Midterm

Juán Gines de Sepúlveda vs. Bartolomé de Las Casas

Definition: 16th century philosophical debate over the morals, ethics, and humanism of treatment of Indians in the Americas. Context: This was the debate about indigenous people's capacity and rights. Sepulveda argued that native were 'natural slaves' and should be subjugated, and Bartolome argued for their rights as human beings. They also differentiated between natives and the moors - natives couldn't be considered the same as moors because they didn't previously know of Christianity. Structure: The debate was held in the city of Valladolid in 1550. De las Casas was a Dominican friar and Sepúlveda was a humanist scholar. There was no winner determined. But Sepulveda's writings were hidden because they were so offensive and controversial (racist). Meaning: This was important because the outcome would support the New Laws of 1542. It is also an early iteration of the white legend vs black legend debate. Conflict: Conflicting ideas of 'noble savage' vs barbaric savage.

Sugar Mill (Engenho)

Definition: A large, labor intensive sugar cane estate complete with all the technology needed to process sugar cane to produce refined sugar, molasses, and rum. Context: Sugar cane, and all the products that could be made from it (refined sugar, molasses, rum), was highly desired. The high demand made it an incredibly valuable crop that became farmed across the Caribbean, Mesoamerica, and South America. Structure: Sugar production was a labor intensive process that required a large labor force that combined agricultural and industrial activities. It was in such high demand that sugar cane became a huge money maker for new world colonies; possibly the highest money maker out of any good produced in Mesoamerica and South America. The high demand and the intensity of the labor required to harvest and process it meant that slaves were in particular high demand as well to work the mills. They often were worked to death or injured by the dangerous machinery, so they constantly needed slaves to replace those who died. Meaning: The sugar mills had high death rates leading to a dependency on the transatlantic slave trade in order to replace the slaves that died often from injury from the hazardous technology used to process sugar cane. The introduction of specialization within industrial activities created a hierarchy amongst workers (kettlemen, teachmen, carpenters, purgers, overseers, and sugar masters) that created social divisions paralleling color/racial categories as well as offering the possibility of promotion. Conflict: Often slave masters would refuse to sell skilled workers (such as boiling house managers) their freedom even if they had enough money for self-purchase, because they were so valuable to the success of their sugar mill and were hard to replace. The slave would have to wait for their master's death and then buy their freedom from the widow. Mills were subject to day to day sabotage by slaves implemented to slow down the works of the mill. This was one way slaves protested their condition.

Diego de Landa

Definition: A Franciscan monk that came to convert the Mayans in 1549. He was an expert in Mayan religion and language and wrote a book on the subject matter. He is thought of as one of the original anthropologists. However, he also oversaw the destruction of Mayan religious texts and a brutal inquisition to root out practitioners of indigenous religions (natives who had rejected Christianity) that resulted in the torture and death of many natives. Context: The deep-rooted Spanish history of the conflict between Christians and Moors (and Jews as well) made Spanish conquistadors, clergy, and governmental authorities very suspicious of any other religions as a threat to society and stable government. The Moors had previously tried to take control of Spain and make it a Muslim kingdom, Spain justified brutal repression of other religious groups (the Inquisition) in order to prevent the subjugation of Spaniards. This philosophy inspired brutal repression of indigenous religion in the New World and justified de Landa's treatment of Mayan 'heretics'. Structure: He was a part of the inquisition that spread through Latin America (1560s) and contributed to the Black Legend by both torturing those found to continue idol worship and with a ceremony called "auto de fe" in which he burned many Mayan codices (books) and cult images. Meaning: Spanish realization that a cultural understanding was necessary to get rid of certain behaviors and practices, along with the use of extreme physical force. Conflict: The use of torture was looked down upon by the crown who had exempted indigenous peoples from the authority of the Inquisition, believing Indian's understanding of things was "too childish" to be justifiably tortured.

Chinampas

Definition: A Mesoamerican, agricultural method which used small, rectangular areas of fertile, arable land to grow crops in the beds in the Valley of Mexico. They were able to create floating islands to create an agricultural based in the salty, marshy, watery regions. Context: Tenochtitlan and the neighboring communities represented one of the largest urban concentrations of people in the New World. Food production was key in the success of these large city structures. Innovative methods of farming were required since the capital, Tenochtitlan, was completely surrounded by water. Chinampas provided a way to expand the amount of farmable land available. Structure: The agricultural labor was completed by lower class people who had these specific jobs. Their status was very much linked with their profession. The building of chinampas allowed the Aztec economy to advance and continue to flourish by creating more space to farm. The Aztecs saw a problem when they ran out of land to farm on and used their engineering prowess to create an extremely effective solution, impressing even the likes of the Spanish. Meaning: This is how they were able to produce food. How did the Tenochtitlan make this? The geographic region shows that the Aztec were emulators and used methods that other people used and pioneered. This shows that there were numerous civilized societies. Conflict: The lord is entitled to services, tributes, and labor from people of the population. It could be that by preventing the Aztecs from reaching their chinampas, or by destroying them, the Spanish were able to prevent the Aztecs from getting enough food during the fighting. In the Aztec empire, there existed competition between access to resources and land that would raise conflicts between city states. "The Aztecs used chinampas to further the amount of farmable land once the land already present was used up. This shows the struggle the Aztecs faced to feed an ever growing population in their capital."

