Midterm

Describe the process you would use when confronting someone

- Convey that you value your relationship with the person - Go slowly and think about what you want to communicate - Try to understand the other person's position - Listen carefully to what the other person is trying to communicate

Discuss three practical implications and principles that can be drawn from the psychological literature on leadership.

- Leaders score high on both consideration and initiating structure - Leader ship is accomplished through short demonstrations and modeling the correct behavior - Focus on the positive while providing clear feedback and technical instruction

Discuss how measuring cohesion has developed via questionnaires.

- Originally the sports cohesion questionnaire was developed and had seven items that either measured interpersonal traction or directly re-closeness or attraction to the group however there is no reliability or validity and most issues only addressed social cohesion - The 22 items multidimensional sport cohesion instrument was developed which includes four broad dimensions to team cohesion including attraction to the group, unity of purpose, quality of teamwork and valued roles - The group environment questionnaire was then developed which distinguishes between the individual and the group in between tasks and social concerns including group integration task group, integration social, individual attraction to group task, and individual attraction to group social

Describe and give contrasting examples of emotion focused and problem focused coping. Under what circumstances is each type of coping used in general?

- Problem-focused: Involves efforts to alter or manage the problem that is causing the stress for the individual - Emotion-focused: Entails regulating the emotional responses to the problem that causes stress for the individual

Identify the strengths and limitations of scientifically derived knowledge and professional practice knowledge. How does each develop?

- Professional practice knowledge is knowledge gained through experience - Scientifically drive knowledge is knowledge gained through studies and experiments Strengths of scientifically derived knowledge: - Highly reliable - Systematic and controlled - Objective and unbiased Weaknesses of scientifically derived to knowledge: - Reductionistic, conservative, often slow to evolve - Lack of focus on external validity Strengths of professional practice knowledge - Holistic - Innovative - Immediate Weaknesses of professional practice knowledge - Less reliable - Lack of explanations - Greater susceptibility to bias

Discuss the three levels of personality including the stability of the different levels.

- Psychological core: The deepest component includes your attitudes and values, interests and motives and beliefs about yourself and your self worth (most stable) - Typical responses: The ways we each learn to adjust to the environment or how we usually respond to the world around us - Role-related behavior: How do you act based on what you perceive your social situation to be (least stable)

Discuss how you would help an athlete effectively cope with the yips

- Relaxation training - Positive thinking - Visualization - Systematic desensitization

Describe 3 roles of sport and exercise psychology specialists.

- Research Role: Conduct research on sport psychology - Teaching Role: Teach university courses about sports and exercise psychology - Consulting Role: Consults with individual athletes or athletic teams to develop psychological skills for enhancing competitive performance and training

Discuss three strategies for on site reductions in anxiety and tension.

- Smile when you feel tension coming on - Have fun enjoy the situation - Slow down and take your time - Stay focused on the present

What is social facilitation theory? What implications does this theory have for practice?

- Social facilitation theory predicts that the presence of others helps performance on well learned or simple skills and inhibits or lessons performance on unlearned or complex tasks Implications - Eliminate audiences an evaluation as much as possible in learning situations

Describe the four elements of the relaxation response and how to use it

Elements: - A quiet place which ensures that distractions and external stimulation are minimized - A comfortable position that can be maintained for a while - A mental device which is the critical element in the relaxation response that involves focusing your attention on a single thought or a word and repeating it over and over - A passive attitude How to: - Teaches you how to quiet your mind

Describe three types of nonverbal communication giving examples from applied settings

Gestures Tone and speed of one's voice Facial expressions Physical appearance Posture Body position Touching

Compare and contrast the trait, behavioral, situational and interactional approaches to leadership.

- Trait: Relatively stable personality dispositions such as intelligence, assertiveness, independence and self confidence that will make them likely to be leaders no matter what situation they are in - Behavioral: Anyone can become a leader by simply learning the behaviors of other effective leaders and argues that leaders are made not born - Situational: Effective leadership depends much more on the characteristics of the situation then on the traits and behaviors of the leaders in those situations - Interactional: No one set of characteristics ensure successful leadership, effective leadership styles or behaviors fit the specific situation and the athletes involved in the situation and leadership styles can be changed

Discuss the relationship between ability and an athletes interpretation of anxiety as facilitative or debilitative

If an athlete feels confident in the skilled and they will most likely interpret anxiety as facilitative

Discuss Orlick's basic philosophy of cooperative games.

Participants should have the opportunity to choose between cooperative and competitive games or to play both types

Define science and explain four of its major goals.

- A process or method of learning about the world through the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical filtering of knowledge acquired through experience - When apply to psychology the goals are to describe, explain, predict, and allow control of behavior

What is a theory and why are theories important in sport and exercise psychology?

- A theory is a set of interrelated facts that present a systematic view of some phenomenon in order to describe, explain, and predict it's future occurrences

Define active listening. How can practitioners enhance their learning skills?

- Active listening: Involves attending to main and supporting ideas, acknowledging and responding, giving appropriate feedback, and paying attention to the speakers total communication Enchancing: - Hearing should not be mistaken for listening - Hearing is simply receiving sounds where is listening is an active process - Hearing someone does not mean you're listening to the meaning of the message - It is frustrating to the speaker when a receiver hears but doesn't listen - Someone who finds herself not listening should practice focusing her concentration on the speaker - Paraphrase what the speaker has to say

Describe three processes through which an interesting activity can transform into a passionate activity.

- Activity selection - Activity valuation - Type of internalization (autonomous fashion=harmonious, controlled=obsessive)

Distinguish between an outcome and a task goal orientation. Which should be most emphasized in sport, physical education, and exercise settings? Why?

- An outcome goal orientation focuses on comparing performance with and defeating others where is a task call orientation focuses on comparing performance with personal standards and personal improvement - It is best to adopt a task orientation because it provides greater control and individuals will become more motivated and persist longer in the face of failure

Discuss the cognitive evaluation theory as a way to help the relationship between extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation. Compare the informational aspect with the controlling aspect of rewards.

- Any events that affects the individuals perception of competence and feelings of self determination ultimately will also affect their levels of intrinsic motivation Aspects: - Informational: Affects intrinsic motivation by altering how competent someone feels - Controlling: Relates to an individuals perceived locus of causality in the situation

Distinguish between the terms arousal, state anxiety, trait anxiety, cognitive state anxiety, and somatic state anxiety.

