MGT 301 Test 2
Objectives for Employee Orientation Programs
1) Assist the new employee in adjusting to the organization and feeling comfortable and positive about the new job 2) Clarify the job requirements, demands, and performance expectations 3) Get the employee to understand the organization's culture and quickly adopt the organization's goals, values, and behaviors
Safeguards against Bias
1) Clearly communicated performance standards 2) Knowledge of PA procedures 3) Linking PAs to job description detail is key to effective PA
The Bottom-Line Chronology on Staffing
1) Define the job with a focus on job specifications compatible with strategic goals and executing those goals 2) Recruit from a broad pool of candidates 3) Use valid initial screening devices 4) Do background/reference checks 5) Use behavioral interview technique with structured format or independent multiple interviewers asking behavioral questions 6) Use actuarial (and valid) weighting scheme for information 7) Extend an offer
After Training
1) Encourage trainees to practice skills on their jobs in between training sessions 2) Ensure that there is a supportive climate for learning and for transferring new behaviors by building managerial support for training, providing trainees with the freedom to set personal performance goals, and encouraging risk taking among trainees 3) Have trainees present their new learning to co-workers once they return 4) Give employees opportunities to demonstrate that they can use the new skills 5) Encourage continual learning by employees
Stages for Employee Orientation Programs
1) General introduction to the organization, given by the HR department 2) A specific orientation to the department and the job typically given by the employee's immediate supervisor 3) A follow-up meeting to verify that the important issues have been addressed and the employee questions have been answered
Steps for employer to abide by the FCRA
1) Give job candidate being investigated a notice in writing that you may request an investigative report, and obtain a signed consent form 2) provide a summary of rights under federal law 3) certify to the investigation company that you will comply with federal and state laws by signing a form the should provide 4) provide a copy of the report in a letter to the person investigated if a copy has been requested or if an adverse action is taken based on the information in the report
Systems Model of Training
1) Needs Assessment 2) Development 3) Evaluation
Ways organizations can eliminate entrenchment
1) Offer generous severance pay packages to fund employees' explorations into new careers 2) encourage portability of benefits such as pension funds and accrued time off 3) provide ongoing career counseling and outplacement assistance to attend classes while still employed 4) offer tuition reimbursement and time off for employees to attend classes 5) implement staged retirement programs 6) give employees time to rotate to other positions in the organization to explore other career options 7) allow employees to phase out of jobs and not automatically eliminate them 8) emphasize the importance of learning and development throughout the organization 9) encourage employees to think about career-planning issues 10) extend portability of medical coverage and other insurances for 18-24 months
Steps in the PA Process
1) Preparation- how does the supervisor prepare? 2) Encourage self-evaluation 3) Set convenient time and place 4) Rate performance-typical performance level 5) Evaluate yourself as a manager and facilitator of performance
Conducting the PA Interview
1) Put the employee at ease 2) Reach agreement on solutions and methods for improvement 3) Set goals for next PA period
Reducing voluntary turnover
1) Rely on employee referrals- candidates more apt to understand the nature of the job and organization, more likely to strengthen commitment 2) put weight on tenure in previous jobs- short-term employment may reflect a poor work ethic, which is correlated with lack of organizational commitment and turnover 3) Measure intent to quit- good predictor of turnover 4) measure the applicant's desires/motivations and job compatibility for the position- new employees with strong desire for employment will require less time to be assimilated into the organization's culture 5) use disguised-purpose dispositional measures- Persons with high self-confidence should respond more favorably to the challenges of a new environment, less likely to quit, more committed, more decisive
Effective Performance Management and Appraisal
1) Strive for as much precision in defining and measuring performance dimensions as is feasible. 2) Link performance dimensions to meeting internal and external customer requirements. 3) Incorporate the measurement of situational constraints
Self-efficacy
A feeling of control and accomplishment, the sense that you can control your own destiny. Related to motivation to learn, which is subsequently related to motivation to transfer the skills.
Career Development systems
A formal, organized, planned effort to achieve a balance between individual career needs and organizational workforce requirements. If effective, it will integrate individual career planning endeavors and organizational career management activities.
Performance
A record of outcomes produced on specified job functions or activities during a specified time period. Set of outcomes produced during a certain period of time, and does not refer to the traits, personal characteristics, or competencies of the performer.
Personnel Testing: Personality and Motivation
Ability means very little without the motivation to use it. Paper-and-pencil tests, video and telephone testing, and online testing. Valid predictors of job performance and other important criteria such as job tenure or turnover, and counter productive work behavior (CWB) such as employee theft, aberrant or disruptive behaviors, and interpersonal and organizational deviance.
Possible Situational Constraints on Performance
Absenteeism or turnover of key positions. Inadequate clerical support. Shortages of supplies and/or raw materials. Excessive restrictions on operating expenses. Inability to hire needed staff. Inadequate performance of subordinates or managers. Inefficient organizational structure. Excessive/reporting requirements. Changes in administrative policies, procedures, and/or regulations. Pressures from co-workers to limit an individual's performance.
Advantages of Self-Directed Learning Methods
Advantages include: 1) reduced training time, as compared to more conventional methods; 2) more favorable attitudes by trainees; 3) more consistency with an adult learning approach; 4) minimal reliance on instructors or trainers; 5) mobility; 6) flexibility; 7) consistency of the information taught to all trainees; 8) cost savings
The Evaluation Phase: Two criteria in Designs for Evaluating Training
After determining the criteria to use in evaluating the training program, the trainer should choose an experimental design. The design is used to answer two primary questions: 1) Did change occur? 2) Can change be attributed to the training program?
Performance data use: Research and Evaluation
Appraisal data can also be used to determine whether various human resource programs (ex: selection, training, recruitment) are effective.
Straight ranking
Appraisal system that asks the rater to simply identify the "best" employee, the "second best," and so forth, until the rater has identified the worst employee. Rank ordering.
