Microbiology - Comprehensive Final Exam
What do we use to clean our lab tables and kill bacteria in used media on kill cart
clean our lab tables -- chemical agent - Alcohols - have OH functional group; usually ethyl & isopropyl alcohols in concentrations of 50-95% a. Act as surfactant dissolving membrane lipids and coagulating proteins of vegetative bacterial cells and fungi; intermediate level b. Ethyl - beer; Isopropyl - rubbing alcohol; used alone or as a solvent for a tincture: mercury or iodine c. 70% best to kill microbes due to longer evaporating time with diluted water d. Used for - reduce microbes on skin; thermometers; disinfect surfaces kill bacteria in used media on kill cart - physical agent Autoclaving - used in micro lab @ SJC; kill cart/kill bucket • Sterilization; Steam under pressure • Special chambered machine that will heat objects to 121C @ 15PSI (pounds per square inch, above normal atmospheric) for 10-14 mins • Used for media, used media, glassware, some surgical equipment
Difference between communicable & non-communicable disease
communicable - shared from person to person; non communicable - not able to be shared from person to person
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Salmonella typhi
Typhoid Fever; sulfa drugs; Mary Mallon "Typhoid Mary"; small intestines perforated
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Rickettsia rickettsii
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever; doxycycline
Define Halophiles; Psychrophiles; Mesophiles; Thermophiles; Neurophiles; Acidophiles; Alkalinophiles & What environment they prefer
a. Halophiles: high salt environment (dead sea) b. Osmophile: high concentrations of several solutes of sugars and others (pancake syrup) c. Psychrophiles: temp range -15C to 20C d. Mesophiles: temp range 10C to 50C e. Thermophiles: temp range 45C to 80C f. Hyperthermophile: temp range 67C to 105C; and up to 250C (lava vents in bottom of ocean) g. Neurophile: pH 6-8 (most human pathogens on skin) h. Acidophiles: pH 0-2 (human stomach) i. Alkalinophiles: pH 8-11 (hot soil/hot pools of water)
Hardest microbial structure to kill is the endospore
bacterial endospore
List & describe 5 I's
o 1: Inoculation - introduction of a sample into a container of media to produce a culture of observable growth. Virus need live cells to grow - use bird embryo to grow viruses) o 2: Incubation - the placement of the inoculated media in a specific temperature for a set time to allow growth of the bacteria. 37C/98.6F optimal temp o 3: Isolation - isolate a single colony on a petri plate to obtain a pure culture (streak plate, pour plate, spread plate) o 4: Inspection - observe the cultures for macroscopic growth of the bacteria, observe microscopically for results of stains (used for unknown #1; gram stain, endospore stain, acid/fast stain) o 5: Information gathering - testing of cultures for biochemical and enzyme characteristics and additionally with drug sensitivity, immunologic reactions, and genetic makeup. (unknown #2) o 6: Identification - results of tests and Bergey's Manual (microbiology bible) (used to provide keys or charts) to identify the genus and species of the microorganism
Recognize aspects of 2nd line of defense
o 2nd - protective cells & fluids, inflammation & phagocytosis - non specific Slightly more internalized nonspecific system of protective cells, fluids, and mechanisms Actions of 2nd line of defense (6) • 1. Inflammation - non-specific defense response by the body to an injury to the tissue; occurs after cut/abrasion/bruise/burn; aids destruction of microbes & prevents spread, toxins & dead cells o Chief functions of inflammation - mobilize & attract immune components to site of injury; set into motion mechanisms to repair tissue damage & localize & clear harmful substances; destroy & block microbes from further invasion o Major events during inflammation: Injury/immediate reactions - chemical mediators (cytokines) released by tissue cells; vasoconstriction (shut off blood flow) Vascular reaction - vasodilation & seepage of fluid & out of vessel Edema - infiltration of neutrophils & accumulation of pus Resolution/scar formation - macrophages clean/up tissues is repaired o Cytokines - chemical mediators that regulate, stimulate, and limit immune reactions; produced by white blood cells & damaged tissue cells; 4 examples: Histamine - produced by mast cells & basophils; produced during inflammation & allergy; causes vasodilation & increased permeability Interleukin 1 - produced by macrophages; produced during specific immune response; stimulates T cells & B cells Interleukin 2 - produced by helper T cells; produced during specific immune response; stimulated proliferation of T & B cells Interferon - 2nd line of defense o 2 unique properties of WBC's: Diapedesis - migration of cells out of blood vessels into the tissues Chemotaxis - migration in response to specific chemicals at the site of injury or infection o Classic signs & symptoms characterized by: Redness (rubor) - increased circulation & vasodialation in injured tissues in response to chemical mediators Warmth (calor) - heat given off by increased blood flow Swelling (tumor) - increased fluid escaping into the tissue as blood vessls dilate; edema; WBC's, microbes, debris, fluid collect to form pus; prevents spread of infection Pain (dolor) - stimulation of nerve endings • 2. Phagocytosis - general activities of phagocytes are 1) survey tissue compartments and discover microbes, particulate matter and dead or injured cells; 2) ingest & eliminate these materials; 3) extract immunogenic information from foreign matter (assist in 3rd line of defense) o Neutrophils (MAJOR) - general-purpose; react early to bacteria & other foreign materials, and to damaged tissue o Eosinophils - attracted to sites of parasitic infections & antigen-antibody reactions o Macrophages (MAJOR) - derived from monocytes; scavenge & process foreign substances to prepare them for reactions with B & T lymphocytes o Recognition of foreign cells (how macrophages recognize foreign cells): Protein receptors within cell membranes of macrophages, called Pathogen Recognition Receptors (toll like receptors; detector cells) Detect foreign molecules & signal the macrophage to produce chemicals to stimulate an immune response Pathogen-associated patterns (PAMPs) - molecules that don't belong; molecules shared by microorganisms (peptidoglycan, outer membrane) o Mechanisms of phagocytosis: Chemotaxis - 'calling' or attraction of the WBC to the bacteria or pathogen Ingestion - phagocyte uses pseudopods to touch pathogen & recognize PAMPs, then engulf the microbe in a phagosome Phagolysosome formation - lysosome fused with pathogen (death ~30mins) Destruction/digestion - destruction due to lysosome products: • Enzymes-lysozyme, DNase, RNase, protease • Reactive oxygen products-hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl ion, superoxide ion Elimination of debris-digested microbe eliminated by exocytosis o Virulence factors of bacteria that combat phagocytosis: Leukocytes - strep makes them & they destroy phagocytes Capsules on bacteria - strep has them & they prevent phagocytic action Legionella pneumophila - virulence factor prevents phagolysosome production • 3. Complement - complex system that is involved at several levels of immunity; consists of 26 blood proteins that work in concert to destroy bacteria & some viruses; complement factors are proteins found in blood stream produced by liver, lymphocytes, monocytes & activated by cleavage; work in cascade reaction like blood clotting or via 2 pathways (classical, alternatives, lectin); activated by microbes, parts of microbes, cytokines, antibodies; end product=membrane attack complex (MAC) they are large ring shaped protein that digests holes in cell membranes of bacteria, some viruses o Complement functions (4): 1. MAC=kill microbe by digesting holes in surface 2. Act as a chemotaxic agent (do chemotaxis) 3. Stimulate inflammation 4. Opsonization=coats the microbe to augment phagocytosis • 4. Fever - abnormally elevated body temp; body temp is regulated by hypothalamus; initiated by circulating pyrogens which reset the hypothalamus to increase body temp, signals muscles to increase heat production & vasoconstriction o 99-101=low grade (protective; don't treat) o 102-103=moderate (begin to treat) o 104-106=high o Sources of pyrogens (3): Exogenous pyrogens-products of infectious agents; vaccines Endogenous pyrogens-liberated by monocytes, neutrophils, & macrophages during phagocytosis, interleukin1 (IL1) & tumor necrosis factor (TNF) o Mechanisms of fever - happens in hypothalamus: Pyrogen present - @98.6 but resets core to 102; feel cold & shiver Pyrogen absent - @102 but resets core to 98.6; fever breaks; feel hot & sweat o Benefits of fever (3) - 1. Inhibits multiplication of heat sensitive pathogens 2. Prevents the nutrition of bacteria by reducing availability of iron 3. Increases metabolism & stimulates immune reactions & protective physiological processes • 5. Interferon - small protein produced by certain WBCs & tissue cells; produced in response to viruses, RNA, immune products, and various antigens, they bind to cell surfaces & induce expression of antiviral proteins & inhibit expression of cancer genes = protects against viral infections of cells & cancer cells • 6. Natural Killer Cells - type of T cell with natural nonspecific cytotoxic powers; circulate and are 1st to destroy virus infected cells & tumor cells; found in spleen, blood, lungs, lymph nodes, bone marrow; stimulated by cytokines such as interferon (alpha); products NK cell produces to kill a cells are 1) perforins-perforates foreign cells 2)granzymes-trick bacteria into dying