- Arousal: Arousal is a blend of physiological and psychological activity in a person and it refers to the intensity dimensions of motivation at a particular moment - State Anxiety: Refers to the ever-changing mood component of anxiety - Trait Anxiety: Part of the personality and acquired behavioral tendencies or disposition that influences behavior - Cognitive State Anxiety: Concerns the degree to which one worries or has negative thoughts - Somatic State Anxiety: Concerns the moment to moment changes in perceived physiological activation

Discuss the research comparing the personalities of athletes and non-athletes and male and female athletes. Do athletes versus non-athletes and male athletes versus female athletes have unique personality profiles?

- Athletes are more extroverted and conscientiousness and less neurotic than non-athletes however these just differences tend to be very small - Compared with female non-athletes female athletes were more achievement oriented, independent, aggressive, emotionally stable, and assertive - Few personality differences are evident between male and female athletes

Compare and contrast and cognitive strategies of successful athletes with those of less successful athletes.

- Athletes use more internal imagery and more positive self talk - Overachiever athletes had a higher scores on coachability, concentration, and coping with adversity - Higher psychological skills scores were associated with player survival or continued involvement in professional baseball - Elite athletes are better at goalsetting and mental preparation

What are attributions? Why are they important in helping us understand achievement motivation in sport and exercise settings?

- Attributions are the perceived causes of successes or failures Attributions and Psychological Effects - Stable: Increased expectation of success - Unstable: Decreased expectation of success - Internal cause: Increased pride or shame - External cause: Decreased pride or shame - In one's control: Increased motivation - Out of one's control: Decreased motivation

Describe how you would help athletes become more assertive in their communication

- Be direct - Own your message - Be complete and specific - Be clear and consistent - State your needs and feelings carefully - Separate fact from opinion - Focus on one thing at a time - Deliver messages immediately - Make sure your message does not contain a hidden agenda which means that the stated purpose of the message is not the same as the real purpose - Be supportive - Be consistent with your nonverbal messages - Reinforce with repetition - Make your message appropriate to the receivers frame of reference - Look for feedback indicating your message was accurately interpreted

How do you boys and girls view competition differently? What are some of the causes of these differences?

- Boys play competitive games more frequently than girls do - Girls play in predominately male groups more often than boys play in predominantly female groups - When boys are with friends they play in larger groups than girls do - Girls games are more spontaneous, imaginative and for your instructor than boys games - Boys see themselves as more physically skilled then girls see themselves even though gender differences in actual skill levels are small or nonexistent - Boys games are more aggressive, involve taking greater risk, and reward individual achievement to a greater extent than girls games do - Boys play games that are more complex than the games girls play

Discuss the value of cooperation in business and military settings.

- Business: It is a means of carrying out tasks that are difficult to complete independently - Military: It enhances performance and productivity as well as affect the individual and group safety

Distinguish between clinical and educational sport psychology. Why is this distinction important?

- Clinical sports psychologist have extensive training and psychology so they can detect and treat individuals with emotional disorders - Educational sport psychology specialists have extensive training in sport and exercise science, physical education, and kinesiology and they understand the psychology of human movement particularly as it relates to sport and exercise contexts - Clinical sports psychologist treat athletes an exercise or's who have severe emotional disorders while educational sport psychology specialists educate athletes and exercisers about psychological skills and their development

Define cliques including their antecedents and consequences. Provide three ways to reduce the formation of cliques that have negative outcomes.

- Cliques: Groups of athletes would usually benefit only a few athletes at the expense of alienating most team members Antecedents: - When the team is losing - When their needs are not being met - When coaches treat athletes differently and set them apart from each other Reduction: - Changing a roommate assignments on trips - Encouraging team functions

Three concepts have been shown to provide a good theoretical basis for understanding the coach athlete relationship. Discuss and provide examples of closeness, co-orientation and complementarity

- Closeness: Emotional tone that coaches and athletes experience and express and describing their relationship - Co-orientation: Occurs when relationship members have established a common frame of reference namely shared goals, values and expectations - Complementarity: Refers to the type of interactions in which the coach and athlete are engaged

Discuss the definitions of cohesion including the difference between task and social cohesion.

- Cohesion: The total field of forces which act on members to remain in the group - Task cohesion: The degree to which members of a group work together to achieve common goals - Social cohesion: The degree to which members of a team like each other and enjoy one another's company

Identify and briefly describe the six major ethical principles in sport and exercise psychology.

- Competence: If you do not have the knowledge required to work with somebody do not work with them - Integrity: Do you not falsely advertise and clarify roles - Professional and scientific responsibility: Must conduct ethical experiments and report anything that is unethical - Respect for people's rights and dignity: Respect the fundamental rights of people with who they work - Concern for welfare of others:Well-being comes before winning - Social responsibility: Contribute to knowledge and human welfare while always protecting participants interests

Describe five fundamental guidelines of motivation for professional practice.

- Consider both situations and traits and motivating people - Understand peoples multiple motives for involvement - Change the environment to enhance motivation - Influence motivation - Use behavior modification to change participants undesirable motives

Discuss five leadership guidelines in the pursuit of excellence.

- Creating a compelling vision for people to follow - Inspirational communication - Intellectual stimulation - Individualized attention and supportive behavior - Personal recognition - Demanding and directing behaviors - Promoting self efficacy and self-esteem - Emphasizing the importance of winning but not winning at any cost - Fostering competitiveness in the team - Instilling task and ego orientations and climates - Providing cognitive, emotional and technical training - Facilitating flow

Discuss the notion of decompetition versus competition as put forth by Shields and Bredemeier.

- Decompetition: Opponents see each other as rivals striving against each other to win the competition and these people will look to be or annihilate their opponent and do not see them as cooperators or partners - Competition: True competitors want well matched opponents who will challenge them and follow the spirit of the rules even if doing so results in in a competitive disadvantage

What strategies can be used to combat sexual prejudice in sports and physical activity settings?

- Develop policies for organizations and teams that make it clear that discrimination will not be tolerated - Provide educational training for athletes coaches and administrators and support staff that addresses topics such as heterosexism, homonegativism and transgender prejudice - Leaders and program participants should break the silence relative to the use of sexist language

Describe the critical components in the development of leadership through support as well as the influence of parents, coaches and peers on these components.

