the amount of effort being invested in the activity

Extrinsic motivation

Results from the potential or actual receipt of external rewards such as recognition, money, or a promotion

Extrinsic motivation

Results from the potential or actual receipt of external rewards.

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor formulated two contrasting sets of assumptions about human nature in Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X • Employees dislike work. • Can only be motivated with rewards and punishments. Theory Y • Employees are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative

Job enrichment

Entails modifying a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience greater • Achievement • Recognition • Stimulating work • Responsibility • Advancement

Process theories

Explain the process by which internal factors and situational factors influence employee motivation.

Process theories of motivation

Focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and environmental/situational characteristics influence employee motivation. • Examples: Expectancy Theory, Equity Theory

Content theories of motivation

Focus on identifying internal factors such as needs and satisfaction that energize employee motivation • Examples: McGregor's Theory X & Y, Maslow's Need Hierarchy, McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory, Self-Determination Theory, and Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory

Slide 136 Notes

Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance than general goals like "do your best" or "improve performance." In order for goal setting to work, people must have the ability and resources needed to achieve the goal, and they need to be committed to the goal or goal setting will not lead to higher performance. Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient for goal setting to work. Goal achievement leads to job satisfaction, which in turn motivates employees to set and commit to even higher levels of performance.

How Does Goal Setting Work?

Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance. Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work. • People need ability and resources. • People need to be committed to the goal. Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient. Goal achievement leads to job satisfaction.

Job characteristics model

To promote high intrinsic motivation by designing jobs that possess the five core job characteristics.

Content and Process theories

What are the two fundamental perspectives on motivation?

Maslow's Need Hierarchy

• Self-Actualization • Esteem • Love • Safety • Physiological • Abraham Maslow proposed that motivation is a function of five basic needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization. • Maslow contended that the five needs are arranged in a prepotent hierarchy, and he believed that human needs generally emerge in a predictable stair-step fashion. • Once a need is satisfied, it activates the next higher need in the hierarchy until the highest need, the need for self-actualization is activated.

Idiosyncratic Deals (I-Deals)

• The employment deals individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development • Drives employee intrinsic motivation I-deals tend to involve task and work responsibilities, schedule flexibility, location flexibility, and compensation. The goal of such deals is to increase employee motivation and productivity by allowing employees the flexibility to negotiate employment relationships that meet their needs and values.

Mechanisms Behind the Power of Goal Setting

1) Goals direct attention 2) Goals regulate effort 3) Goals increase persistence 4) Goals foster task strategies and action plans

Theory X

A pessimistic view of employees: They dislike work, must be monitored, and can be motived only with rewards and punishment ("carrots and sticks").

Motivating Employees: Job Design

Altering jobs to improve the quality of employee job experience and level productivity Historical • Top-Down Approach: Management Designs Job Recent • Bottom-Up Approach: Employee or Work Teams Design Job Emerging • Idiosyncratic Deals (I-Deals) Approach: Employee and Management Design Job

Self-determination theory

Assumes that three innate needs influence our behavior and well-being—the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Job rotation

Calls for moving employees from one specialized job to another Advantages of job rotation • Engagement and motivation increased • Increased worker flexibility and easier scheduling • Increased employee knowledge and abilities

Valence

Describes the positive or negative value people place on outcomes.

Motivation

Describes the psychological processes "that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought."

Self-Actualization

Desire for self-fulfillment—to become the best one is capable of becoming.

Goal specificity

Means whether a goal has been quantified.

A

Self-determination theory focuses on a. three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. b. extrinsic motivation. c. lower order needs. d. needs for power and affiliation. e. basic needs.

Love

The desire to be loved and to love. Includes the needs for affection and belonging.

Need for achievement

The desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others.

Needs for achievement

The desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others.

Need for power

The desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage other to achieve.

Need for power

The desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve.

Need for affiliation

The desire to maintain social relationships, be liked, and join groups.

Equity theory

A model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships.

Equity (Justice) theory

A model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships. • Based on our evaluation and comparison of outputs and inputs with relevant others. • Based on cognitive dissonance theory, which contends that people are motivated to maintain consistency between their beliefs and their behavior. • Contends that when people are victimized by unfair social exchanges, their resulting cognitive dissonance prompts them to correct the situation.

Theory Y

A modern and positive set of assumptions about people at work which contends that they are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative.

Theory Y

A modern and positive set of assumptions about people at work: They are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative.

Theory X

A pessimistic view of employees which contends that they dislike work, must be monitored, and can only be motivated with rewards and punishments.

Job rotation

Calls for moving employees from one specialized job to another.

Process theories of motivation

Describe how various person factors and situation factors in the Organizing Framework affect motivation.

Interactional justice

Describes the "quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented."

C - Autonomy

Jorge would like to increase intrinsic motivation by giving his employees independence and discretion in certain aspects of their job. According to the job characteristics model, which core job dimension is he using? • task identity • task significance • autonomy • feedback • skill variety

Physiological

Most basic need. Entails having enough food, air, and water to survive.