Difference between exoenzymes; exotoxins; endotoxins
o Exoenzymes - enzymes that chemically break down or dissolve host's barriers and promote the spread of microbes to deeper tissues Mucinase - dissolves mucus coating (respiratory microbe uses) Kertinase - dissolves keratin of skin/hair (wound microbe use) Collagenase - dissolves collagen (epithelial microbe use) Hyaluronidase - dissolves hyaluronic acid (cell glue) (epithelial microbe use) o Toxins - microbial poisons that aid establishment and progress of disease (2 types exotoxin & endotoxin) Exotoxin - protein secreted that goes to site of action = target tissue; produced by both G+ & G-; very powerful and deadly; classified by target tissue • Hemotoxin - lyse blood cells • Enterotoxin - affect intestinal mucosa • Neurotoxin - affect nerve tissue • Cytotoxin - affect general tissue Endotoxin - produced by G- cells only; composed of lipopolysaccharide (LPS); part of outer membrane of G- species; only released when microbe is damaged or falling apart; causes systemic effects = fever, diarrhea, hemorrhaging, blood coagulation, septic shock o Secretion system - some pathogens produce a secretion system to insert specialized virulence proteins directly into the host cells o Antiobiotic resistance - genes the microbe possesses that allow it to avoid destruction by an antibiotic will add to its virulence; pathogen produces enzyme or membrane protein that facilitates the destruction
Define Immunology; What the immune system invovles (fluids, cells, tissues)
o Immunology - study of all biological, chemical and physical events surrounding the function of the immune system o Immune system does not exist in a single, well defined site, encompasses a large, complex and diffuse network of cells and fluids that permeate the whole body (every organ, tissue & fluid) o Functions of a healthy functioning immune system: 1. Surveillance of the body 2. Recognition of foreign material 3. Destruction of entities deemed to be foreign o Immune system structure - large, complex and diffuse network of cells & fluids that penetrate into every organ & tissue; 3 major subdivisions of immune system: Fluids (cells/products delivered via fluid) - • Reticuloendothelial system (RES) - network of connective tissue that interconnects other cells & meshes with the connective tissue network surrounding organs; inhabited by phagocytic cells - mononuclear phagocyte system - macrophages ready to attack & ingest microbes that passed the 1st line of defense • Extracellular fluid - fluid found directly around the cells • Circulatory system - transports immune system products & cells • Lymphatic system - provides an auxiliary route for return of extracellular fluid to the circulatory system; acts as a drain-off system for the inflammatory response; renders surveillance, recognition, and protection against foreign material Tissues & organs (house the cells) - classified as primary & secondary • Primary lymphoid organs - sites of lymphocytic origin & maturation o Bone marrow - site of all blood cell formation; site of B cell maturation o Thymus - high rate of growth & activity until puberty, then begins to shrink; site of T cell maturation • Secondary lymphoid organs & tissues - circulatory based locations such as spleen & lymph nodes; collection of cells distributed throughout body tissues - skin & mucous membranes o Lymph nodes - small, encapsulated, bean shaped organs stationed along lymphatic channels & large blood vessels of the thoracic & abdominal cavities o Spleen - structurally similar to lymph node; filters circulating blood to remove worn out RBC's & pathogens o Misc. GALT=peyer's patch/appendix (gastro associated lymphoid tissue) SALT=skin assoc lymp tissue MALT=mucous assoc lymp tissue BALT=broncho assoc lymp tissue Cells - see blood cell notes below • Types of blood cells - o Plasma is 92% of blood o Plasma can dot; serum can not o Hemopoiesis - production of blood cells o Stem cells - undifferentiated cells, precursor of new blood cells o Leukocytes - white blood cells (WBC) Granulocytes - lobed nucleus (granules) • Neutrophils 55-90%; lobed nuclei; function as phagocytes • Eosinophils 1-3%; bilobed nucleus; destroy eukaryotic pathogens (protozoans) • Basophils .5%; constricted nuclei; release potent chemical mediators; release histamines; related to allergies; free moving • Mast cells - non motile elements bound to connective tissue; permanently bound to connective tissue; histamines/allergy response Agranulocytes - unlobed; rounded nucleus • Lymphocytes 20-35%; specific immune response o B (humoral immunity) - activated B cells; produce antibodies o T cells (cell mediated immunity) - activated T cells modulate immune functions & activated cells kill foreign cells • Monocytes, macrophages 3-7%; largest of WBC's; kidney shaped nucleus; phagocytic o Macrophages - final differentiation of monocytes o Dendritic cells - trap pathogens & participate in immune reactions (fixed monocytes) Ertyhrocytes - develop from bone marrow stem cells, lose nucleus, simple biconcave sacs of hemoglobin Platelets - formed elements in circulating blood that are not whole cells Highest concentration to lowest concentration • Never - Neutrophils • Let - Lymphocytes • Monkeys - Monocytes/Macrophages • Eat - Eosinophils • Bananas - Basophils
Infectious dose
o Infectious dose - minimum # of microbes required for infection to proceed (microbes with small ID's have greater virulence); lack of ID will not result in infection; lower the virulence, less # of cells to create infection
Recognize aspects of the 1st line of defense
o Innate, natural defenses - present at birth, provide nonspecific resistance to infection o Acquired immunities - specific, must be acquired o 1st - any barrier that blocks invasion at the portal of entry - non specific Mechanisms are designed to nonspecifically block the entry of microorganism by physical & chemical barriers at the portal of entry • Physical barrier - if intact, then microbes can't penetrate; outer layer of skin tight layer of epithelial cells; mucous membrane coated with mucous with hairs or cilia • Mechanical barrier - movement of cilia, flushing w/urine or feces, blinking, sneezing, coughing; anything that moves • Chemical barrier - chemicals associated with other barriers, such as: o Lysozyme - saliva & tears o Acid - skin o Salt - skin/sweat o Hydrochloric acid - stomach o Digestive juices - GI tract • Genetic barrier - many microbes will only infect species o Parvo virus - infects dogs & cats but not humans o Chicken pox - virus infects humans not dogs & cats
Types of leukocytes & their #'s in the blood & their job
o Leukocytes - white blood cells (WBC) Granulocytes - lobed nucleus (granules) • Neutrophils 55-90%; lobed nuclei; function as phagocytes • Eosinophils 1-3%; bilobed nucleus; destroy eukaryotic pathogens (protozoans) • Basophils .5%; constricted nuclei; release potent chemical mediators; release histamines; related to allergies; free moving • Mast cells - non motile elements bound to connective tissue; permanently bound to connective tissue; histamines/allergy response Agranulocytes - unlobed; rounded nucleus • Lymphocytes 20-35%; specific immune response o B (humoral immunity) - activated B cells; produce antibodies o T cells (cell mediated immunity) - activated T cells modulate immune functions & activated cells kill foreign cells • Monocytes, macrophages 3-7%; largest of WBC's; kidney shaped nucleus; phagocytic o Macrophages - final differentiation of monocytes o Dendritic cells - trap pathogens & participate in immune reactions (fixed monocytes) Highest concentration to lowest concentration • Never - Neutrophils • Let - Lymphocytes • Monkeys - Monocytes/Macrophages • Eat - Eosinophils • Bananas - Basophils
What is Bergey's Manual?
microbiology bible; Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology is the main resource for determining the identity of prokaryotic organisms, emphasizing bacterial species, using every characterizing aspect.