- Development of high skill - A strong work ethic - Good rapport with people - Enriched tactical knowledge

Discuss the effects of competition on deviance, academic achievement and social or occupational mobility.

- Deviance: No higher rates of deviance among athletes have occurred than non-athletes. Research has failed to consistently indicate that competitive sports participation reduces the prevalence of deviance. - Academic Achievement: Varsity athletes have a higher grade point average is and higher educational aspirations than those who do not participate in varsity teams. - Social or Occupational Mobility: Former athletes have no more and no fewer career successes than others from comparable backgrounds they also do not have any more or less systematic mobility.

Explain the direction and intensity aspects of motivation.

- Direction of effort prefers to whether an individual seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to certain situations - Intensity of effort refers to how much effort a person puts forth in a particular situation

Discuss the two principles of reinforcement and explain why they are more complex than the first appear.

- If doing something good results in a good consequence people will tend to try to repeat the behavior to receive additional positive consequences - If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence people will turn to try not to repeat the behavior so they can avoid more negative consequences Complexity: - The same reinforcer will affect two people differently - People cannot always repeat the reinforced behavior - You must also consider all the reinforcement available to the individual as well as how she values them

Discuss how arousal influences performance through attentional changes and physical changes

- Increased arousal and state anxiety can cause increased muscle tension and fatigue and can interfere with coordination - Arousal and state anxiety narrows ones attentional field, decreases environmental scanning and cause a shift to the dominant attentional style and to inappropriate cues

Discuss how electronic communication has changed the way we communicate in sport and some of the effects of this relatively new way of communicating

- Increases fan-athlete communication - Much faster - Can lead to concentration disruption

What are several key strategies for working with athletes with disabilities in sport and physical activity contexts?

- Increasing awareness and educating the public on the importance of sport and physical activity for these participants - Professionals should advocate for illuminating environmental barriers that impede participation - Being aware of potential biases that each of us possesses - Guarding against negative self fulfilling prophecies - Judging individuals and what they can do rather than what we think they can or cannot do - Think creatively to overcome potential barriers that may block people with disabilities from participation

Discuss 4 important guidelines for administering psychological test and providing feedback from the results of these tests.

- Know the principles of testing and measurement error - Know your limitations - Do not use psychological tests for team selection - Include explanation and feedback - Assure athletes of confidentiality - Take an intra-individual approach - Understand and assess specific personality components

Describe the major tenents of Chelladurai's multi dimensional model of sport leadership including the three antecedents and three types of leader behaviors.

- Leader effectiveness in sport will vary depending on the characteristics of the athletes and constraints of the situation Antecedents: - Situational characteristics - Leader characteristics - Member characteristics Leader behavior: - Required behavior - Actual behavior - Preferred behavior

Compare and contrast the linear, cyclical and pendular models of group development.

- Linear: Groups move progressively through different stages 1) Forming - Team members familiarize themselves with other team members 2) Storming - Resistance to the leader, resistance to control by the group and interpersonal conflict 3) Norming - Hostility is replaced by solidarity and cooperation 4) Performing - Team members band together to channel their energies for team success - Cyclical: As the group develops it psychologically prepares for its own break up Pendular: 1) Orientation 2) Differentiation and conflict 3) Resolution and cohesion 4) Differentiation and conflict 5) Termination

Describe the major signs of increased state anxiety in athletes.

- Muscle tension, fatigue, and coordination difficulties - Attention, concentration, and visual search changes

Explain and distinguish 4 theories that explain achievement motivation.

- Need achievement theory: Interactional view that considers both personal and situational factors as important predictors of behavior - Attribution theory: Focuses on how people explain their successes and failures - Achievement goal theory: One is motivated by one's interpretation of what it takes to achieve success - Competence motivation theory: People are motivated to feel worthy or competent and moreover that such feelings are the primary determinant of motivation

Discuss three new technologies and how they can be used to enhance performance in sport.

VR - Allows users to watch them manipulate stimulating environment similarly to how they would normally act in the real world - Allows for complete control and fine-tuning of factors that affect a players judgment ensuring reproductibility and ecological validity - Allows players to interact with one another while displayed information is carefully controlled and modified - Provides an enhanced sense of presence for players by way of tracking head movement and updating information in real time Eye tracking - Allows researchers to determine exact do use patterns and then spatial temporal scan paths

Identify three general views of motivation. Which should be used to guide practice?

Views: - Trait centered view: Contends that motivated behavior is primarily a function of individual characteristics - Situation centered view: Motivation level is determined primarily by situation - Interactional view: Motivation results neither solely from participant factors nor solely from situational factors Which should be used? - Interactional view

Why is it important for sport psychologists to understand global developments in the field?

We can build upon developments from other countries and apply them to ourselves

Why is it important to understand the history of sport and exercise psychology?

We can build upon the research that we have already conducted

Why are diversity and inclusion important in sport and exercise settings?

We must create an inclusive environment in which all people regardless of gender, ethnic or socioeconomic backgrounds feel welcomed and have opportunities to experience the physical and mental benefits of support and physical activity involvement

Although researchers have focused on the cohesion performance relationship cohesion appears to be related to several other potentially important variables. Discuss the relationship of cohesion to four factors other than performance.

-Cohesiveness and team satisfaction indirectly and directly enhance performance - Highly cohesive groups demonstrate a greater conformity to the groups norms for productivity then do less cohesive groups - More cohesive groups have more adherence - There is a positive relationship between social support and group cohesion

Describe five of the principles for approaching a confrontation

1) All needs are legitimate and important and must be attended to 2) There are enough resources to meet all demands 3) In every individual lies untapped power and capacity and people in conflict know what they need 4) Process is as important as content because it provides direction and focus 5) Improving situations is different from solving problems 6) Everyone is right from his or her own perspective 7) Solutions and resolutions are temporary state of balance and are not absolute or timeless

Discuss the five steps of the communication process.

1) Decision to send a message about something 2) Encoding of the message by the sender 3) Channel through which the message is transmitted to the receiver 4) Decoding of the message by the receiver 5) Internal response by the receiver to the message

Discuss three factors that help people get into flow and three barriers that inhibit it.