Paired Comparisons
Appraisal system that requires the rater to compare all possible pairs of ratees on "overall performance" or some other usually vaguely defined, standard.
Forced Distribution
Appraisal system that usually presents the rater with a limited number of categories (usually 3-7) and requires the rater to place a designated portion of the ratees into each category. Usually places the majority of employees in the middle category while fewer employees are placed in the higher and lower categories.
Content Validity
Assesses the degree to which the contents of a selection method represent the requirements of the job.
Highlights of Training Conditions: Goal Setting
Can help employees improve their performance by directing their attention to specific behaviors that need to be changed. Sets the bar higher. Improves performance because it affects four mechanisms: 1) it directs and focuses a person's behavior 2) it increases an individual's effort toward attaining the goal 3) it encourages an individual to persist toward the goal or work harder and faster to attain it 4) it enables the individual to set specific strategies for attaining the goal
Individual Counseling
Common career development activity that helps employees understand their career goals in one-on-one counseling sessions using workbooks and other self-assessment exercises and through discussions of the employees' interests, goals, current job activities and performance, and career objectives.
Reorganization
Companies may be refocusing around core competencies. Organizational initiative that could have negative consequences
External focus
Component of a career. Your actual job
Internal focus
Component of a career. Your view of your career
Privacy concerns with Drug testing
Concerns over the confidentiality and ethics of employment testing will continue to be voiced.
Utility
Concerns the economic gains derived from using a particular selection method.
Validity
Concerns whether a measure is actually measuring what it claims to be measuring. Close in meaning but not synonymous with "job relatedness"
Designing an Appraisal System: Measurement Content
Consider the organization's objectives and strategic plan, then define performance with one or more relevant outcome criteria or aspects of value
Reliability
Consistency of measurement. A necessary condition for a selection method to be valid.
Quantity
Criteria on which the value of performance may be assessed. The amount produced, expressed in such terms as dollar value, number of units, or number of completed activity cycles
Need for Supervision
Criteria on which the value of performance may be assessed. The degree to which a performer can carry out a job function without either having to request supervisory assistance or requiring supervisory intervention to prevent an adverse outcome
Interpersonal impact/contextual performance
Criteria on which the value of performance may be assessed. The degree to which a performer promotes feelings of self-esteem, goodwill, and cooperation among co-workers and subordinates
Timeliness
Criteria on which the value of performance may be assessed. The degree to which an activity is completed, or as a result produced, at the earliest time desirable from the standpoints of both coordinating with the outputs of others and maximizing the time available for other activities
Quality
Criteria on which the value of performance may be assessed. The degree to which the process or result of carrying out an activity approaches perfection, in terms of either conforming to some ideal way of performing the activity or fulfilling the activity's intended purpose
Cost-effectiveness
Criteria on which the value of performance may be assessed. The degree to which the use of the organization's resources is maximized in the sense of getting the highest gain or reduction in loss from each unit or instance of use of a resource
Training
Defined as any attempt to improve employee performance on a currently held job or one related to it. This usually means changes in specific knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors. To be effective it should involve a learning experience, be a planned organizational activity, and be designed in response to identified needs. Ideally it should be designed to meet the goals of the organization while simultaneously meeting the goals of the individual employees. Often focuses on the immediate period to help fix any current deficits in employees' skills.
Five-Factor Model (FFM)
Describes personality: 1) neuroticism- emotional stability 2) extraversion/introversion- outgoing, sociable 3) openness to experience- imaginative, curious, experimenting 4) agreeableness/likability- friendliness, cooperative v. dominant 5) conscientiousness- dependability, carefulness
Correlation Coefficient
Describes the relationship between scores on the predictor and measures of effectiveness. Statistical relationship. Higher correlations indicate stronger validity.
Integrity/Honesty Tests
Designed to measure attitudes toward theft and may include questions concerning beliefs about how often theft on the job occurs, judgements of the punishments for different degrees of theft, the perceived ease of theft, support for excuses for stealing from an employer, and assessments of one's own honesty.
The Evaluation Phase: Designs for Evaluating Training
Designs employ two possible strategies to answer the two primary questions. The first is to compare the trainees' performance before and after participating in training. Answering the second question requires a design comparing the changes that occurred in the trainees with changes that occurred in another group of employees who did not receive the training, yet are similar to the training group in important ways
Mentoring
Development program that is gaining popularity. Consists of establishing formal relationships between junior and senior colleagues or peers. These relationships contribute to career functions, and to psychosocial functions. Employees feel they are getting social support which is then related to their job satisfaction.
Disadvantages of Self-Directed Learning Methods
Disadvantages include: 1) high development time for course materials and extensive planning requirements 2) difficulties in revising and updating materials 3) limited interactions with peers and trainers
Discriminatory intent
Do certain questions convey an impression of underlying discriminatory attitudes? Discrimination is most likely to occur when interviewers ask non-job-related questions of only one protected group of job candidates and not of others.
Discriminatory impact
Does the interview inquiry result in a differential, or adverse, impact on protected groups. Occurs when the questions asked of all job candidates implicitly screen out a majority of protected group members. Ex: questions about arrests
Drug Testing
Drug abuse is one of the most serious problems in the United States today, with productivity costs in the billions of dollars and on the rise. Drug abuse in the workplace has also been linked to employee theft, accidents, absences, use of sick time, and other counter productive behavior. 87% of major U.S. corporations now use some form of drug testing. Some tests are in the form of paper-and-pencil examinations, but a vast majority are clinical tests of urine or hair samples. 96% of firms refuse to hire applicants who test positive for illegal drugs, methamphetamines, and some prescription drugs. Currently legal in all 50 states for pre-employment screening and on-the-job assessment
Improving Interview Effectiveness
Employers should examine their interview process for discriminatory bias, train interviewers about ways to prevent biased inquiries, provide interviewers with thorough and specific job specifications, structure the interview around a thorough and up-to-date job analysis, and monitor the activities and assessments of individual interviewers. The physical environment for the interviews should be maintained consistently by providing a standardized setting for the interviews.