Difference between lytic & lysogenic stage of multiplication
o Lytic phase (rapid) - replicate & make more viral particles 1. Absorption - binding of the virus to specific molecules of the host cell • Hepatitis B virus - human liver cells • Poliovirus - intestinal cells & nerve cells • Influenza virus - intestinal cells & respiratory epithelial cells 2. Penetration/uncoating - genome enters the host cell, viral nucleic acid is released from capsid 3. Replication - virus nucleic acid is replicated • DNA virus replicate in nucleus • RNA virus replicate in cytoplasm 4. Synthesis - viral protein parts are produced 5. Assembly - new viral particles are put together 6. Release - assembled viruses are released by budding (exocytosis) or cell lysis; assembled viruses leave host cell in 1 of 2 ways: • Budding - exocytosis; viral spikes are inserted into the cell membrane; nucleocapsid binds to membrane which pinches off & sheds the viruses gradually; cells is not immediately destroyed • Lysis - nonenveloped & complex viruses released when cell dies & ruptures o Lysogenic phase (long term; dormant) - only occurs for some viruses; after the virus particle enters host cell, virus DNA inserts into the host DNA & remains there for an undetermined amount of time; if the virus is RNA then it will change its RNA into DNA and insert into chromosome of host cell
Specific immunities - natural active; natural passive; artificial active; artificial passive
o Natural - found naturally o Artificial - involve a needle (vaccine/IV) o Active - 3rd line; making antibodies & killer T's o Passive - 3rd line; not active (temporary) o Natural active - getting the infection; ex. Chicken pox; measles; roseola o Natural passive - mother to child; ex.in utero or breastfeeding o Artificial active - vaccination o Artificial passive - immunotherapy; prevention measles & hepatitis A; used for rabies; acts immediately; protection lasts 2-3 months
Reasons viruses are considered not alive
o No kingdom or domain; unique type of infections that infect every type of living cell; viruses are unable to exist independent of a host cell (obligate intracellular parasites); can't multiply or do metabolism w/out a host; bear no resemblance to cells; lack protein synthesizing machinery; contain only parts needed to invade & control a host cell
Virus size = nm
o Ultramicroscopic - need the nm (nanometer) scale to measure; need electron microscope to see; can fit 200 viruses in an average bacteria cell
Viral Parts
o Viral particles - DNA or RNA molecules are surrounded by a protein coat; obligate parasites that enter a cell, instruct its genetic & molecular machinery to produce & release new virus o Covering (capsid or envelope): Capsid - all virus have; capsid with nucleic acid is nucleocapsid; made of identical protein subunits called capsomers Envelope - some virus have and some don't; lacking envelope are naked; composed of host cell membrane w/viral protein spikes Functions of capsid/envelope: • Protect nucleic acid; helps virus bind to cell; central core=inside capsid o Genome - genetic info, either RNA (single strand) or DNA (double strand) o Various proteins - contain enzymes for specific operations Polymerase, replicase, reverse transcriptase (needed by HIV to reproduce its RNA from DNA)
What is a mutation and how it can happen (spontaneous, indeed)
• Bacteria - asexual reproduction; 1 parent = 2 identical daughter cells; asexual means to evolve a. Know what a mutation is and how it can happen (spontaneous, induced) • Mutation = change in gene code (the nitrogenous base sequence); change in phenotype (physical) due to change in genotype (nitrogenous base portion of gene expression) • Natural, nonmutated characteristic is known as wild type (wild strain) • Organism that has mutation is a mutant strain, showing variance in morphology, nutritional characteristics, genetic control mechanisms, resistance to chemicals and antiobiotics. • Causes of mutations: spontaneous & induced o Spontaneous - random change in DNA due to errors in replication that occur without a known cause o Induced - result from exposure to known mutagens, physical (mostly radiation) or chemical that will cause changes in the DNA - most common is UV light mutations that cause skin cancer in eukaryotic cells.
2 metric scales used to measure both bacteria & viruses (um & nm)
• Bacteria are measured with the micrometer scale • Viruses are measured with the nanometer scale
Composition of the cell envelope
• Cell wall and cell membrane = cell envelope
Define Chemotheraputic Agent
• Chemotherapeutic agent - any chemical used in the treatment, relief or prophylaxis of a disease
How antibioitcs can be produced (natural, semisynthetic, synthetic)
• Chemotherapeutic agent - any chemical used in the treatment, relief or prophylaxis of a disease • Antibiotic - metabolic product of one microorganism that inhibits or destroys other microorganisms o Natural - product is unchanged from organism that produces it; Streptomyces is the most prolific producer o Semisynthetic - drug that is chemically modified in the lab after being isolated from the natural source (natural with chemical added) o Synthetic - drug is made totally in the lab
Functional types of media (general purpose; enriched media; selective media; differentiated media)
General purpose - designed to grow a broad spectrum of microbes; contains a mixture of nutrients that can support pathogens and nonpathogens. • Examples - nutrient agar or broth; trypticase soy sugar Enriched media - designed to support the growth of fastidious (picky species) species; contains basic nutrients but it is also enriched with blood, serum, hemoglobin, or individual growth factors. • Examples - blood agar, chocolate agar Selective media - designed for special microbial groups; contains agents that allow the growth of one group of bacteria while inhibiting growth of others. • Examples - mannitol salt agar (MSA) - allows Staphylococcus to grow but not others; MacConkey agar or EMB - encourages enteric bacteria but not gram positive Differentiated media - designed to grow several types of organisms but casuses those that grow to have different appearances • Examples - MacConkey agar, EMB, CHROMagar
Areas of the bacterial structure on which agents can act to kill the microbe
1. Cell wall -
Who developed Petri plate
Agar was first described for use in microbiology in 1882 by the German microbiologist Walther Hesse, an assistant working in Robert Koch's laboratory, on the suggestion of his wife Fannie Hesse.[7][8] Agar quickly supplanted gelatin as the base of microbiological media, due to its higher melting temperature, allowing microbes to be grown at higher temperatures without the media liquefying. A Petri dish (sometimes spelled "Petrie dish" and alternatively known as a Petri plate or cell-culture dish), named after the German bacteriologist Julius Richard Petri, is a shallow cylindrical glass or plastic lidded dish that biologists use to culture cells - such as bacteria - or small mosses
Concepts of anaerobic respiration. Which paths are involved; final electron acceptor can be several possibilities but never oxygen
Anaerobic respiration: NO OXYGEN NEEDED • Paths involved - uses all 3 pathways (glycolysis, krebs cycle, ETC) • Organisms that use - all enteric bacteria; Psuedomonas; Bacillus, Methanogens • Amount of ATP produced - makes less than 38 ATP (between 2-36 ATPs) i. # of ATP depends on final electron acceptor • Examples of final electron acceptors i. Nitrate (NO3) ii. Nitrite (NO2) iii. Sulfate (SO4) iv. Ferrous Ion (Fe3) v. Carbonate (CO3) vi. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Hemophilus influenzae
Bacterial Meningitis; 3rd generation cephalosporins; HiB
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Chlamydia trachomatis
Chlamydia; doxycycline
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Vibrio cholerae
Cholera; doxycycline
Classical stages of clinical infection
Classical stages of clinical infectious disease - 4 distinct stages of clinical infections • Incubation period - time from initial contact with infectious agent and the appearance of first symtpons (2-30 days); agent is multiplying but damage is insufficient to cause symptoms; several hours to several years • Prodromal stage - earliest symptoms (generalized symptoms) of infection with vague feelings of discomfort and non-specific complaints. o Include - headache, fatigue, nausea, fever, muscle aches (1-2 days) • Period of invasion - microbes multiplies at highest rate, exhibits greatest toxicity and is well established in target tissue; marked by classic (specific) symptoms of particular disease • Convalescent period - patient's immune system begins to overcome the microbe, symptoms begin to fade, patient's strength returns and body system comes back to normal