Acheiving flow: - Motivation to perform - Achieving optimal arousal level before performing - Maintaining appropriate focus - Pre-competitive and competitive plans and preparation - Optimal physical preparation and readiness - Optimal environmental and situational conditions - Confidence and mental attitude - Team play and interaction - Feeling good about performance - Mindfulness Inhibit: - Non-optimal physical preparation of readiness - Non-optimal environmental or situational conditions - Lack of confidence or a negative mental state - Inappropriate focus - Problem with pre-competitive preparation - Lack of motivation to perform - Non-optimal arousal level before competition - Negative team play and interactions - Performance going poorly

In what ways does achievement motivation influence participant behavior?

Achievement motivation refers to a persons efforts to master a task, achieve excellence, overcome obstacles, perform better than others, and take pride in exercising talent

Describe the active approach to using sport and exercise psychology.

Actively integrating scientific knowledge with your professional experiences and temporal things with your own insights and intuition what are you talking yeah

How can physical activity be used to manage ADHD and ASD?

Acute and chronic physical activity shows benefits such as greater attentiveness and sustained attention, decrease impulsivity, decreased moodiness, decrease stereotypical mannerisms and improved classroom behavior

Discuss the reasons why elite baseball players can hit a baseball thrown out more than 90 mph but cannot hit a softball thrown at 65 miles an hour

Although these headers have developed these specific skills needed to hit a baseball thrown at more than 90 mph they have not developed the anticipatory skills necessary to hit a softball thrown at 65 mph

Compare and contrast the psychodynamic, situation, trait, interactional, phenomenological, and biopsychosocial/integrative approach is to personality. Which approaches are most common among sports psychologists today? Why?

Approaches: - Psychodynamic: Places emphasis on unconscious determinants of behavior and how these conflicts with a more conscious aspect of personality. This approach focuses on understanding the person as a whole rather than identifying isolated traits or dispositions - Trait: Assumes that the fundamental units of personality its traits are relatively stable which means that the causes of behavior generally reside in the person and the role of situational or environmental factors is minimal - Situation: Argues that behavior is determined largely by the situation or environment - Interactional: Considers the situation and person as co-determinants of behavior - Phenomenological: Contends that behavior is best determined by accounting for both situations and personal care are stocks however instead of focusing on fixed traits or dispositions as a primary determinant of behavior the psychologist examines the persons understanding and interpretation of herself and her environment - Integrative/Biopsychosocial: To understand personality one needs to consider the dynamic interaction of biological factors, dispositional traits, adaptations one makes two situations, and self-defined life stories or narratives that are all situated in one's social context or culture Most common: - The interactional and phenomenological views are most often stressed because they include more than one aspect

Describe the different behaviors exhibited by autonomy supportive versus controlling coaches.

Autonomy-Supportive - Encourages athlete initiative - Allows athlete participation in decision making - Offers choices that are relevant to athletes goals and values - Provides a rationale for task engagement - Acknowledges negative feelings associated with task engagement - Is non-judgemental - Attempts to understand athletes perspective before offering suggestions Controlling: - Behaves in a coercive, pressuring and the authoritarian way in order to impose a preconceived way of thinking and behaving upon the athletes - Uses excessive monitoring and surveillance - Marginalizes athletes input and views - Attempts to influence aspects of the athletes lives that are not directly relevant to their sport participation - Uses intimidating behaviors - Uses guilt-inducing statements - Withdraws attention, positive regard and support when athletes are not compliant with his or her instructions and expectations

How does biofeedback work? Provide an example of its use in working with athletes

Biofeedback: A physically oriented technique that teaches people to control physiological or autonomic responses and usually involving an electronica monitoring device that can detect and amplify internal responses not ordinarily known to us - Ex. A basketball player feels muscle tension in her neck and shoulders before shooting free throws a critical times in a game. Electrons can be attached to specific specific muscles in her neck and shoulder region and she would be asked to relax the specific muscles. Excess tension in the muscles would then cause the biofeedback instrument to make a loud and constant clicking noise on the goal would be to quiet the machine but attempting to relax the muscles

Describe the gap between research and practice, why it exists, and how it can be bridged.

Causes: - Few opportunities existed to transfer results of research to professionals working in the field - Some sport and exercise psychologist were overly optimistic about using research to revolutionize the practice of teaching sport and physical activity skills - Although basic laboratory research was conducted little connection was then made to actual field situations How it can be bridged: RE-AIM model - Reach: Who are the program affects the degree to which the program aeffects the target audience - Efficacy: Positive and negative outcomes of the program - Adoption: Who actually uses the completed program - Implementation: Assessment of whether the program is delivered as specified - Maintenance: Sustaining the program overtime

Discuss the four components of effective leadership. What implications to these have for leaders in coaching, teaching or exercise settings?

Components: - Leader's qualities - Situational factors - Leadership styles - Follower's qualities Implications: - Manipulating situational factors and promoting certain group member characteristics

Discuss the research regarding the changes in anxiety and emotions before, during, and after competition

Depends

Discuss the differences between expert and non-expert performers. How would you go about developing expertise in an athlete?

Differences: - Experts compared with non-experts anticipated their opponents intention significantly more quickly - Experts were more accurate in their decision making - Experts had fewer fixations of the eyes but for longer durations - Experts extracted more task relevant information from each I fixation - Experts had longer quiet eye periods - Experts picked up information from opponents movements more quickly Development: - Consistent amount of deliberate practice approaching 10,000 hours

Discuss three potential explanations for social loafing. How would you identify social loafing?

Explanations: - Contributions of individual group members are not identified, are dispensable or are disproportionate to the contributions of other group members Identify: - Monitor individual contributions to the group product

Describe how Vealey broke down PST programs into psychological methods and psychological skills and give examples of each

Foundation skills - Ex. Achievement drive Performance skills - Ex. Eneregy management Personal development skills - Ex. Identity achievement Team skills - Ex. Leadership

What empirical evidence is there that PST enchances sport performance?

In general educationally-based psychological interventions improve competitive performance in collegiate and adult athletes

Findings in the research literature on the cohesion performance relationship have been inconsistent. Explain whether or how the types of instruments used to measure these two factors and the demands of the task have affected this relationship.

Increases in both task and social cohesion were associated with increases in performance

How would you assess an individuals psychological strengths and weaknesses in an interview and through written psychological inventories?

Interview: - General questions and opportunities to use the athletes responses to form follow up questions Inventories: - Written assessments

Describe the four stages of Martens model of competition including examples of each stage.