Predicting employee theft
Exceeds $400 billion annually. In addition to more detailed background and reference checks, applicants can take some form of honesty or integrity test. These tests have become more popular since the polygraph test was banned in 1988 by the Employee Polygraph Protection Act
Work Sample Tests
Exercises that reflect actual job responsibilities and tasks. Applicants are placed in a job situation and are required to handle tasks, activities, or problems that match those found on the job. Purpose is to allow applicants to demonstrate their job-related competencies in as realistic a situation as possible.
On-the-Job Training
Experiential training method. Often, it is informal, as when an experienced worker shows a trainee how to perform the job tasks. The trainer may watch over the trainee to provide guidance during practice or learning. Although it is often associated with the development of new employees, it can also be used to update or broaden the skills of existing employees when new procedures or work methods are introduced. It is best used when one-on-one training is necessary, only a small number of employees need to be trained, classroom instruction is not appropriate, work in progress cannot be interrupted, a certain level of proficiency on a task is needed for certification, and equipment and safety restrictions make other training techniques inappropriate.
Computer-based Training/E-Learning
Experiential training method. Used to gain new knowledge, drill and practice material given in the training process, and to individualize training. When used effectively, it has been able to deliver training for large numbers of employees at reduced costs. This method had an increase in use during an economic downturn. More effective than classroom instruction for teaching declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Trainees were more satisfied when this method had higher levels of human interaction than lower levels. Web-based learning, symbolic mental rehearsing, chunking-chopping, and electronic training-delivery media
Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA)
Federal law that regulates how agencies provide information about consumers. Regulates how agencies provide "investigative consumer reports."
The Fairness Factor
Five questions that should be asked in every hiring situation: 1) Am I decisions solely on job-related criteria? 2) Am I treating people consistently? 3) Am I following organizational policy? 4) Am I communicating accurately and honestly? 5) Should I consult with an HR specialist or a legal expert?
Person Analysis
Form of analysis in needs assessment. Attempts to answer the question of who needs training in the firm and the specific type of training needed. To do this, the performance of individuals, groups or units on major job functions or assessments of KASOCs are compared to desired levels.
Job Analysis
Form of analysis in needs assessment. Tries to answer the question of what should be taught in training so that the trainee can perform the job satisfactorily. Should document the tasks or duties involved in the job as well as the KASOCs needed to carry out the duties. To determine training needs, both a worker-oriented approach, which focuses on identifying behaviors and KASOCs, and a task-oriented approach, which describes the work activities performed, should be used. The critical incident technique (CIT) is particularly valuable because it provides considerable detail on the job and consequences of specific work behaviors.
Organizational Analysis
Form of analysis in needs assessment. Tries to answer the question of where the training emphasis should be placed in the company and what factors may be affecting training. An examination should be made of the organizational goals, personnel inventories, performance data, and climate and efficiency indices. This examination should ideally be conducted in the context of labor supply forecast and gap analysis.
Situational Judgement Test (SJT)
Form of performance testing that consists of a number of job-related situations presented in written, verbal, or visual form.
Feedback
Gives the ratee information about themselves and where they stand in their work performance. If supportive, it can lead to greater motivation, and if it is about pay and advancement it can lead to greater employee satisfaction with the process. Can create a supportive atmosphere. It needs to be detailed and specific instead of general since more precision is more likely to improve performance. Raters should be trained to give negative feedback
Reference and Background checks
Goal is to gain insight about the potential employee from people who have had previous experience with him/her.
Systems Model of Training: Needs Assessment
Goal of this phase is to collect information to determine if training is needed in the organization. If it is needed, it is then important to determine where in the organization it is needed, what kind of training is needed, and what specific knowledge, abilities, skills, or other characteristics should be taught. This information is collected by conducting three types of analyses: at the organizational, job, and individual level of analysis
Goals for Legal and Effective Performance Appraisal
Goals should be: 1) realistic (attainable) 2) motivating 3) contribute to the productivity and compatible with strategic goals
Personality
Individual's consistent pattern of behavior.
Changes for the Employee
Individuals and employees 1) should not worry about holding onto a specific job, but rather should make sure they have developed the competitive skills needed in the marketplace (need to have portable competencies) 2) need to take more control of their careers and look out for their own best career interests 3) must develop new and better personal skills of self-assessment and career planning 4) need to set career goals and define what they are interested in 5) need to maintain a technical specialty, and also be careful not to become obsolete or too narrow in their functional expertise 6) must invest in reputation building 7) will need to develop their collaboration skills as the use of project teams in organizations will continue to increase 8) will need to develop multiple networking and peer learning relationships 9) will need to be adaptable to changing job requirements, and develop self-knowledge, adaptability, and flexibility 10) will need to periodically solicit feedback to appraise how they are doing relative to their career goals 11) need to commit to lifelong learning to keep their skills relevant
Job-Posting Systems
Information service. Commonly used by companies to inform employees about openings in the organization using Web sites, bulletin boards, newsletters, computer systems, and other company publications. Serve an informational purpose, but may also be useful as a motivational tool. Guidelines include: 1) posting all permanent promotion and transfer opportunities for at least one week before recruiting outside the organization 2) Outlining minimum requirements for the position 3) Describing decision rules that will be used 4) Making application forms available 5) Informing all applicants how and when the job was filled
Career Resource Centers
Information service. One of the least expensive approaches for providing career information. Consists of a small library set up to distribute career development materials such as reference books, learning guides, videos, and self-study tapes.
Career Ladders and Career Paths
Information service. Typically illustrates a career plan complete with the final goal, intermediate steps, and timetables for reaching a goal and in addition, the qualifications necessary to proceed to the next position are specified as is any minimum time required prior to advancing. Organizations usually map out steps (job positions) that employees might follow over time. Steps are used to document possible patterns of job movement, including vertical or upward moves and lateral or cross-functional moves. Helpful for answering employees' questions about career progression and future job opportunities in the organization.