3 basic bacterial shapes & the atypical (pleomorphic rods)
Coccus (length = width) basically a round or spherical cell, but can also be oval or bean shaped Bacillus (greater length than width) rod shaped; coccobacillus (really short bacillus like Klebsiella pneumonia) Curved forms: i. Vibrio - gently curved bacillus ii. Sprillum - rigid helix where cells do not bend; external flagella called amphitrichous iii. Spirochete - flexible spring shape; internal flagella called endoflagella Pleomorphic Rods - atypical shape; variation in cell shape and size within a single species i. Example - Corynebacterium iphtheria
Bacterial arrangements for cocci & bacilli
Coccus arrangements: o Single - 1 round cell o Diplococcus - a pair of round cells o Streptococcus - chain of round cells o Staphylococcus - irregular cluster of round cells o Tetrad - packet of 4 round cells o Sarcina - cube of 8 or 16 round cells Bacillus arrangements: o Single - one oblong cell o Diplobacillus - a pair of oblong cells o Streptobacillus - chain of oblong cells o Palisade - match sticks or picket fence or oblong cells
Know the coenzymes (NAD & FAD); what they carry & where they are needed
Coenzyme Usually part of a vitamin Larger, organic Function: removes functional groups from substrate; acts as a carrier Examples: NAD (niacin), FAD (flavin)
Composition of the cell membrane & its primary function
Composition of the cell membranes and its many functions. • All bacteria have a cell membrane • Composed of phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins • Functions: o MAIN - selectively allows passage of molecules into and out of cell o Serves as DNA anchor during binary fission o Contains enzymes for cell wall synthesis o Location of enzymes used in energy production = ATP o Forms finger like pockets (invaginations) into cytoplasm called (mesomes) that increase surface area o Anchors bacterial flagella Know that all bacterial cells have a cell membrane. • All bacteria have a cell membrane
Cell Wall - Define and Function
Function of the cell wall. • Cell wall and cell membrane = cell envelope • Also called peptidoglycan 'sugar chains' • All bacteria have except one (mycoplasma) • Function - to determine shape and prevent lysis due to changing osmotic pressures • Composed of unique organic molecule - peptidoglycan. (a few are composed of something else) Understand that all bacteria have a cell wall except Mycoplasma. • Mycoplasma is the only bacteria without a cell wall! • No cell wall = mycoplasma • Cell wall is stabilized by sterols • Medically important bacteria - slide 18 4.3 • Pleomorphic = atypical shape Understand that peptidoglycan is the major molecule in the bacteria cell wall. • Peptidoglycan is the major molecule in the bacteria cell wall.
BONUS SONG
Kenny Loggins; Danger Zone; GI disease/food safety
Know order of the taxa
Know the order of taxa: Largest to smallest Did Green Popeye Come Over For Green Spinach? o Domain o Kingdom o Phylum o Class o Order o Family o Genus o Species
Contributions of Leewenhoek
Leewenhoek's contributions to microbiology: • He was the first to observe, describe and draw microorganisms accurately, which he called 'animalcules' • Developed his own hand held microscopes (magnify 50-300x) • Very eccentric and did not share his knowledge • Father of bacteriology & protozoology
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Legionella pneumophila
Legionaire's Disease; erythromycin; non-communicable; lives inside amebas in environment
Physical types of media (solid, liquid, semisolid)
Liquid media - • Consistency like water; usually a broth (used in unknown #2) • Used in test tube • Contains no gelling agent = no agar • Examples - nutrient broth, nitrate broth Semisolid media - • Used only for motility test • Has a soft consistency • Used in test tube • Contains a small amount of agar (.3%-.5%) • Examples - motility agar Solid media - Solid - provides a firm surface for colony formation • Used in test tube or petri plate • Contains larger amount of agar (1%-5%) • Examples - nutrient sugar, TSA
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Borrelia burgdorferi
Lyme Disease; doxycycline
Difference between macro-nutrients & micro-nutrients (examples of each)
Macronutrients - required in large quantities and play principal roles in cell structure and metabolism; compose 96% of cell o Examples - Compounds (proteins, carbohydrates) that contain the elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur (CHNOPS) Micronutrients - required in smaller amounts and needed for enzyme function and maintenance of protein structure (trace elements) o Examples - Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, Zinc, Copper, Nickel
BONUS SONG
Matchbox 20; disease; studied many of them
Mechanism of actions of chemotherapeutic drugs
Mechanism or Mode of Action - Antimicrobial drugs work in 1 of the following ways: • Cell Wall - peptidoglycan in the cell wall helps provide a rigid structure that protects against changes in the osmotic pressure in the environment. Active cells are constantly producing more peptidoglycan to place in the cell wall. Some drugs interfere with one or more of the enzymes required to complete this process, causing the cell to develop weak points at growth sites and to become osmotically fragile. o Examples - penicillin & cephalosporins • Cell Membrane - damage to the cell membrane causes disruption in metabolism or lysis. These drugs target a special type of lipids. o Examples - polymyxins, amphotericin B, nystatin • Protein Synthesis - most inhibitors of translation react with the ribosome/mRNA complex. 2 possible targets are the 30S subunit and the 50S subunit. o Example - streptomycin, gentamicin, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, erythromycin • Nucleic Acid - antimicrobial drugs can block the synthesis of nucleotides, inhibit replication o Examples - chloroquine and antiviral drugs like AZT (chemical mimics) • Cytoplasm - some drugs act as an analog to an enzyme in a metabolic pathway o Examples - sulfonamides and trimethoprim (chemical mimics) • Characteristics of the Ideal Antibiotic o Selectively toxic to microbe but non toxic to host cells o Microbicidal rather than microbistatic (kill not slow down) o Soluble and functions when diluted in body fluids (liver & kidneys) o Remains potent long enough to act/not broken down or excreted prematurely o Not subject to development of drug resistance o Complements host's defenses o Readily delivered to site of infection o Not excessive in cost o Does not cause allergies or predispose host to other infections
Define Normal Flora
Microbes that normally live in or on a human and do not cause disease
Define Mixed Culture
More than one microbe growing in sample or culture medium
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Rickettsia typhi
Murine typhus; doxycycline
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Shigella dysenteriae
Dysentary; cipro/sulfa drugs
Contributions of Pasteur
Pasteur's contributions to microbiology: • Pasteur - Father of microbiology • Discovered how to make some bacteria lose their ability to cause disease • Developed vaccination against anthrax and rabies • Disproved spontaneous generation theory and proved the theory of biogenesis (idea that living things can only arise from other living things) o Experiment to disprove spontaneous generation: Used swan necked flask to prevent microbes from entering previously boiled broth Spontaneous generation did not occur in upright swan necked flask o Conclusion - no spontaneous generation in the flask; microbes in the air contaminated the broth • Pasteurization - special heating process to kill bacteria without changing the flavor of the wine o Wineries in France were having trouble with bacterial contamination of wine o One microbe needed for wine making - yeast makes alcohol o Other microbes are contaminants - bacteria converts sugars into acids making wine sour • Germ theory of disease - Pasteur wrote a paper purposing that a specific microorganism would cause a specific disease o The microorganism is called the causative or etiological agent.