Objective competitive situation: A standard for comparison and at least one other person - Ex. Do you run with a friend and tell her that your goal is to run 3 miles in 21 minutes when your previous time was 22 minutes Subjective competitive situation: Involves how the person perceives, accepts and appraises the objective competitive situation - Ex. One gymnast may look forward to competing in a championship meet as a means of gaining experience where is another gymnast facing the same objective situation may dread the upcoming meet Response: How the person responds to the competition - Ex. At the behavioral level you might decide what type of opponent you prefer to play but on a psychological level your response might be that your heart starts to beat faster and your hands become cold and clammy Consequences: The outcome Ex. Although you might have lost the game you might still perceive the outcome as positive if you played well and met your own standard of excellence

Why do contemporary sport psychologists need to take a global perspective?

Participants can be coming from a variety of different cultures and therefore begin with varying mental states

Describe the major accomplishments of the 6 periods in the history of sport and exercise psychology. What contributions did Coleman Griffith and Franklin Henry make to sports and exercise psychology?

Period 1: - E. W. Scripture. conducts data-based studies of athletes at Yale, examining reaction and movement times as well as the transfer of physical training - Norman Triplett conducts the 1st social psychology experiment, studying the effects of others on cyclists performances - Second Olympic Congress debates the psychological effect of sport on youths - E. W. Scripture of Yale describes personality traits that he believes can be fostered via sport participation - Third Olympic Congress focuses on sport psychology - G. T. W. Patrick discusses the psychology of play - R. Cummins assess the motor reactions attention and abilities as they pertain to sport - As a student, Coleman Griffith conducts informal study is a football and basketball players at the University of Illinois Period 2: - Robert Schulte directs a psychological laboratory at the German high school for physical education - The first sport psychology department is begun by P.A. Rudik in Moscow at the State Institute of physical culture - Schulte publishes body and mind in sport - Griffith publishes 25 research articles about sport psychology - Schulte publishes aptitude and performance testing for sport - University of Illinois research in athletics laboratory is established and Griffith is appointed the director - Griffith publishers psychology of coaching and psychology of athletics Period 3: - Franklin Henry assumes a position in the department of physical education at the University of California Berkeley and establishes a graduate program in the psychology of physical activity - Dorothy Yates works with college boxers and studies the effects of her relaxation training intervention - Warren Johnson assesses precompetitive emotions of athletes - John Lawther writes psychology of coaching - The sport psychology laboratory at the University of Illinois is re-instituted - First world Congress of sport psychology is held in Rome Period 4: - Clinical psychologists Bruce Ogilvie and Thomas Tutko write problem athletes and how to handle them and begin to consult with athletes and teams - Bryant Cratty of UCLA write psychology of physical activity - First annual NASPSPA conference is held - John Lawther publishes sport psychology - Proceedings of the NASPSPA conference are published for the first time Period 5: - Journal of sport psychology is established - The US Olympic committee develops the sport psychology advisory board - American television coverage of the Olympic games emphasizes sport psychology - The US Olympic committee hires its first full-time sport psychologist - The first applied scholarly journal the sport psychologist is established - AASP is established - APA division 47 is developed - The US Olympic team is accompanied by an officially recognized sports psychologist for the first time - Journal of applied sport psychology begins - AASP establishes the certified consultant designation Period 6: - The journal psychology of sport and exercise is developed and published in Europe - APA division 47 focuses on sports psychology as a specialized proficiency area - The international Society of sport psychology conference in Seville Spain has more than 1000 participants from 70 countries - Concerns emerge about the best ways to prepare and educate students - Exercise psychology flourishes especially in university environments driven by external funding possibilities and its utility in facilitating wellness and holding down healthcare costs - Strong diverse and sustained research programs are evident around the world - Interest in applied sport psychology continues to increase

Discuss what the research says about resilience as well as five specific things you could do with athletes to enhance resilience

pg.300 - The heart of the resilience process was the use of a variety of coping strategies to deal with unpleasant emotions - Mental toughness and personal resources were keys to successfully coping with adversity - Socio-cultural influences were critical to being resilient - Many positive outcomes resulted from coping efforts Resilient characteristics of sports team: - Group structure - Mastery approaches - Social capital - Collective efficacy Enhance: - Develop a core set of beliefs that nothing can shake - Try to find meaning in whatever stressful or traumatic thing has happened - Try to maintain a positive outlook - Take cues from someone who is especially resilient - Don't run from things that scare you, face them - Be quick to reach out for support when things go haywire - Learn new things as often as you can - Find an exercise regime you'll stick to - Don't beat yourself up or dwell on the past

How can cooperative games be used to help include individuals with learning disabilities?

Positively influence the acceptance by their peers of the mainstreamed students with disabilities

Discuss some of the common themes emerging from the psychological studies on competition and cooperation and their implications for sport and physical education.

Research has indicated that competitive rewards structures although useful in relatively simple physical tasks of short duration are less effective than cooperative reboard structures for tasks that are complex and that involves solving difficult problems.

Identify the three stages of achievement motivation and competitiveness. Why are these important?

Stages: - Autonomous competence stage: Children focus on mastering their environment and on self testing - Social comparison stage: A child focuses on directly comparing his performance with that of others - Integrated stage: Involves both social comparison and autonomous achievement strategies Why are these important? - Helps us better understand the behavior of people we work with especially children

Discuss the four phases of cognitive-affective stress management comparing and contrasting cognitive structuring and self instructional training

Stages: 1) Pre-treatment assessment 2) Treatment rationale 3) Skill acquisition 4) Skill rehearsal 5) Posttraining evaluation - Cognitive restructuring: Attempt to identify irrational or stress inducing self statements which are typically related to the feat of failure and disapproval

Why do contemporary sports psychologist need to take a global perspective?

There are differences between culture, between sexes, and between generations that must be addressed

Discuss why most definitions of a group agree that a collection of individuals is not necessarily a group.

They must interact with each other in a structured manner

Discuss the different types of reinforcers and the effectiveness of continuous and intermittent schedules.

Types: - Social reinforcers - Material reinforcers - Activity reinforcers - Special outings Effectiveness - Continuous feedback not only acts as a motivator but also provides a learner with information about how he is doing however once a particular skill her behavior has been mastered or is occurring at the desired frequency the schedule can be gradually reduced to intermittent - Intermittent is more effective

Why does a need exist for certification and contemporary sport and exercise psychology?