Audiovisuals
Information training method. Used to gain new knowledge and to gain attention. The benefits are: It can reach a large audience at one time and the audience is often comfortable with it. Some limitations may be: It is not tailored to individual trainees, it must be updated, and learners are passive. Includes films, slides, overheads, audiotapes, flip charts, and chalkboards.
Lectures
Informational training method. Most commonly used technique for training employees and teaching students. Very effective for transferring knowledge. Used to gain new knowledge and to present introductory material. The benefits are: Equally good as programmed instruction and television, low cost, reaches a large audience at one time, and audience is often comfortable with it. Some limitations can be: learners are passive, poor transfer, effectiveness depends on the lecturer's ability, and it is not tailored to individual trainees.
New Employee Programs
Initial employment programs that may be valuable mechanisms to familiarize the new employee with the career policies and procedures of the organization. Can create commitment and realistic expectations
Validity generalization
Invokes evidence from past studies on a selection method that is then applied to the same or similar jobs and setting.
Electronic training-delivery media
Involve some of the fastest-growing instructional methods. Often feature text, graphics, sounds, pictures, videos, simulations, and hyper-text links that enable trainees to structure their own learning experiences.
Evaluation
Involves the collection of information on whether trainees were satisfied with the program, learned the material, and were able to apply the skills back on the job. Five types of criteria: Reactions, Learning, Behaviors/Performance, Organizational Results, and Return on Investment.
Empirical or criterion-related validity
Involves the statistical relationship between scores on some predictor or selection method.
Interviews and Discrimination
Issues such as vague, inadequate hiring standards; subjective, idiosyncratic interview evaluation criteria; biased questions unrelated to the job; and/or inadequate interviewer training can promote litigation/bad decisions in the interview process.
Downsizing
Jobs are cut from the organization. Organizational initiative that could have negative consequences
Delayering
Jobs are reclassified more broadly, yet old reporting lines exist to maintain managerial control. Organizational initiative that could have negative consequences
The Program Development
Keep the trainees interested!
Potential Problems with Reference and Background checks
Lawsuits on previous employers for defamation of character, fraud, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. Letters of reference are almost always very positive, and generally has low validity.
Actor-Observer Bias
Major rating Error. Where people tend to make the exact opposite attributions for their own behavior: they tend to attribute their success to their own competencies and their failures to the influence of external factors beyond their control. Thus, this is the tendency of observers to underestimate the effects of external factors and for performers to overestimate the effects of external factors on less than perfect performance. One of the major factors that cause perceptions of unfairness in appraisal decisions.
Halo/Horns Effect
Major rating error. Occurs when a rater allows a rating on one dimension (or an overall impression) for an employee to influence the ratings he/she assigns to other dimensions for that employee. The rater inappropriately assesses ratee performance similarly across different job functions, projects criteria, or performance dimensions. This error is not deliberate.
Leniency/Severity
Major rating error. Occurs when ratings for employees are generally at the high end of the rating scale regardless of the actual performance of ratees. This error is considered deliberate. Most serious problem with appraisals whenever they are linked to important decisions such as compensation, promotions, or terminations. Primary reasons companies have turned to forced distribution systems.
Fundamental Attribution Error
Major rating error. Refers to the tendency to attribute observed behaviors or outcomes to the disposition of the person being observed while underestimating the casual role of factors beyond the control of the performer. Related to the actor-observer bias
Career Development Systems benefits
Managers can benefit by being better able to communicate with and develop their staff. Employees can benefit by acquiring a deepened appreciation of their own skills and career possibilities and assuming a greater responsibility for managing their own careers. The organization may benefit by increased employee loyalty, improved communication throughout the organization, lower turnover rates, and strengthened human resource systems
Performance data use: Staffing
Many organizations rely on performance appraisal data to decide which employees move upward (promote) to fill openings and which employees to retain as a part of "rightsizing" (downsizing) efforts. Performance appraisal should also be the basis of termination when the organization concludes performance fails to meet a minimum or acceptable standard or, perhaps, the organization could do better without an employee. Assessments of competencies or other worker characteristics using ratings by qualified rating sources such as supervisors and peers.
Defining the Ratee
May be defined at the individual (an employee or supervisee), work group, business unit, division, or organization-wide level. It is also possible to define the ratee at multiple levels.
Cognitive Ability Tests
Measure one's aptitude or mental ability to acquire knowledge based on the accumulation of learning from all possible sources. Typically used to predict future performances
Designing an Appraisal System: Points to be considered
Measurement content, measurement process, control of rating errors, defining the rater (who should rate performance), defining the ratee (level of performance to rate), and administrative characteristics
Utility Analysis
Measures the economic contribution of a program according to how effective it was in identifying and modifying behavior.
Forced Choice
Method that requires the rater to compare performance statements and select one (or more) as most descriptive. Specifically designed to reduce (or eliminate) intentional rating bias where the rater deliberately attempts to rate individuals high or low irrespective of their performance. Statements are grouped in such a way that the scoring key is not known to the rater.
The Program Development: Informational Methods of Training
Methods can be divided into two categories: 1) Methods that are primarily informational or transmittal in nature; they use primarily one-way communication in which information is transmitted to the learners 2) Methods that are experiential in nature; the learner interacts with the instructor, a computer/simulator, customers, or other trainees to practice the skill
Performance data use: Training
Most firms use appraisal data to determine employees' needs for training or development. Companies use 360-degree or multisource appraisal (ex: subordinates, peers, clients) as feedback for their supervisors or managers and the results are revealed to each manager with suggestions for specific training and development.
Interviews
Most widely used selection "test." Typically one of the last selection hurdles used after other methods have reduced the number of potential candidates.
Anticipatory Socialized Programs
New employee program. Beneficial for individuals to develop accurate, realistic expectations about their chosen career field and about the world of work. Socialization through peer support in organizations and universities is also beneficial for reducing stress.