2 theories on how living things arise (spontaneous generation & bio-genesis)
**Biogenesis - the idea that living things can only arise from other living things (of the same kind); Examples - mice from mice; dogs from dogs; bacteria from bacteria **Abiogenesis - spontaneous generation. Early belief that some forms of life could arise from vital forces present in nonliving or decomposing matter; Examples - flies from manure; old rags & thrown out food = mice; broth left unrefrigerated became cloudy = microbes
Contributions of Koch (Koch - Which etiological agent Koch used with his postulates to prove the germ theory of disease)
**Koch's contributions to microbiology: • Proved that germ theory of disease by finding the causative agent for Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) • Created Koch's Postulates - o Microbe must be present in every case of the disease but absent from healthy organisms o The suspected microbe must be isolated and grown in pure culture o The same disease must result when the isolated microbe inoculated into a healthy host o The same microbe must be isolated again from the disease host • Developed many of the lab techniques still used for lab today o Developed culture media o Developed dishware o Developed methods for isolation **Which organism did Koch first identify as an etiological agent of a disease? • Bacillus anthracis - causative agent for Anthrax
Types of organisms studied in microbiology & their branches of microbiology
**Living organisms: o Bacteria - unicellular organisms o Algae - unicellular organism that photosynthesize (does not cause disease) o Protozoa - unicellular organism that are animal-like o Fungi - unicellular or multicellular organisms (yeast or molds) o Helminths - multicellular eukaryotic worms **Acellular organisms (not alive): o Viruses - infectious agents composed of protein and nucleic acid, must invade host cell to multiply o Viroids - infectious agents composed of only RNA (ribonucleic acid) o Prions - infectious protiens (cause mad cow disease)
Difference between simple vs. differential stain
**Simple Stain - o Uses a single dye to stain bacterial cell o Helps to distinguish shape, arrangement, and size of cells o Examples - methylene blue, crystal violet **Differential Stain - o Uses 2 different colored dyes: primary and counter stain o Used to distinguish different cell types or cell parts o Examples - gram; acid fast; endospore
Binary fission is the bacteria's way to asexual division
**Steps of binary fission. • Parent cell @ beginning of cell cycle • Chromosome replication & cell enlargement • Chromosome division & septation • Completion of cell compartments • End of cell division cycle **Given the generation of a species be able to determine the # of cells after a specific amount of elapsed time. • 1 cell splits to 2 each generation time
What is agar & what organism is from & who suggested its use in the lab
**What is agar and what organism is used to make it? • Agar is a complex polysaccharide isolated from the red algae - Gelidium • They first tried using potatoes but potatoes became too mushy o First used in Robert Koch's lab; Walther Hesse was his lab assistant; Fanny Hesse (Walther's wife) suggested the use of agar in the lab. **Whose lab was agar introduced into and who suggested agar as a possible gelling agent for cultures? • Robert Koch's lab & his lab assistant Walther Hesse's wife Fanny was the first to suggest using agar in the lab.
Define Superinfection
a new infection occurring in a patient having a preexisting infection; for example, bacterial infection may occur in patients with viral respiratory disease, or a chronic hepatitis B carrier may become infected with hepatitis D virus. Superinfection can complicate the course of antimicrobial therapy when the organisms causing the new infection are resistant to the drugs being used to treat the first infection.
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Bartonella henselae
Cat Scratch Fever; doxycycline
Recognize a description of chemical agents
Chemical Agents (9 methods) • 10k different manufacturer, 1k used in healthcare settings • Occurs as liquid, gas or solid; vary from antiseptic to disinfectant to sterilant • If solid may be dissolved in: o Water = aqueous o Alcohol = tincture 1. Phenol (Carbolic acid) a. Used originally by Joseph Lister to sterilize surgical hands; acrid poisonous compound derived from distilling coal tar b. Current products called phenolics i. Disrupt cell walls and membranes and precipitate proteins ii. Low to intermediate level - bacteriacidal, fungicidal, virucidal, NOT SPORICIDAL c. Used for antibacterial soaps, disinfectants d. Products - dial soaps-triclosan, Lysol, citrace, phisohex 2. Chlorhexidine - complex compound of chlorine and 2 phenolic rings; also called chlorhexidine gluconate a. Surfactant & protein denaturant with broad microbial properties; low to intermediate level b. Alcoholic or aqueous solutions; antiseptic cleanser of choice to control MRSA and Acinetobacter outbreaks in hospitals c. Used for hand scrubbing, skin sites for surgery and injections, wounds, neonatal wash, preservative for eye solution d. Products - surgical scrubs, hibiclens, hibitane, hand sanitizers, oral rinses 3. Alcohols - have OH functional group; usually ethyl & isopropyl alcohols in concentrations of 50-95% a. Act as surfactant dissolving membrane lipids and coagulating proteins of vegetative bacterial cells and fungi; intermediate level b. Ethyl - beer; Isopropyl - rubbing alcohol; used alone or as a solvent for a tincture: mercury or iodine c. 70% best to kill microbes due to longer evaporating time with diluted water d. Used for - reduce microbes on skin; thermometers; disinfect surfaces 4. Hydrogen Peroxide - H2O2; colorless caustic liquid that composes in the presence of light or metals; produce highly reactive hydroxyl-free radicals that damage protein & DNA a. used in 3% solution as antiseptic; 6-25% potent enough to sterilize (sporicidal) b. used for antiseptic for skin, wound, bedsore, mouth wash, toothpaste, contact lens cleaner, surgical implants, plastic equipment 5. Halogens - active ingredients in nearly 1/3 of all antimicrobial chemicals currently being marketed; include group VII on periodic table (fluorine, bromine, chlorine, iodine); most commonly used are chlorine & iodine a. Chlorine - has been used for disinfection and antisepsis for ~200 years; denature proteins by disrupting disulfide bonds; intermediate level; less effective if exposed to light, alkaline pH, excess organic material i. Used for: large scale disinfection of drinking water, sewage, swimming pools, restaurants, canneries, wounds, irrigate root canals ii. Major forms are - liquid agent; gas agent 1. Liquid agent a. hypochlorites - product=chlorine bleach b. chloramine 2. Gas agent - toxic on humans b. Iodine - pungent blue-black element that forms a brown solution when dissolved in water is one of the oldest and most effective; interferes with disulfide bonds of proteins; intermediate level i. Used for - skin prep for surgery, burns, vaginal infections, surgical hand scrubbing, disinfect equipment; chlorhexidine gluconate is a great alternative ii. 3 types of solutions: 1. Iodophor - iodine complexed with neutral protein polymer (2-10% iodine); less toxic and irritating to tissues; less staining; common products-betadine and povidone 2. Tincture iodine - 2-3% solution of iodine in 70% alcohol used as antiseptic 3. Aqueous iodine - 2-3% solution of iodine in water used as antiseptic c. Fluorine - fluoride treatments @ DDS; fluoride toothpast d. Bromine - hot tub disinfectant (bromine tablets) 6. Aldehydes - has CHO functional group; 2 most commonly used are glutaraldehyde & formaldehyde a. Glutaraldehyde - yellow acidic liquid with a mild odor; less toxic and irritating; rapid & broad spectrum is one of the few chemicals officially accepted as a sterilant=kills spores in 3 hours; uses a special device called a chemiclave i. Used for - respiratory therapy & kidney dialysis equipment, endoscopes, alternative for a vaccine preservative ii. Products - 2%; cidex & sporicidan b. Formaldehyde - preserve cadaver & AP2 kitty; sharp irritating gas; dissolves readily to form an aqueous solution called formalin (37% formaldehyde gas in water); extremely toxic on skin & mucous membranes, classified