Unqualified people might call them selves sports psychologist and unethical individuals may promise more to coaches, athletes, and exercise professionals then they can deliver

Discuss the major differences in how arousal relates to performance according to the following theories: - Drive theory - Inverted U hypothesis - Individualized zones of optimal functioning - Multidimensional anxiety theory - Catastrophe model - Reversal theory - Anxiety direction and intensity view

- Drive Theory: As an individual's arousal or state anxiety increases so does her performance - Inverted U Hypothesis: At low arousal levels performance will be below par and as arousal increases so do performance up to an optimal point where best performance results in further increases in arousal will cause performance to decline - Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning: For best performance to occur athletes need individualized optimal levels not only of state anxiety but I have a variety of other emotions as well - Multidimensional Anxiety Theory: Predicts that cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance but somatic state anxiety it's related to performance in an inverted u - Catastrophe Model: Physiological arousal is related to performance in an inverted u fashion but only one athlete is not worried or has a low cognitive state anxiety - Reversal Theory: The way in which arousal affects performance depends on an individual's interpretation of his or her arousal levels - Anxiety Direction an Intensity Views: Depending on how much anxiety an athlete experiences and if they interpreted as facilitative or debilitative will affect performance

Does a home court advantage exist in sports? Discuss the research that addresses the issue

- During the regular season a clear home-field advantage exist for both professional and amateur team sports - The home-field advantage occurs for both team and individual sports and for both male and female athletes - Researchers propose that a home-field disadvantage exist during playoffs but the jury is still out

Describe the three phases of PST: education, acquisition and practice

- Education: Participants quickly recognize how important it is to acquire psychological skills and how the skills affect performance - Acquisition: Focuses on strategies and techniques for learning the various psychological skills - Practice: The objectives of the stage are to automate skills through overlearning, teach people to systematically integrate psychological skills into their performance situations and to stimulate skills people will want to apply an actual competition

How does enculturation differ from acculturation?

- Enculturation: Basic component of the socialization process in which an individual acquires the skills and qualities needed to be a member of one's own group - Acculturation: Involves attitudinal and behavioral changes associated with living in culture is that differ from one zone or when one lives or works in a multicultural society were several cultures exist side-by-side

Discuss three strategies that female athletes noted to help deal with interpersonal conflict

- Engaging in teambuilding early in the season - Addressing conflict early - Engaging mediators in the resolution of the conflict and holding structured team meetings

How can you enhance group cohesion among participants in exercise classes?

- Enhance distinctiveness by having a group name - Enhance individual positions by making signs to label parts of the group - Enhance group norms by promoting a smart work ethic - Enhance individual sacrifices by asking regulars to help new people - Enhance interaction and communication by using partner work

What personality factors are related to exercise behavior?

- Extraversion and conscientiousness are positively related to physical activity involvement while neuroticism is negatively related - grit

Discuss the concept of flow. What are its major characteristics? in what sort of way it's flow most likely to occur?

- Flow: People believe they are totally involved or on automatic pilot Characteristics: - Balance of challenge and skills - Complete absorption in the activity - Clear goals - Merging of action and awareness - Total concentration on the task at hand - Loss of self consciousness - A sense of control - No goals or rewards external to the activity - Transformation of time - Effortless movement When the athlete has high skills and the challenge is high they have a chance at achieving flow

Although it is often considered the job of a coach to build team cohesion athletes can also help in the process. If you were an athlete on a team lacking cohesion what might you do to build your team's unity?

- Get to know members of the group - Help group members whenever possible - Give group members positive reinforcement - Be responsible - Communicate honestly and openly with a coach or leader - Resolve conflicts immediately - Give 100% effort at all times

Discuss the difference between harmonious passion and obsessive passion. Include three findings regarding passion and motivation.

- Harmonious Passion: A strong desire to engage in an activity freely as it becomes part of one's identity - Obsessive Passion: An uncontrollable desire to participate in an activity that does not become part of one's identity Findings: - HP is related to positive affect, positive emotions, and flow - HP is associated with high quality coach athlete relationships - HP is related to higher levels of life satisfaction - HP is related to enhanced concentration - HP is related to purchase a patient in regular physical activity - OP is related to negative emotions especially shame - OP has no association with coach athlete relationships - OP is related to greater risk taking in choosing dangerous unhealthy behaviors - And autonomous personality is related to HP whereas a controlling personality is related to OP

Discuss the current state of knowledge regarding the effects of hypnosis on athletic performance

- Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the efforts and abilities of the individual being hypnotized done on the scale of the therapist - The more open individuals are to receiving suggestions to more likely they are to benefit from suggestions given under hypnosis - General arousal techniques are more useful than hypnotic suggestions in enhancing muscular strength and endurance

Discuss three practical applications from the research and theories on the arousal performance relationship

- Identify optimal arousal related emotions - Recognize the interaction of personal and situational factors - Recognize arousal and state anxiety signs - Tailor coaching strategies to individuals

Discuss how organizational climate, sociocultural context and leader personality can influence of coaches expectations ,values and behaviors.

- Sociocultural Context: Cross-cultural variations in achievement goals, as well as differential expectations for coaching behaviors and notions of femininity and masculinity, affect coaches' expectations. Teams may constitute a subculture with their own normative expectations values and beliefs - Organizational Climate: Division I athletes perceived that their coaches exhibited a more autocratic leadership style that was less socially supportive and used lower frequencies of positive and information based feedback. Among Division I coaches those whose teams had more scholarships were perceived by their athletes as being more autocratic and less socially supportive and as giving higher frequencies of punishment oriented feedback. - Personal Characteristics of Coaches or Teachers: Individual differences such as self reflectiveness, critical thinking aptitude decision-making abilities and knowledge bases can influence coaches' expectations and behaviors.mCoach is high and intrinsic motivation tends to be more autonomous in their decision making styles. Coach is high and coaching efficacy gave more positive feedback and the teachers high and self-confidence displayed more persistence in the face of failure and we are more committed to their profession and then teachers who were low in confidence

What is stereotype threat and why is it important?

- Stereotype Threat: Situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group - Important because they can affect performance

Define stress and identify the four stages of the stress process. Why are these stages important? How can they guide practice?