Employee Orientation Programs
New employee program. Can help reduce anxieties for new employees since they provide information on organizational policies, procedures, rules, work requirements, and sources of other information. May also be used to educate employees about any career programs, career paths, and opportunities for advancement.
Realistic Recruitment
New employee program. Providing job applicants a realistic, balanced, accurate views of the organization and the job. This can allow applicants to experience less of a reality shock, dissatisfaction, and turnover. To meet career development needs, job applicants should be informed in realistic job previews about the skills required of various positions in the organization and their own readiness and aptitude for those positions. 360-degree performance feedback can provide them with information about their own skills relative to other jobs in the firm and such data should assist them in developing their future career goals and action plans.
Selection Ratio
Number of positions divided by the number of applicants for those positions.
Team Training
Often focuses on teaching members how to work more effectively or efficiently in teams. Some topics include team building, problem solving, running effective meetings, managing stress, managing productivity, appraising team members' performance, and managing conflict
The Evaluation Phase: Return on Investments (ROI)
One of the five types of criteria in the evaluation phase. Firms should assess the costs and benefits associated with their programs. Formula is: (benefits-costs)/total costs
The Evaluation Phase: Reactions
One of the five types of criteria in the evaluation phase. Measures are designed to assess trainees' opinions regarding the training program. Questionnaires can be used. It is important to assess trainees' satisfaction with multiple aspects of a training program and not just their overall satisfaction.
The Evaluation Phase: Learning
One of the five types of criteria in the evaluation phase. Measures assess the degree to which trainees have mastered the concepts, knowledge, and skills of the training. Typically measured by paper-and-pencil tests, performance tests, and simulator exercises.
The Evaluation Phase: Behaviors/Performance
One of the five types of criteria in the evaluation phase. Measures of actual on-the-job performance and can be used to identify the effects of training on actual work performance. Typically operationalized by supervisor ratings or objective indicators of performance.
The Evaluation Phase: Organizational Results
One of the five types of criteria in the evaluation phase. Purpose of collecting this is to examine the impact of training on the work group or entire company. Data may be collected before and after training on criteria such as productivity, turnover, absenteeism, formal complaints/lawsuits, accidents, grievances, quality improvements, scrap, sales, and customer satisfaction.
Catalyst
One of the most prominent nonprofit organizations called upon to assist firms in their efforts to capitalize on the talents of their female employees and maximize opportunities for women in management positions.
Psychological Testing/Assessment
Organizational Assessment Program. Consist of written tests and questionnaires that help individuals determine their vocational interests, personality types, work attitudes, and other personal characteristics that may reveal their career needs and preferences. Diagnostic tests and other inventories may be used for self-assessment or with career counseling. O*NET, Meyers-Briggs, the Big-Five personality factors, and the Kuder Preference schedule
Succession Planning
Organizational Assessment Program. Involves having senior executives periodically review their top executives and those in the next-lower level to determine several backups for each senior position. Companies will need to create pools of candidates with high leadership potential. This is important because it often takes years of grooming to develop effective senior managers and there is a critical shortage in companies of middle and top leaders for the next five years.
Promotability Forecasts
Organizational Assessment Program. Used by the organization to make early identifications of individuals with exceptionally high career potential. Once individuals are identified, they are given relevant developmental experiences to groom them for higher positions. Important that this does not exclude employees based on factors protected under Title VII, such as age, sex, or race.
Career Management
Organizational process of preparing, implementing, and monitoring career plans undertaken by individuals alone or within the organization's career systems
Changes for the organization
Organizations should 1) provide employees with the tools and opportunities to enhance their skills 2) create an environment for continual learning by supporting and rewarding employee development and learning 3) provide opportunities for self-assessment 4) provide opportunities for additional training, including orientation, core training, and computer-based training 5) have managers trained as coaches and mentors to assist employees 6) encourage employees to create individual development plans 7) assist employees with striking balance between their work and non-work lives 8) use reward systems that support the organization's career development strategy 9) make sure the career programs are integrated with other human resource programs 10) before outsourcing employees try to redeploy the current workforce to teach them the new skills needed
Performance-related Pay
Pay is linked to performance and used as a motivator. Organizational initiative that could have negative consequences
Performance Management and Compensation
Performance appraisal information is often used by supervisors to manage the performance of their employees. Appraisal data can reveal employees' performance weaknesses, which managers can refer to when setting goals or target levels for improvements. Performance management system should include a diagnostic component where an evaluator attempts to explain a performance level based on a performers' traits, competencies, abilities, or motivations. Should first measure the performance level as accurately as possible and then attempt to explain the obtained level based on a performer's characteristics. One of the strongest trends in this country is toward some form of pay-for-performance system.
High-Performance Work System Characteristic
Policy of promotion from within the organization (based on some extent on past performance in other jobs).
Flexible Work Arrangements
Program that improves work-family balance. Flextime, job sharing, part-time work, compressed workweeks, temporary work, and work at home (telecommuting) are ways organizations are assisting their employees and providing more flexible work arrangements. These programs enable employees to address their work and family concerns and reduce their potential stress or conflict between their various life roles.
Work-Family Programs
Program that improves work-family balance. Organizations are becoming more involved in designing programs to help employees manage their work-family role conflict by providing a place and procedure for discussing conflicts and coping strategies. Some companies use Web-based training for employees and managers to help them have more productive conversations about career development, and interactive Web sites to help staffers identify steps for building satisfying careers. Organizations are changing their practices in recruitment, travel, transfers, promotions, scheduling hours, and benefits to meet the needs of the larger numbers of dual-career couples.
Child/Elder Care Services
Program that improves work-family balance. Programs that can alleviate the pressures, stress, and provide flexibility for employees who are caring for their child/children and/or their elders. These can result in higher morale, easier recruitment of parents as employees, lower turnover, and tax savings. These programs have also shown that these employees did not have to use company time to make phone calls, visit doctors, and so on.