as a carcinogen i. Used for - surgical instruments, used to be used for biological specimens, one main ingredient is embalming fluid 7. Gaseous Agents - includes ethylene oxide, chlorine dioxide a. Ethylene Oxide - colorless substance that is a gas at room temp; highly explosive in air and is mixed with carbon dioxide when used in ETO sterilizer; one of very few gases accepted as a chemical sterilizing agent; rated as a carcinogen i. Used for - prepackaged medical supplies that are plastic (syringes, pipettes, petri dishes) pacemakers, artificial heart valves; kills spores in 3 hours; disinfectant of foods such as spices, dried fruits and drugs b. Chlorine Dioxide - also used as a sterilizing gas; used for treatment of drinking water, wastewater, food processing equipment and medical waste, decontamination of whole rooms i. Most notable use - decontaminate senate offices in 2001 after anthrax attacks 8. Heavy Metals - include mercury, silver, gold, copper, arsenic, zinc; most commonly used silver & mercury; heavy metal germicides contain a metallic salt & are in the form of aqueous solutions, tinctures, ointments, or soaps; TY table of immunizations posted on Blackboard for review a. Mercury - mercury tinctures .001-.2% in alcohol; used for skin antiseptics, preservative in cosmetics and ophthalmic solutions i. products-mecurochrome, merthiolate (thermisoal) 1. mercurochrome - monkey's blood; developed in 1919 & banned in 1998; toxicity concerns 2. merthiolate - developed in 1929; phased out 1999; vaccine preservative; false study linked to autism b. Silver - silver nitrate used to prevent eye infections in newborns (treatment of gonorrhea); silver sulfadiazine ointments for burn patients; also band aids with silver, surgical bandages with silver in pad, catheters with silver to prevent UTI's c. Zinc - Boudreaux's butt paste to treat diaper rash 9. Detergents & Soaps a. Detergents - example is cavicide; best quarternary ammonium compounds; most common benzalkonium chloride i. used for hand scrubbing, laundry, dishes, shampoos, floors, kitchens ii. acts as surfactant that alter membrane permeability of some bacteria & fungi iii. very low level b. Soaps - are alkaline compounds made when combining sodium or potassium salts and fatty acids i. Common - sodium lauryl sulfate ii. Mechanically remove soil & grease containing microbes
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - E. Coli
Diarrhea, UTI, Bloody Diarrhea, HUS; 3rd-4th generation cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, flouroquinolones
Difference between 2 types of DNA (chromosome & plasmid) & their functions
Difference between the 2 types of DNA (chromosome & plasmid) and their functions. • Nucleoid - 2 types of DNA o Chromosome - single, circular, double stranded DNA molecule that contains all of the genetic information required by a cell o Plasmid = Extrachromosomal - not all microbes have them Free small, circular, double stranded DNA Not essential to bacterial growth and metabolism Used in genetic engineering - readily manipulated and transferred from cell to cell Very important to bacterial resistance
Pathogenic portal of entry
Exit host/portal of exit - pathogen departs by a specific avenue many times the same as the entry o Respiratory & saliva - respiratory droplets, mucus, nasal drainage, sputum, saliva o Skin scales o Fecal o Urogenital o Blood o Insect bite
Fimbrae & Pili - Describe & Function
Fimbriae - a solid protein; fine hair-like bristles emerging from cell surface o Function - used for attachment to environment (ecoli use to attach to inside of bladder) Pilis (pili - plural) - hollow structure; rigid protein tube structure o Found only in gram negative species o Function - used for attachment to another bacteria to exchange DNA during CONJUGATION.
Function of the glycocalyx & that not all bacteria have one
Glycocalyx (2 types) - coating of molecules external to the cell wall, made of sugars and/or proteins o Some bacteria have and some do not o Functions - attachments; formation of biofilms; protect cell against phagocytosis (engulfment) by WBC; prevent dehydration. 2 types of glycolcalyx: Slime layer - loose structure, easily washed off Capsule - firmer structure; bonded to cell Difference between the slime layer and capsule. Slime layer - loose structure, easily washed off Capsule - firmer structure; bonded to cell
Know the difference between G+ & G- cell wall w/respect to thickness of peptidoglycan, presence of teichoic acid, and presence of an outer membrane
Gram positive - thick peptidoglycan layer; teichoic acid present; no outer membrane; positive=purple Gram negative - thin peptidoglycan layer; teichoic acid not present; has outer membrane; negative=pink
What stain Hans Christian Gram developed
Gram stain is a 130 year old method named for its developer Hans Christian Gram. The gram stain is the basis of several important bacteriological topics, including bacterial taxonomy, cell wall structure, identification, and drug therapy.
Helper T cell activation; B cell activation; cytoxic T cell activation
Helper T cell activation (CD4) - must be activated by macrophage either physical (physical contact between helper T & APC) or chemical (APC secretes interleukin 1) • Once activated; can assist in activating B cell and other T cells • Interleukin 1 - secreted by APC to activate helper T cells • Interleukin 2 - produced by helper T to activate B & other T cells B cell activation - b cell phagocytizes & processes microbe (no APC); helper T activates B cells either physical (physical contact between B cell & helper T cell) or chemical (helper T cell secretes cytokine (interleukin 2) - then b cell is activated & undergoes change to produce 2 types of cells (plasma cells & memory cells) • Plasma cells - produce antibodies; fight microbe now; antibody functions are: o Opsonization - coat microbe so readily recognized by phagocytes o Neutralization - fill surface receptors on virus or bacteria to prevent it from attaching o Aggluntination - cross linking cells into large clumps; cleared by kidneys o Complement fixation - activation of complement classical pathway result in specific rupturing of cells and virus (holes) • Memory cells - fight microbe later; lives long term in lymph tissue and is activated by subsequent exposure; produces lots of antibodies when activated Cytotoxic T cell activation - helper T & APC activate cytotoxic T in 2 steps: physical (APC contacts cytotoxic T cell w/antigen); chemical (helper T cell secretes interleukin 2) • Activated cytotoxic T cell produces 2 types of cells - killer T (activated cytotoxic T cell) seek out and destroy antigen containing cells with lymphotoxin (granzymes & perforins) & Memory T cell - lives long term in the lymph tissue & is activated when subsequent exposure occurs
Type of bacterial DNA this is usually replicated by replicon or rolling circle
How & when are 2 pieces of genome in the bacterial cell replicated • Bacterial cells have 2 pieces of DNA to replicate: o Chromosome - replicate during binary fission (cell division) using a process called REPLICON o Plasmid - replicate during conjugation using a process called ROLLING CIRCLE
Define Pure Culture
One microbe growing on or in the culture medium
Recognize a description of physical agents