- Stress: A substantial imbalance between demand physical and or psychological and response capability under conditions were failure to meet that demand has important consequences Stages: - Environmental demand - Perception of demand - Stress response - Behavioral consequences Importance - These stages determine the performance or outcome Guide practice - Are use in the stages you can get a better grasp of the specific causes and consequences of stress which will allow you to design more effective stress management activities

Provide specific examples of the derivation of the PST knowledge base from research with elite athletes and athlete coach experiences

- Studies with Olympic athletes who performed up to potential revealed that these athletes have developed plans for competition, performance evaluation and dealing with disruption - Elite coaches especially used the mental skills of imagery and self talk to overcome concerns in performance, to help plan sessions and pre-and post competition talks, to back up their judgments or give themselves confidence and to get themselves to an appropriate frame of mind

Discuss how the relaxation procedure of systematic desensitization works and provide a practical example

- The goal of the treatment is to replace nervous activity with a competing behavior Example: - Creating a list from least anxiety inducing events to most anxiety inducing events - After learning progressive relaxation the client imagines the events and keep imagining them until they don't have any anxiety and then progress to the next most anxiety inducing event

Discuss event recording as a technique for studying leadership behaviors in sport along with the findings regarding Coach John Wooden.

- The investigator lists several typical coaching behaviors and then records when and how often these behaviors occur - Most of his behaviors involves giving instructions as well as encouraging intensity and effort - He focused on instruction and conveying information over praising good performance and scolding errors

Discuss the differences between the positive and negative approaches to teaching and coaching. As evidenced by the research which one is more beneficial and why?

- The positive approach focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior which increases the likelihood of desirable responses occurring in the future - The negative approach focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors which should reduce the inappropriate behaviors - A positive approach to motivation is recommended to avoid the potential negative side effects of using punishment as the primary approach

What is sports and exercise psychology and what are its 2 general objectives?

- The scientific study of the behavior of people engaged in sport and exercise activities and the application of the knowledge gained Objectives: - To understand how psychological factors affect a person's motor performance - To understand how participating in physical activity affect's a person's psychological development

Why are sports-specific personality inventory is more desirable than general psychological inventories for measuring personality and sport and exercise? Name examples of both sport-specific and general personality measures.

- The sport specific personality inventory relates directly to sports settings Sports-Specific Inventories: - Sport Competition Anxiety Test - Competitive State Anxiety Inventory - Trait-State Confidence Inventory - Tennis Test of Intentional and Interpersonal Style General Inventories: - Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style - Profile of Mood States

Compare and contrast state and trait measures of personality. Why are both needed for a better understanding of personality in sport?

- The trait measure indicates how you generally or typically feel while the state measure indicates how you feel in the moment - Both are needed because even though I've given psychological trait predisposes someone to behave in a certain way the behavior doesn't necessarily occurr in all situations

Discuss three reasons why coaches and athletes often neglect PST and discuss why the mess concerning PST training are false.

- They believe that it is for problem athletes only they can actually be used to help developmental skills and athletes with normal ranges of functioning - They believe that PST is for elite training only however it is appropriate for all athletes - They believe that PST provides a quick fix solution however it takes time to develop

Describe three strategies for coping with different emotions in sport

- Thought control - Task focus - Rational thinking and self talk

Discuss what transformational leadership involves and why it is important.

- Transformational leadership: Occurs when the leader takes a visionary position and inspires people to follow that vision and supportively work with each other to excel 1) Idealized influence 2) Inspirational motivation 3) Intellectual stimulation 4) Individualized consideration Importance: - Female college athletes asked to describe coaches who are most influence them identified coaching characteristics such as motivating holding high expectations and presenting physical challenges which aligns well with transformational leadership - Transformational leader behaviors of inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation were related to positive psychosocial and vocational peer to peer mentoring in college athletes - Positive developmental experiences were linked to coaches characterized by the transformational leader behaviors - Professional cyclist reported working harder if their captains were characterized by transformational leadership styles - Although the inspirational motivation dimension of transformational leader ship is evident on sport teams it does not take the form of the stereotypical motivational speeches

Describe the classic field experiments that Sherif and Sherif conducted at summer camps for boys. How are competition in hostility created and finally illuminated? What implications does this have for sport competition?

- Two groups performed and each was provided the opportunity to develop a strong group identity through sports and games. They then deliberately induced Intergroup conflict much of it through sport competitions that emphasized a winner and a loser they would also invite one group up to a table and they would eat all the refreshments which left non-for the second group. In the final stage they contrived situations that forced the two groups to cooperate for superordinate goals. - Competition is neither good or bad

Coaches generally have plans or strategies that they want their athletes to execute in an upcoming competition. Discuss three techniques for enhancing the probability that the athletes receive these plans and that coordination occurs among teammates

- Use multiple sensory mode - Use redundancy - Use an enduring representation - Explain why - Enhanced team members listening skills - Encourage questions - Check that plans are received

Why is studying and discussing diversity difficult?

- When characertistics of any group of people can help us understand that not everyone is alike and does not necessarily see the world exactly as we do - It is often politically charged because they deal with power and access to resources and influence or the lack of power and access to resources and influence

Discuss how the teachers or coaches' attributional feedback influences participant achievement. What is learned helplessness? Why is it important?

- When working with children attributing performance failure to their low effort may be affective only if they believe that they had the skills they need to ultimately achieve the task - Learned helplessness is an acquired condition in which a person perceives that his or her actions have no effect on the desired outcome of a task or scale which will cause them to generally feel incompetent

Describe how motivation is conceptualized as varying on a continuum from amotivation to extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation. Describe the different types of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic: - Knowledge: The individual engages in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction she has while learning, exploring or trying to understand something new - Accomplishment: The person engages in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction he feels when creating some thing or mastering difficult skills - Stimulation: The person engages in an activity to experience pleasant sensations Extrinsic: - Integrated regulation: Activity is personally important because of a valued outcome rather than interest in the activity solely for itself - Identified regulation: The behavior is highly valued, accepted and judged by the individual and dust is performed willingly even if the activity is not pleasant and itself - Introjected regulation: The individual is motivated by internal prods and pressures however the behavior is still not considered self determined because it is regulated by external contingencies - External regulation: The behavior is completely controlled by external sources such as rewards and constraints Amotivation: Individuals are neither intrinsically nor extra sickly motivated and does have pervasive feelings of incompetence and lack of control

Differentiate between macro and micro factors that influence women's leader ship in sport and physical activity settings

Macro: - General societal expectations - Institutional practices that prevent opportunities for women - Less favorable leadership expectations for women - Sport leadership viewed as masculine - Men currently dominating leadership positions and looking for similar people to fill these positions - Institutional discrimination - Men perceived as powerful and women as compliant - Men having more access to networks of influential people within the support system Micro: - Expectations - Self-limiting behaviors - Lack of understanding of power and procedures

Discuss the term mental toughness. How does the research to find this concept, how would you define it and how would you develop it? Give specific examples. What is meant by the Darkside of mental toughness? Discuss special considerations for using PST with athletes who have physical or intellectual disabilities.