Maternity/Paternity Leave
Program that improves work-family balance. With the passage in 1993 of the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), employers with more than 50 employees are required to allow 12 weeks of unpaid leave from work for either parent following the birth, adoption, or severe illness of a child.
Computerized Adaptive Rating Scales (CARS)
Promising rating method that presents raters with pairs of behavioral statements reflecting different levels of performance on the same performance dimension.
Criteria on which the value of performance may be assessed
Quality, Quantity, timeliness, cost-effectiveness, need for supervision, interpersonal impact
"Bottom-Line" on what it is we should be measuring in PA
Rate repetitive performance on relative frequency. Should focus on the record of outcomes. Ratings of relative frequency are more superior than ratings of "intensity" or "satisfactoriness." Ratees regard the feedback as more accurate and more useful. Higher agreement among raters in rating the same performance compared to other rating options.
Self-Efficacy Training
Raters who were trained in giving negative feedback produced less lenient ratings than a control group. This training involved observing a successful rater, a simulated appraisal session with a "problem" employee, feedback on performance, and then coaching on how to conduct an appraisal discussion.
Central Tendency
Rating error. Occurs when ratings for employees tend to be toward the center of the scale regardless of the actual performance of ratees. This is a deliberate error although much less common than leniency.
Availability bias
Rating error. People tend to mistake the ease with which a category of outcomes can be recalled as an indication of its frequency of occurrence relative to other categories. Since more extreme outcomes tend to be more memorable, raters will tend to attribute greater frequency to them than was actually the case. This results in such outcomes being given excessive weight in the formation of appraisal judgements.
Anchoring Error
Rating error. Refers to the tendency to insufficiently alter a judgement away from some starting point when new information is received. The problem that arises is that once an initial starting point is selected, we tend to resist being moved from this point by subsequent information that warrants movement. Final judgements will be much nearer to the "starting point" than they should be. A person's reputation, or even his/her past performance, should not be a factor in how his/her performance during the period under consideration is judged.
Representativeness Error
Rating error. Refers to the tendency to make judgements about people or their performance on the basis of their similarity to people who exhibited prominent or memorable levels on the attribute being judged, even though the similarity may have no casual connection to the attribute. This type of thinking ignores the fact that although some prominent examples of people who performed at the upper or lower extremes of effectiveness may have possessed a certain characteristic, such as attractiveness, most of the people who possess such a characteristic do not distinguish themselves and in fact the characteristic has no causative connection to actual performance
Defining the Rater
Ratings can be provided by ratees, supervisors, peers, clients or customers, or high-level managers. Ratings can also be collected from Multiraters or 360-degree appraisal systems- ratings from supervisors, self, peers, subordinates, customers.
360-degree Appraisal systems
Ratings collected from several raters. Beneficial for greater accuracy, fewer biases, perceptions of fairness, and fewer/better legal issues. This is one of the characteristics of "High Performance Work Systems"
Chunking
Refers to chopping computer-based training into its smallest parts and sending them through a network so that learners receive just the instruction they need when they need it.
Development
Refers to learning opportunities designed to help employees grow. Such opportunities do not have to be limited to improving employees' performance on their current job. Focus is on the long-term to help employees prepare for future work demands.
Decentralizing
Responsibilities are reassigned from the corporate centralized function to functions in each location or at lower levels. Organizational initiative that could have negative consequences
Designing an Appraisal System: Who should be involved?
Should involve managers, employees, HR professionals, and internal and external customers
Role of Reference and Background Checks
Simply verify the information provided by the applicant regarding previous employment and experience. Prevent negligent hiring. Assess the potential success of the candidate for the new job. Provide information about a candidate's past performance.
Competency Measurement
Skill sets required of employees are redefined or measured in different ways. Employees may be evaluated on things they've never been evaluated on before. Organizational initiative that could have negative consequences
Programs to Improve Work-Family Balance
Society has seen increasing numbers of working mothers and two-income households. 90% of working adults expressed a concern about not spending enough time with their family. In recent years, organizations have been much more interested in developing family-responsive policies and programs designed to alleviate individuals' conflicts between work and family. Work-Family Programs, flexible work arrangements, maternity/paternity leave, and child/elder care services are programs companies use to improve work-family balance
Retirement Programs
Some firms have opted to use early retirement for their older employees rather than retraining and redeveloping them. It is critical that older employees are aided in their transition to retirement. To do this, many companies have instituted retirement planning programs. The focus of preretirement workshops is to help preretirees understand the life and career concerns they may face as they prepare for retirement. Topics that may be discussed include health, finances, making the transition from work to retirement status, safety, housing and location, legal affairs, time utilization, Social Security, second careers, use of leisure time, and problems of aging. Often, individual counseling and group workshops are used, and efforts are made to tailor the programs to the needs of the participants and their spouses. Another type of assistance given to preretirees may be for education such as the Retirement Education Assistance Plan available to retirees.
Late Career Programs
Some organizations offer programs to help supervisors increase their awareness of issues facing late-career employees. Generally, supervisors are instructed on the changing demographics of the workforce, laws regarding older employees, stereotypes and realities of the aging process, and strategies for dealing with the loss of older employees who retire. Supervisors also may be taught to develop action plans for enhancing the performance of their older workers. These plans involve giving older workers more concrete feedback, allowing them to serve as mentors, and providing them with training and corss-training opportunities. It is important that managers help employees deal with career plateaus so they can continue to be challenged and productive. It is also important to offer flexible work schedules for late-career employees.
Outplacement Programs
Special target group in career program. Assist terminated employees in making the transition to new employment. Generally, they involve individual counseling sessions with external or internal counselors where individuals are able to share their feelings about being let go. They may also contain financial counseling. These programs that stress the importance of self-confidence and individual career planning may be particularly beneficial for middle- or late-career employees who have been laid off. The programs should help laid-off employees deal with their anger, depression, stress, grief, or loss of self-esteem associated with the job loss.