Justice Theory

Organizational justice refers to the extent to which people perceive that they are treated fairly at work based on three different components: Three types of justice • Distributive justice • Procedural justice • Interactional justice

Direction

Pertains to what an individual is attending to at a given time

Needs

Physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior.

Motivator-hygiene theory

Proposes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets of factors—satisfaction comes from motivating factors and dissatisfaction from hygiene factors.

Job design

Refers to any set of activities that alter jobs to improve the quality of employee experience and level of productivity.

Autonomy need

The need to feel independent to influence one's environment; the desire to have freedom and discretion in determining what you want to do and how you want to do it.

Instrumentality

The perceived relationship between performance and outcomes.

Interactional justice

The quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented.

Slide 139 Notes

Job design/job redesign/work design: any set of activities that alter jobs to improve the quality of employee experience and level of productivity. Top-down approaches to job design are manager led, bottom-up approaches are driven by the employee, and idiosyncratic deals (i-deals) are jointly negotiated by employees and individual managers. Job design focuses on increasing employee motivation by changing the type of tasks employees complete.

Distributive justice

Reflects the perceived fairness of the way resources and rewards are distributed or allocated.

Distributive justice

The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated.

Using equity and justice theories

• Employee perceptions are what count. • Employees want a voice in decisions that affect them. • Employees should be given an appeals process. • Leader behavior matters. • A climate for justice makes a difference.

Self-Determination Theory

• Needs are learned over time • Three innate needs influence behavior o Competence o Autonomy o Relatedness

Job enrichment

Modifies a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement.

Intrinsic motivation

Occurs when an individual is inspired by the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well.

Voice climate

One in which employees are encouraged to freely express their opinions and feelings.

Expectancy theory

Holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes.

Hygiene factors

Including company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions—cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction.

Notes from Slide 145

Job crafting: employees' attempts to proactively shape their work characteristics. The job-crafting approach to job design represents proactive and adaptive employee behavior aimed at changing tasks, relationships, and cognitions associated with one's job. Table 5-2 defines and illustrates the three key forms of job crafting. The first form of job crafting involves changing one's task boundaries by altering the number, scope, or nature of job tasks. The second form of job crafting changes the relational nature of a job by changing the quality and/or amount of interaction with others encountered in a job. The final form of job crafting is cognitive crafting by altering perceptions or thoughts about the tasks and relationships associated with a job. Job crafting can change how employees perceive their jobs, resulting in more positive attitudes about their jobs, which, in turn, results in increased employee motivation, engagement, and performance.

Slide 135 Notes

Motivation is based on a two-stage sequence of expectations: • Motivation is affected by an individual's expectation that a certain level of effort will produce the intended performance goal. • Motivation is also influenced by the employee's perceived chances of getting various outcomes as a result of accomplishing his or her performance goal. Individuals are motivated to the extent that they value the outcomes received. According to expectancy theory, employee motivation will be high when all three elements in the model are high (i.e., expectancy, instrumentality, and valence), and low if any element is near zero.

Esteem

Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. Also includes need for self-confidence and strength.

Intrinsic motivation

Occurs when an individual is inspired by "the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors for the motivation to work effectively.

Job enlargement

Puts more variety into worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty.

Need hierarchy theory

States that motivation is a function of five basic needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.

McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

States that three needs—achievement, affiliation, and power—are the key drivers of employee behavior. Achievement • Prefers working on challenges • Best in situations in which performance is due to effort and ability • Prefers to work with other high achievers Affiliation • Likes to work in teams with cooperation and collegiality • Tends to avoid conflict • Likes to be praised in private Power • Likes to be in charge • Likes to be in control of people and events • Appreciates being recognized People vary in the extent that they possess these needs, and often one need dominates the other two. People motivated by the need for achievement prefer working on challenging, but not impossible, tasks or projects and like to be rewarded for their efforts. People motivated by the need for affiliation like to work in teams and in organizational climates characterized as cooperative and collegial, and they tend to avoid conflict. People with a high need for power like to be in charge, and they enjoy coaching and helping others develop.

Acquired needs theory

States that three needs—for achievement, affiliation, and power—are the key drivers of employee behavior.

Scientific management

That kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning.

Need for affiliation

The desire to maintain social relationships, to be liked, and to join groups.

Slide 137 Notes

The four motivational mechanisms that fuel the power of goal setting are that: 1) Goals direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities. For example, if a student has a term project due in a few days, their thoughts tend to revolve around completing it. 2) Goals regulate effort and have an energizing function in that they motivate us to act. For example, the deadline to turn in the project would motivate a student to act. 3) Goals increase persistence (effort expended on a task over an extended period of time) when they are important. 4) Goals foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans so that we can accomplish them. For example, teams of employees at a company may meet every 45, 60, and 90 days to create action plans for accomplishing goals.

Relatedness need

The need to be connected with others; the desire to feel part of a group, to belong, and to be connected with others.

Competence need

The need to feel efficacious; the desire to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable to complete an act, task, or goal.

Using Maslow's Theory

To motivate employees • Remember employees have needs beyond a paycheck • Focus on satisfying employee needs related to self-concepts. o Self-esteem o Self-actualization • Satisfied needs lose their potential • Be careful when estimating employee's needs • Since a satisfied need may lose its motivational potential, managers are advised to motivate employees by devising programs or practices aimed at satisfying emerging or unmet needs.