Mental Toighness: Ability to cope with pressure, determination to persist in the face of adversity and mental resilience Develop: - Creating a positive motivational practice environment and intense competitive practices - Creating simulations - Setting specific goals - Providing instructional and supportive feedback - Building confidence through rigorous physical preparation and conditioning - Enhancing attentional control through self statements - Making appropriate attributions for successes and failures Darkside: - Athletes can push through pain and compete with injuries that can lead to long-term physical limitations - Avoid seeking mental health counseling because a stigma is attached to that Considerations: - The development of trust and rapport is critical - Sport psychologist must work at the individual's level of understanding - Soliciting help from relatives case managers or residential staff as important - Instruction should be kept simple and skill should be broken down into smaller teaching components and session should be fun enjoyable - Ensure that venues are accessible - Improve communication by being at their level - Be patient with verbal communication and speak directly to the athlete even if a parent or other caretaker is present - Monitor the temperature of the room

What is the relationship between diversity and performance? What explanations are given for this relationship?

More diversity in groups and teams is thought to enhance performance by increasing the number of perspectives being considered, generating a greater number of options for action and enhancing decision making

Discuss Morgan's mental health model and the iceberg profile as they relate to predicting athletic success. Can athletic success be predicted from psychological tests? Explain.

Morgan's Mental Health Model - Morgan's model predicts that an athlete his scores above the norm on the POMS subscales of neuroticism, depression, fatigue, confusion, and anger and below the norm on vigor will tend to pale in comparison with an athlete who scores below the norm on all of these traits except figure instead scoring above the norm on vigor Iceberg Profile - The profile looks like an iceberg in that all negative traits are below the surface and the one positive trait (vigor) is above the surface Athletic Success - More successful athletes exhibit the iceberg profile and more positive mental health than those who are less successful however it is not perfect and can lead to unethical team decisions

Discuss the results of Ryan studies on scholarships and intrinsic motivation. What are the implications of the findings How did Horn and Amorose extend these studies?

Results: - Players on scholarship reported that they were enjoying football less than their counterparts not on scholarship - Scholarship football players exhibited less intrinsic motivation every year they held their scholarship - Male wrestlers and female athletes from six sports who are on scholarship reported higher levels of intrinsic motivation than those who are not on scholarship Implications: - Scholarships can have an informational function by telling athletes that they are good especially for wrestlers and women who receive far fewer scholarships and other athletes - Players can't believe that they must perform well or they will lose their scholarship Horn and Amorose: - The players on scholarship had lower levels of intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, and perceived choice than their non-scholarship cohorts for men and women - Changes in feelings of intrinsic motivation were attributable primarily to coaching behaviors rather than to whether an athlete was on scholarship - Athletes who perceive that their coaches exhibited predominantly positive and instructional feedback as well as democratic and social support behaviors exhibited higher levels of intrinsic motivation then did athletes who perceived that their coaches displayed predominantly autocratic behaviors

Discuss three types of breakdowns in communication including examples of each type

Sender Failures: Transmitting a message poorly - Ex. Ambiguous message Receiver Failures: Misinterpreting the message - Ex. Teacher communicates information well but her students are not focused

Each of us exists in many different cultures. Which cultures help describe you?

Shared values beliefs and practices of an identifiable group of people and that it includes race, ethnicity. gender, language, spirituality, sexuality and physicality

What are two or three major sources of situational and personal stress?

Situational - Event importance - Uncertainty that surrounds the outcome of that event Personal - Treat anxiety - Self-esteem - Social physique anxiety

What are the primary motive's people have for participating in sport? What are their primary motive for participating in exercise activities?

Sport Participation: - Skill development - Demonstration of competence - Challenge - Excitement - Fun - Health Exercise: - Enjoyment - Organizations leadership - Activity type - Social factors

Describe five decision styles used by coaches and three factors that influence their effectiveness.

Styles: - Autocratic: The coach solves the problem herself using the information available at the time - Autocratic-consultative: The coach obtain some necessary information from relevant players and then comes to a decision - Consultative-individual: The coach consults the players individually and then makes a decision the decision may or may not reflect the players' input - Consultative-group: The Coach Console suppliers as a group and then makes a decision the decision may or may not reflect the players' input - Group: The coach shares the problem with the players then the players jointly make the decision without the influence from the coach Factors: - Team sport athletes typically prefer more autocratic leaders then do individual sport athletes - Interactive team athletes prefer more task-oriented leaders then do coactive team athletes - As group size increases it becomes more difficult to effectively use a Democratic leader ship style - When little time is available a task oriented leader is more desirable - A group that has a tradition with one style of leadership will typically have difficulty changing to another style of leadership

Discuss the three basic tenents of progressive relaxation and good general instructions for using this technique.

Tenets: - It is possible to learn the difference between tension and relaxation - Tension and relaxation are mutually exclusive - Relaxation of the body through to decreased muscle tension will in turn decrease mental tension Instructions - Each cycle involves maximally contracting one specific muscle group and then attempting to fully relax that same muscle group all while focusing on the different sensations of tension and relaxation

Johnson and Johnson favor cooperation over competition. However, they say there is a limited place for competition under certain conditions. Discuss these conditions.

The competition must be voluntary, the importance of winning is not so hard that it causes disabling stress, everyone must have a reasonable chance to win ,the rules are clear and fair, and relative progress can be monitored

Describe the Ringelmann effect. What implications do Ringelmann's findings have for a coach, physical educator or exercise leader?

The phenomenon by which individual performance decreases as the number of people in the group increases