Physical Agents (5 methods) - most bacteria have a temp range over which they can grow; min-optimum-max 1. Heat a. Moist Heat - lower temp & shorter exposure time; coagulation & denature of proteins Autoclaving - used in micro lab @ SJC; kill cart/kill bucket • Sterilization; Steam under pressure • Special chambered machine that will heat objects to 121C @ 15PSI (pounds per square inch, above normal atmospheric) for 10-14 mins • Used for media, used media, glassware, some surgical equipment Intermittent Sterilization=tyndallization; for substance that can't be autoclaved • Disinfectant; developed by John Tyndall; cycle of kill/incubate/kill/incubate; kills vegetative cells, incubate gives time for spores to grow into vegetative cells then process kills them again; result in killing majority if not all spores • Special chamber with holder and boiling water, specimen is exposed to free flowing steam; specimen is heated to 100C for 30-60 mins on 3 successive days with incubation periods in between • Used for sensitive culture media (sera, egg, carbohydrates0 Pasteurization - does NOT sterilize; heat is applied to kill potential agents of infection and spoilage without destroying the food flavor or value • Not sterilization - kills non spore forming pathogens and lowers overall microbe count; does not kill endospores or many nonpathogenic microbes • Used for milks, juices, coffee creamers, alcoholic beverages • 3 methods: o Batch method - not sterile; original method; 63-66C for 30 mins o Flash method - not sterile; current method; 71.6C for 15 seconds; used on juices o Ultrahigh temp method (UHT) - commercially sterile; 134C for 1-2 seconds Commercially sterile = kills 99.9% of potential agents of infection Not long enough time to kill endospores Boiling Water - destroys vegetative cells • Disinfectant; involves boiling water chamber or bath; boil at 100C for 30 mins (120C kills endospores) • Used for unsafe drinking water, home canning, materials for baby b. Dry Heat - using higher temperatures than moist heat; dehydration; alters protein structure; incineration; dry oven Dry Oven - sterilization; 2-4hrs @ 150-180C • Used for glassware, powders, oils, metals (that can rust) Incineration - sterilization; • Bunsen burner for - needles & loops (1870C) • Furnace incinerators for - medical waste 2. Cold - keeps leftover food good to eat later a. Microbiostatic - slows the growth of microbes; refrigeration 0-15C and freezing <0C b. Used for preserve food, media and cultures 3. Desiccation - drying; gradual removal of water from cells, leads to metabolic inhibition; not effective microbial control - many cells retain ability to grow when water is reintroduced a. Lyophilization - freeze drying; preservation 4. Radiation - waves or particles bombard molecules in cell; damages molecules; most sensitive is DNA a. creates bonds or causes breakages = mutation; some types cause electrons to be released=create ions/others do not b. involves - ultraviolet , gamma rays to control organisms c. radura symbol - notice that food has been irradiated d. 2 methods - ionizing & non ionizing Ionizing Radiation (Gamma) - deep penetrating power that has sufficient energy to cause electrons to leave their orbit, breaks DNA • Gamma rays (x rays, cathode rays); over past years become safer & more economical to sue; highly effective way to sterilize materials that are sensitive to heat or chemicals = cold sterilization • Items are exposed to varying dosages 5-50 kilograys; can penetrate barriers • Used to cut down microbial loads in: food, drugs, vaccines, medical instruments • Foods - from flour to pork and ground beef, to fruits and vegetables Non Ionizing Radiation (UV) - little penetrating power so it must be directly exposed (take off petri dish lid); UV light creates pyrimidine dimers, which interfere with replication • UV - UV ranges in wavelength from 100-400nm; most lethal from 240-280nm; most germicidal @ 260nm • usually involves a germicidal lamp that emits a specific wavelength of UV, placed on ceilings, upper part of walls or air ducts; does not penetrate barriers • Used for - airborne contaminants in hospital rooms, operation rooms, schools, nursing homes, food processing plants, slaughter houses, waste water 5. Filtration - sterilization; involves straining liquid or air through a layer of material with openings large enough for liquid or air to pass but too small for microorganisms; examples - swimming pools, fish tanks a. Pore diameters range from 8-.02mm; sterilization b. Used for beer, wine, milk, rooms, sensitive media=blood products, vaccines, enzymes, drugs c. 2 types of filters - depth filter & membrane filter Depth filter - sand, charcoal, diatomaceous earth Membrane filter - cellulose, acetate or plastic
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Yersinia pestis
Plague; streptomycin
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Primary Bacterial Pneumonia; doxycycline; no cell wall; smallest replicating microbe
Primary stain vs. counter stain
Primary stain - goes on microbe first Counter stain - goes on microbe second
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Treponema pallidum
Syphilis "great pox; penicillin
How prokaryotic flagella operates (rotates 360) = run & tumble vs. eukaryotic flagella
Prokaryotic o Flagella rotates 360 degrees; includes a series of runs & tumbles o Straight run = flagella spins counterclockwise o Tumble = flagella spins clockwise Eukaryotic o Flagella whips back and forth for movement (ex. Sperm)
Distinguish between prokaryotic & eukaryotic
Prokaryotic - no nuclues; 1 peice of DNA; no membrane bound organelles; includes all bacteria Eukaryotic - nucleus; many pieces of chromosomal DNA; membrane bound organelles; includes protistans, fungi, plantae; animalia
BONUS SONG
The Police; don't stand so close to me; contagious disease transfer
Function of ribosomes
RIBOSOMES: • Made of 60% ribosomal RNA and 40% protein • Consist of 2 subunits: large and small • Prokaryotic differ from eukaryotic ribosomes in size and number of proteins • Site of protein synthesis • Found in all cells! o (smaller) Prokaryotic cells: 70S = 50S+30S o (larger) Eukaryotic cells: 80S = 60S+40S
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Septic Shock; 3rd-4th generation cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, flouroquinolones; blue/green pus & fruity smell
Define Anitseptic; Disinfectant; Sterilant; Virucide; Fungicide, etc...
Sterilizing Agents: • Sterilization - a process that destroys or removes ALL viable microorganisms o Any material that has been subjected to this process is said to be sterile = NOTHING ALIVE o Control methods that sterilize are reserved for INANIMATE OBJECTS Non-Sterilizing Agents: • Germicide (Microbicide) - any chemical that kills pathogenic microorganisms o Used on NON LIVING (INANIMATE) material or LIVING TISSUE (ANIMATE) o Example = 70% alcohol used in lab • Disinfection (Disinfectant) - any physical process or a chemical agent that destroys vegetative cells but not endospores o Used on INANIMATE objects (floors, countertops, etc...) • Antiseptics - from the word sepsis=growth of microorganism; chemicals applied directly to exposed body surfaces to inhibit vegetative pathogens o Used on ANIMATE objects • Sanitization - any cleansing technique that mechanically removed microorganisms to reduce level of contaminants o Used on INANIMATE objects Microbicidal Agents - root 'cide'= to kill; combine with other terms to describe what you are killing • Bactericide - chemical that destroys bacteria; except endospores • Fungicide - chemical that destroys fungal spores, hyphae, and yeasts • Virucide - chemical that destroys or inactivates viruses • Sporicide - chemical that destroys endospores Microbistatis - Greek words stasis and static mean - to stand still; combine with other terms to describe microbes that are prevented from multiplying • Bacteriostatic - agents that prevent the growth of bacteria • Fungistatic - agents that prevent the growth of fungi
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Helicobacter pylori
Stomach/Duodenal Ulcers; clarithromycin; produce urease
Define Microbiology
Study of living organisms & acellular biological entities too small to be seen without the aid of a microscope; study of microorganisms
BONUS SONG
Van Morrison; 'ringworm'; fungal disease
BONUS SONG
Van Morrison; brown eyed girl; song played to ID artist of 'ringworm'
Define Taxonomy
What is taxonomy? • Formal system for organizing, classifying and naming living things • Originated by Carl Von Linne (Carolus Linneaus) • Concerned with: o Classification - orderly arrangement of organisms into 8 taxa groups o Nomenclature - assigning names o Identification - determining and recording traits of organisms for placement into taxonomic schemes
How to write scientific name
What is the binomial system? Naming system that uses 2 names (genus and species) • Genus - written first and capitalized • Species - written second and lowercase • If typed, both are italicized. If hand written, both are underlined. Example - Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) Inspiration for names is extremely varied and often imaginative
Bug, Disease, Treatment/Vaccines - Bordatella pertusis
Whooping Cough; erythromycin; DTaP & Boostrix; changed to acellular version
Different classes of gas requirement (aerobic, anaerobic, facultative, anaerobe, etc....)