Executive Coaching
Special target group in career program. Described as a practical, goal-focused form of personal one-to-one learning for executives. An executive meets with a coach who may be an internal career counselor or an external consultant. In the coaching session, the coach and executive typically discuss the results of a 360 degree assessment of the executive or some other performance review, which describes his/her strengths and areas for improvement. The coach works individually with the leader to improve performance, develop or refine behaviors, and devise strategies for enhancing his/her career and preventing derailment. Meetings are held to establish career development plans and to follow up and assist executives on their progress. Has recently risen as a popular method for career and leadership development for managers. Coaching has become popular because it provides individualized, targeted, flexible, just-in-time development for executives.
Entrenched Employees
Special target group in career program. Due to the large number of organizational restructuring and downsizing, many employees stay with their organization to keep their job, but do not stay as committed or attached to them as their employers would like. They stay in the job because of their investments, psychological preservation, and a perception that there are few career opportunities.
Fast-track Employees
Special target group in career program. Organizations often identify "stars," or individuals with high career potential, and place them on a fast track for upward moves in the company. These specially recruited and selected employees are given rapid and intense developmental opportunities in the company. The identification and development of these employees requires organizations to exert extra recruitment efforts and to monitor the career progress of these employees frequently. Organizations must provide considerable feedback, training, and counseling, as well as offer quick job changes and more challenging assignments, particularly during the the employees' first few years on the job.
Supervisors and Career Counseling
Special target group in career program. Supervisors are increasingly being called upon to play a greater role in managing the career progress of their employees. They may serve as coach, advisor, performance appraiser, and referral agent. To be effective in these roles, they should be trained as career coaches and mentors to help subordinates develop and implement their career plans in one-on-one counseling sessions. They should be instructed on how to integrate counseling into their performance appraisal and selection activities.
Programs for Women, Minorities, and Employees with Disabilities
Special target group in career program. The primary issues facing employers are recruiting and selecting diverse employees, promoting them, and retaining them in the organization. To adhere to EEO or affirmative action guidelines, some organizations are supporting minority recruitment, selection, and training efforts. They are also providing additional feedback, educational opportunities, counseling, and career management seminars to meet the unique needs of these groups. These practices are designed to help these employees compete for management positions.
Determine Validity For Selection Methods
Step in the development and evaluation of a selection procedure. Criterion-related validation. Expert judgement (content validity). Validity generalization (meta-analysis).
Job Analysis/Human Resource Planning
Step in the development and evaluation of a selection procedure. Identify knowledge, abilities, skills, and other characteristics (KASOCs) (aka: competencies). Use a competency model tied to strategy orientation.
Recruitment Strategy: Select/Develop Selection Procedures
Step in the development and evaluation of a selection procedure. Review options for assessing applicants on each of the KASOCs: Standardized tests (cognitive, personality, psychomotor). Application banks, biographical data, background, reference checks, accomplishment record. Performance tests, assessment centers, interviews.
Factors that impair interview procedure
Stereotyping, informal, unstructured interviews that are "excessively subjective"
Before Training
Suggestions to maximize transfer. 1) Align the training program with the organization's needs using competency modeling 2) Involve superiors and trainees in the project team 3) Use sound instructional design theory 4) Develop application-oriented objectives based on the competency
During Training
Suggestions to maximize transfer. 1) Maximize the similarity between the training context and the job context 2) Require practice of the new behaviors and overlearning in training 3) Provide realistic work-related tasks 4) Provide extra space in training books to note ideas during training 5) Include a variety of stimulus situations in the practice so trainees will learn to generalize their knowledge and skills 6) Label or identify the important features of the content to be learned to distinguish the major steps involved 7) Develop, and have available on the job, job aids to remind employees of the key action steps necessary on the job 8) Make sure that general principles underlying the specific content are understood in training 9) Provide opportunity (time) to synthesize material or plan for application 10) Build the trainee's self-efficacy for learning and using the new skills, and encourage trainees to develop an action plan including specific measurable goals
Post PA Meeting
Supervisor should do a final evaluation after considering new information. Employee should sign and date form; provide opportunity to comment. Effective PAs are an ongoing process- employers and employees need regular communication and feedback to develop trust and shared commitment
Onboarding
Systematic process to establish a positive trajectory early in a person's career. Includes cultivating key relationships and access to information, phased implementation, and defining multiple roles.
Underlying bias in Interviews
The applicant, interviewer, and situation can potentially bias the decision-making process and result in erroneous evaluations during the interview.
Benefits Assessment
The assessing of the benefits associated with training. One benefit that should be estimated is the dollar payback associated with the improvement in trainees' performance after receiving training. Another factor to be considered is is the duration of the training's impact, that is, the length of time during which the improved performance will be maintained.
Cost Assessment
The assessing of the costs associated with training. Some costs that should be measured for a training program include: 1) one-time costs such as needs assessment costs, salaries and benefits of training designers, purchase of equipment and media, program development costs, evaluation costs for the first offering of the program 2) costs associated with each training session such as trainer's costs and facilities rental 3) costs associated with trainees including trainee wages during training, travel, lodging, meals for trainees during training, and nonreusable training materials
Systems Model of Training: Development
The goal of this phase is to design the training environment necessary to achieve the objectives. Trainers must review relevant learning issues, including characteristics of adult learners and learning principles as they apply to the particular training and potential trainees under consideration. Trainers must also identify or develop training materials and techniques to use in the program. Finally, after the appropriate learning environment is designed or selected, the training is conducted.
Systems Model of Training: Evaluation
The goal of this phase is to examine whether the training program has been effective in meeting the stated objectives. Requires the identification and development of criteria, which should include participants' reactions to the training, assessments of what they learned, measures of their behavior after the training, indicators of organizational results, and return on investments or, utility analysis.