• Scientific management • Job enlargement • Job rotation • Job enrichment • Job Characteristics Model

Top-Down Approaches to Job Design

Applying Expectancy Theory for Managers

• Determine the outcomes that employees' value. • Identify good performance so appropriate can be rewarded. • Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels. • Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance. • Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort. • Monitor the reward system for inequalities.

Elements of Equity Theory

The key elements of equity theory as described in Figure 5.6 include outputs, inputs, and a comparison of the ratio of outputs to inputs. • Outputs: "What do I perceive that I'm getting out of my job?" • Inputs: "What do I perceive that I'm putting into my job?" • Comparison: "How does my ratio of outputs to inputs compare with relevant others?" Your feelings of inequity revolve around your evaluation of whether you are receiving adequate rewards to compensate for your collective inputs in comparison to the ratio of relevant others. There are three different equity relationships resulting from an equity comparison: equity (i.e., person fares comparably), negative inequity (i.e., person fares worse than others), and positive inequity (i.e., person fares better than others).

Procedural justice

The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions.

Motivation

The psychological processes that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought.

Equity and justice theories offer practical lessons

• Employees' perceptions of the equity of the organization's policies, procedures, and reward system are what count. • Employees' perceptions of justice are enhanced when they have a voice in the decision-making process. o Voice: the discretionary or formal expression of ideas, opinions, suggestions, or alternative approaches directed to a specific target inside or outside of the organization with the intent to change an objectionable state of affairs and to improve the current functioning of the organization. o A voice climate is one in which employees are encouraged to freely express their opinions and feelings. • Employees should be given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare. • Employees' perceptions of justice are strongly influenced by the leadership behavior exhibited by their managers. • Team performance was found to be higher in companies that possessed a climate for justice.

Job crafting

• Represents employees' attempts to proactively shape their work characteristics, including • Scope, number and types of tasks • Quality and amount of interaction with others • Cognitive crafting: perception of or thinking about tasks and relationships in job

Applying Expectancy Theory for Organizations

• Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret. • Design challenging jobs. • Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation. • Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment. • Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires. • Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the motivation program.

Slide 141 Notes

Job enlargement: putting more variety into a job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty. This strategy is also referred to as horizontally loading the job because employees perform additional tasks of similar difficulty. Used alone without other motivational methods, it does not have a significant and lasting positive effect on job performance. Job rotation: moving employees from one specialized job to another to give them greater variety in their work. By using job rotation, managers believe they can stimulate interest and motivation while providing employees with a broader perspective of the organization. The cross-training used with job rotation can increase worker flexibility and ease scheduling. Employees might be more promotable with their new knowledge and abilities.

Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory

Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets of factors. • Hygiene: cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction. • Motivating: cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction To improve motivation, managers can improve the motivators that drive satisfaction and improve hygiene factors that otherwise reduce job satisfaction. Herzberg proposed that individuals will experience the absence of job dissatisfaction when they have no grievances about hygiene factors and that managers can motivate individuals by incorporating motivators into an individual's job. Insights from Herzberg's theory allow managers to consider the dimensions of both job content and job context, so they can manage for greater job satisfaction overall.

C

Juan is trying to learn how to use advanced spreadsheet features. He is not getting the correct answers, but he keeps trying. What is Juan exhibiting? a. direction b. extrinsic motivation c. persistence d. attention to detail e. emotional Intelligence

The Job Characteristics Model

Linked to • Increased job satisfaction • Enhanced employee intrinsic motivation • Increased performance • Reduced stress • Lower absenteeism Moderator variables, including knowledge and skill, growth need strength, and context satisfactions, impact an individual's responses to job enrichment, and not everyone desires a job containing high amounts of the core job characteristics. Research demonstrates the model can be used to increase employee job satisfaction.

Using self-determination theory

Managers can apply this theory by trying to influence behavior by creating work environments that support and encourage the opportunity to experience competence, autonomy, and relatedness. • Managers can provide tangible resources, time, contracts, and coaching to improve employee competence. • Managers can empower employees and delegate meaningful assignments and tasks to enhance feelings of autonomy. • Many companies use fun and camaraderie to foster relatedness.

Slide 140 Notes

Scientific management: the kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning. On the positive side, designing jobs according to the principles of scientific management increases employee efficiency and productivity. On the negative side, designing jobs according to the principles of scientific management results in simplified, repetitive jobs, which can lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, higher levels of stress, and a low sense of accomplishment and personal growth.

Voice

The discretionary or formal expression of ideas, opinions, suggestions, or alternative approaches directed to a specific target inside or outside of the organization with the intent to change an objectionable state of affairs and to improve the current functioning of the organization.

The Job Characteristics Model

Promotes high intrinsic motivation by designing jobs that possess the five core job characteristics. Figure 5-10 shows intrinsic motivation is determined by three psychological states and five core job characteristics, which are influenced by moderator variables. The core job characteristics of this model are: Skill variety: extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities. Task identity: extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. Task significance: extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization. Autonomy: extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job. Feedback: extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job.