• Aerobe - must have oxygen for growth; growth at the top of broth • Microaerobe - requires less oxygen that is found in air; growth just below surface • Facultative anaerobe - grows with or without oxygen; growth throughout broth • Aerotolerant anaerobe - does not use oxygen for growth; can tolerate oxygen; growth in bottom half of broth tube • Strict anaerobe - does not use oxygen for growth; dies in presence of oxygen; growth at the very bottom of broth tube
Most prolific producer of antibiotics
• Antagonistic relationship - one microbe makes something that damages another microbe) • Antibiotics are common metabolic products of aerobic bacteria & fungi o Bacteria in genera - Streptomyces & Bacillus o Molds in genera - Penicillum & Cephalasporium
Define Antimicrobial Drug
• Antimicrobial drugs should be selectively toxic - drugs should kill or inhibit microbial cells without simultaneously damaging host tissue • As the characteristics of the infectious agent become more similar to the vertebrate host cell, complete selectively toxicity becomes more difficult to achieve and more side effects are seen
Pathogens - Mechanisms of adhesion
• Attach firmly - Adhesion o Once the microbe has gained entry in the body via correct portal of entry, the pathogen makes his way to his target tissue (tissue of choice to multiply in; may be at portal of entry or not); once at target tissue the pathogen must adhere to tissue or otherwise the body may eliminate the pathogen o Types - fimbrae, glycocalyx, flagella, cilia, (suckers, hooks, barbs - worms) and (spikes - viruses)
Which Domains or Kingdoms contain prokaryotic or eukaryotic organisms that we studied over the semester
• Domain Bacteria - only prokaryotic organisms • Domain Archaea - only prokaryotic organisms • Domain Eukarya - only eukaryotic organisms • Kingdom - Monera - only prokaryotic organisms • Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia - only eukaryotic organisms
Define Harmful; Neutral; Beneficial; Lethal Mutations
• Harmful - creates a disadvantage for microbe (reduces quality of life for bacteria cell) • Neutral - no significant change • Beneficial - creates an advantage for microbe (retained by population) • Lethal - kills the microbe
Define Nosocomial Infections
• Hospital acquired diseases o Common microbes - e coli; strep; staph; candida
Function of endospores
• Inert, resting cells produced by some G+ genera - clostridium & bacillus (pathogens that cause disease) • Have a 2 phase life cycle: o Vegetative cell - metabolically active and growing o Endospore - when exposed to adverse environmental conditions; capable of high resistance and very long term survival Dehydrated, metabolically inactive (hydrate to activate) Thick coat Longevity verges on immortality, 250 million years Resistance to ordinary cleaning methods & boiling Pressurized steam @ 120C for 20-30 mins will destroy Only a few species can form endospores • Sporulation - formation of endospores o Hardiest of all life forms o Withstands extremes in heat, drying, freezing, radiation, and chemicals o Not a means of reproduction • Germination - return to vegetative growth o See drawing on page 7 of chapter outline notes What environment would cause sporulation and germination? • The major stimulus for endospore formation is the depletion of nutrients, especially amino acids. • The breaking of dormancy or germination happens in the presence of water and a specific germination agent. The germination agent can vary by species, it is generally a small organic molecule such as an amino acid or an inorganic salt. This agent stimulates the formation of hydrolytic (digestive enzymes) by the endospore membranes.
Define Infection
• Infection - condition in which pathogenic microorganisms penetrate the host defenses, enter tissues and multiply (no damage/disruption) • Infectious disease - an infection that causes damage or disruption to tissues and organs caused by microbes or their products
Parts of the growth curve
• Lag phase - no rise in # of cells; cells adjust to new climate; make new molecules and increase in size • Exponential growth phase - cell divide at max rate; best time to transfer to new medium • Stationary phase - decrease in growth rate; increase in death rate; decreased nutrients & waste build-up • Death phase - cell death is greater than cell growth; due to overcrowding, lack of nutrients & build-up wastes
Understand normal flora & where they would be found & not expected to be
• Most areas of the body in contact with outside environment harbor resident microbes • Internal organs, tissues and fluids are microbe-free • Transients - microbes that occupy the body for only short periods • Residents - microbes that become established o Microbial antagonism - Bacterial flora benefit host by preventing overgrowth of harmful microbes o Endogenous infections - occur when normal flora is introduced to a site that was previously sterile • Skin: largest, most accessible organ; 2 cutaneous populations (transients and residents) • GI tract: long hollow tube, bound by mucous membranes; tube is exposed to environment o Variations in flora distribution due to shifting conditions (pH, oxygen tension, anatomy) o Oral cavity, large intestine and rectum harbor appreciable flora Mouth Flora - most diverse an unique flora of the body; most common - strep mutans; strep salivarius • Numerous adaptive niches; bacterial count of saliva (5x10^9cells per milliliter) Large Intestine Flora - complex and profound interactions with host; intestinal environment favors anaerobic bacteria; contribute to intestinal odor & flatulence • Most common - bacteriodes, bifidiobacterium; clostridium • Smaller #'s - coliforms, e.coli, entereobacter, citrobacter • Respiratory tract flora - o Flora found in upper respiratory - nasal entrance; nasal vestibule; anterior nasopharynx (staph aureus) Neisseria found in mucous membranes of nasopharynx Haemophilus found in tonsils and lower pharynx o Lower respiratory Larynx, trachea - flora Bronchi, bronchioles, lungs - sterile • Genitourinary tract - sites that harbor microflora o Females - vagina, distal urethra, external genitalia o Males - distal urethra, external genitalia • Maintenance of normal resident flora o Essential to health of humans o Create an environment that may prevent infections and can enhance host defenses o Antibiotics, dietary changes, and disease may alter flora o Probiotics - introducing known microbes back into the body • Sterile areas of the body o All internal organs/tissues o All fluids within organs or tissues
Motile vs Non Motile
• Motile - bacteria will flip, rotate and go straight • Non Motile - will only exhibit 'brownian movement' (jiggles about in one place but makes no progress)
Narrow vs. Broad Spectrum
• Narrow spectrum - limited spectrum - drug will only kill a few types of bacteria (ex. Penicillin against G+ coccus) • Broad spectrum - extended spectrum - kill a wide range of bacteria (ex. Tetracycline)
Environmental factors that effect microbes existence whether in the lab or habitat (six factors)
• Nutrients • Osmotic Pressure • Temperature • pH • Gas • Other organisms or microbes
Define Opportunistic vs. True Pathogen
• Pathogen (true) - any agent capable of causing disease in a healthy person with normal immune defenses • Opportunistic pathogen - one that invades the tissues when the body defenses are suppressed • Virulence - degree of pathogenicity of a parasite
Peptidoglycan is the major molecule in the bacterial cell wall
• Peptidoglycan is the major molecule in the bacteria cell wall.
What does generation time mean
• Period of time for one parent cell to divide into 2 daughter cells
Route of the pathogen in causing infection or disease inside the host
• Portal of entry - site at which parasite enters the host, most microbes are adapted to a specific portal o Exogenous - source outside of body o Endogenous - source on or inside of body o Portals: Skin - nicks, cuts, abrasions, punctures, incisions GI tract - food, drink, other ingested materials Respiratory tract - respiratory droplets into oral & nasal cavities Urogenital tract - sexual, displaced organisms Transplacental - some pathogens have the ability to move from mother's bloodstream to baby's via placenta Insect bite - arthropods that feed (blood meal) on animals & humans
Types of blood cells
• Types of blood cells - o Plasma is 92% of blood o Plasma can dot; serum can not o Hemopoiesis - production of blood cells o Stem cells - undifferentiated cells, precursor of new blood cells o Leukocytes - white blood cells (WBC) Granulocytes - lobed nucleus (granules) • Neutrophils 55-90%; lobed nuclei; function as phagocytes • Eosinophils 1-3%; bilobed nucleus; destroy eukaryotic pathogens (protozoans) • Basophils .5%; constricted nuclei; release potent chemical mediators; release histamines; related to allergies; free moving • Mast cells - non motile elements bound to connective tissue; permanently bound to connective tissue; histamines/allergy response Agranulocytes - unlobed; rounded nucleus • Lymphocytes 20-35%; specific immune response o B (humoral immunity) - activated B cells; produce antibodies o T cells (cell mediated immunity) - activated T cells modulate immune functions & activated cells kill foreign cells • Monocytes, macrophages 3-7%; largest of WBC's; kidney shaped nucleus; phagocytic o Macrophages - final differentiation of monocytes o Dendritic cells - trap pathogens & participate in immune reactions (fixed monocytes) Ertyhrocytes - develop from bone marrow stem cells, lose nucleus, simple biconcave sacs of hemoglobin Platelets - formed elements in circulating blood that are not whole cells Highest concentration to lowest concentration • Never - Neutrophils • Let - Lymphocytes • Monkeys - Monocytes/Macrophages • Eat - Eosinophils • Bananas - Basophils
Define Avirulent
• Virulence - degree of pathogenicity of a parasite • Avirulent - lacking the ability to cause disease (most normal flora)
Define Virulent
• Virulence - degree of pathogenicity of a parasite • Avirulent - lacking the ability to cause disease (most normal flora)
What virulent factors are & they are used for tissue penetration
• Virulence factor is classification system for virulence (pathogenicity or how virulent microbes are) range from 1-3. Class 1 - does not cause disease; class 2-3 mild severity to very severe.
Define Pathogen
•Pathogen - Microorganism that can cause disease in the normal healthy individual •Parasite - microorganisms that live on or in the body of another organism •Host - other organism that the parasite is living on or in