Performance Testing
The prediction of job performance can be enhanced through the sampling of simulated job tasks and/or behaviors. Behavioral responses required by test takers that are similar to responses required on the job. Measures KASOCs or competencies. Involve actual "doing" rather than "knowing how." These tests can also result in less adverse impact than cognitive ability tests and that test takers perceive such tests as more accurate and fair.
Effective Experiential Approach: Behavior Modeling
The success of this approach to training is based on the notion that many of us learn by observing others. Recommended approach for training managers and trainers. "Master" teacher can serve as the model for the future trainer or teacher or someone who is having difficulties in the classroom. There are four consecutive components: 1) Attention 2) Retention 3) Motor reproduction/behavioral rehearsal 4) Motivation/feedback/reinforcement
Self-Directed Learning Methods (SDL)
The trainee takes responsibility for learning the necessary knowledge and skills at his/her own pace. A wide range of decisions can be given to the trainee, including the topic of study, objectives, resources, schedule, learning strategy, type and sequence of activities, and media. In most cases, trainees work without direct supervision, set their own pace, and are allowed to choose their own activities, resources, and learning environments. Generally, the training department's role is to provide assistance by establishing learning centers with available materials and by having trained facilitators on hand for questions.
Transfer Training
The ultimate goal of a training program is that the learning that occurs during the training be transferred back to the job. To maximize transfer, suggestions have been offered, which include ideas for before the training is conducted, during the training itself, and once the employee has returned to the job
Predicting specific criteria with personality
The use of "compound" traits that are more tied to particular work situations and particular criteria can enhance prediction above what can be derived from the traditional FFM instruments. Many forms of personality, dispositional, or motivation assessment attempt to focus on either particular problems or criteria characteristic of the workplace. Ex: prediction of voluntary turnover and the prediction of employee theft. One instrument attempts to measure job compatibility in order to predict turnover. Other instruments are designed to address particular employment issues or situations, such as customer service, violence, or accident proneness.
Symbolic Mental Rehearsal (SMR)
This is a specific form of mental rehearsal that establishes a cognitive link between visual images and symbolic memory codes. By incorporating this, the behavior modeling approach to computer skill training could be improved.
Designing an Appraisal System: Measurement Process
Three basic comparisons methods for raters 1. Comparisons among ratees' performance 2. Comparisons among anchors or standards 3. Comparisons of individual's performance to anchors
Most common federal laws relating to performance appraisal legal issues
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Equal Pay Act of 1963, and Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
Special Training Programs
Training for Generational Transitions; Employee Orientation Programs- firms provide some type of employee orientation where new employees are informed about their roles and responsibilities; Training for Teams; Diversity Awareness Training; Sexual Harassment Training; Training for International Assignments
LEGAL AND EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS: A TRAINING PROGRAM FOR SUPERVISORS
Training supervisors to know safeguards Against Bias, how to conduct the PA interview, the steps in the PA process, what the goals should be, and what to do post-PA meeting
Urinalysis Testing
Type of drug testing used by corporations. Most common form is the immunoassay test, which applies an enzyme solution to a urine sample and measures change in the density of the sample. Sensitive to some legal drugs as well as illegal drugs.
Informal Mentoring
Type of mentoring that does not have any structure. In this type of mentoring, mentoring occurs when there is a deliberate intent to learn, grow or develop wisdom through conversation. There is no discussion of the desire to mentor or be mentored; or, the mentoring is a by-product of another relationship such as managing, coaching or teaching; or, while both parties have agreed to the mentoring, there is no definite process or format to the conversation.
Formal Mentoring
Type of mentoring that has a structure. It involves an agreement to mentor and be mentored, a clear framework for mentoring and perhaps a program of support. In this type of mentoring relationship, there is discussion of expectations, goals and the process to be used. The frequency and duration of contact is agreed and ground-rules are established. Individuals may establish their own mentoring arrangements or participate in a mentoring program.
General Mental Ability (GMA)
Type of personnel testing. Also known as cognitive ability tests. Measures aptitude, or general mental ability. Used to screen applicants. Valid predictors of job performance, but can create legal problems because minorities tend to score lower. Ideal for jobs if considerable learning or training on the job is required and where a more "job-related" knowledge-based test is inappropriate or unavailable. Typically used to predict future performances
Knowledge-based Tests
Type of personnel testing. Cognitive ability test. Assesses a sample of what is required on the job. Easier to defend in terms of job relatedness and are quite valid and recommended for identifying those job candidates who can be highly effective the very first day of work. Can be expensive to develop.
Achievement Tests
Type of personnel testing. Cognitive ability test. Attempts to measure the effects of knowledge obtained in a standardized environment (ex: a final exam in a class). Can be used to predict future behavior and measure some degree of accumulated knowledge.
Career Development Systems: Self-assessment and Self-assessment tools
Usually among the first techniques implemented by organizations in their career development efforts. Typically, individuals completing this exercise for career-planning purposes go through a process where they think through their life roles, interests, skills, and work attitudes and preferences. They try to plan their short- and long-term goals, develop action plans to meet those goals, and identify any obstacles and opportunities that might be associated with them. Some tools to do this may be career planning workshops, career workbooks, counseling, self-assessment exercises, self-assessment tests
Interviewer hindrances during an interview
Voice modulation, body language, posture, interviewee anxiety, and visible characteristics are factors that might influence the interviewer's judgements about a job applicant. The interviewer's personal characteristics can also influence their judgement. The interviewer can perceive the applicant similar to themselves which can create bias. Factors such as stress, background noise, interruptions, time pressures, decision accountability, and other conditions surrounding the interview also can influence interviewers' attention to information.
Deriving Instructional Objectives
Well written objectives should contain: Observable actions, measurable criteria, and conditions of performance. Advantages to developing learning objectives: Identify criteria for evaluating programs, direct trainers to the issues and content to focus on, and makes the training department more accountable.
IT Innovations
how the work is done is altered due to advances in information technology. Organizational initiative that could have negative consequences
Cost-reduction Strategies
the same work is done with fewer resources. Organizational initiative that could have negative consequences