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz

Definition: A Mexican nun considered to be the first feminist and a child prodigy. She wrote about the hypocrisy of men and their demeaning view of women centuries before anyone else. Context: Juana's writings give both a rare and detailed account of what it was like to be a woman at the time and the myriad of problems and restrictions they were born into. Structure: Colonial society had very specific roles for men and women that she challenged in her writings; something no woman had done before her. Being a nun gave her the opportunity to become well educated; an opportunity closed to the vast majority of women at the time. Meaning: This is significant because it was highly unusual for women to speak about the inequality between men and women in the public and outspoken way that she did. Conflict: There was conflict between her ideas and the rules and customs of colonial society. Later she was reprimanded by the archbishop of Mexico, causing her to give up her studies and stick to practicing her faith.

Requerimiento

Definition: A declaration by the Spanish of its divine right to take possession of the territories of the new world and to subjugate, exploit and, when necessary, to fight the natives. It was essentially their warning to what they were going to do to the natives if they didn't cooperate. Context: A written declaration of sovereignty provided the Spanish reasoning and justification of their conquest of the native people of Latin America. Was read by Spanish military forces to assert sovereignty (domination) over natives. During the initial conquest of the Americas the Requerimiento was read in Spanish to natives to inform them of Spain's rights to conquest. Those who resisted conquest were considered to have evil intentions. The Spaniards considered those who resisted to be defying God's plan, and so used Catholic theology to justify their conquest. Structure: The crown and the church both supported this doctrine because of their history of religious wars against the Muslims. The church played a heavy role in the conquest of the New World. They passed authority to those in the Colonies, though secular and regular dichotomies skewed intentions as the church in Spain could not oversee actions in the Americas. The Spanish (along with the Catholic church) used religion to take economic, social, and political control of the Americas. Meaning: The writing demonstrates the widespread idea that their religious conquest was divinely sanctioned. This religious zeal also occurs within the context of the Iberian peninsula being recovered from the Muslims after centuries of occupation. The Spanish used the Requerimiento as a justification and a disclosure for their actions in the Americas. It could be suggested that the Spanish thought of the Requerimiento as a legal document that legitimized their presence and activities in the Americas via religion. "The existence and occasional use of the Requerimiento indicates that the Spanish thought seriously about their legal claim to the new world - a legal claim closely related to christianizing missions." Conflict: The method used by the Iberian colonizers was extremely controversial. They would present the natives with the gospel - if they submitted, they would not hurt them. If they rejected it, they would kill and forcefully deal with them in a barbaric manner. However, the natives did not understand, nor were they given the time to understand and decide in most cases. The natives did not understand the Spanish language nor Western ideas of religion (ie the bible, priest, etc.). The Spanish used this lack of understanding, as well as cultural differences, as grounds for conquest/evidence of needing to be brought into the fold of "God's plan".

Encomienda

Definition: A grant by the Spanish Crown to New World colonists conferring the right to demand tribute and forced labor from the native inhabitants of an area. In return, encomienda leaders would assist natives with religious guidance/conversions. Encomenderos (recipients of land grants) were responsible for paying priests who provided religious services to the natives. Context: The Encomienda system provided the church with power (granted to them via the Spanish Crown), as well as a crucial role in the development of native's lives under Spanish rule. At times the role of the church conflicted with the agendas of economic development though. Structure: This system provided governmental and social organization/hierarchy in the New World, as well as assisted with economic growth for both the Old and New Worlds while furthering aggressive religious agendas. Meaning: It was considered an effective avenue to hasten the colonization effort and integrate indigenous people to the Spanish way of life, but was extremely aggressive and forceful in doing so. Conflict: There was conflict between the indigenous people forced to work the encomiendas and the encomenderos. There was also conflict when members of the church felt that the indigenous people were being abused and argued for the end of the encomienda system; most notably the dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas stands out for being the biggest critic of the encomienda system.

Columbian Exchange

Definition: A network of trade between the Old World (Europe and Africa mainly) and the Americas. Included in the trade were people (slaves), animals, materials, manufactured goods, and unexpectedly, disease. Other traits of the exchange included ideas, which for example, can be seen through the influence of Latin American cuisine in Europe. Context: Beginning of trade between the Old and New World. Marked by the exchange of crops, animals, and diseases going in and out of both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Structure: The Columbian Exchange created a vast trading network over the Atlantic ocean. New crops, spices, animals, and African slaves were transported and dispersed across the New World. It served as a new, massive, global commodities network, feeding and supplying millions world wide. Meaning: Marks the beginning of globalization as a major player in international relations. This has shaped the goals and aspirations of foreign policy makers in the fields of economics, public/global health, environmental policies, and military endeavors. Conflict: A debate exists whether the Columbian exchange was inherently good or bad in its nature. Some argue that it was beneficial because it significantly increased food production for a growing worldwide population. However, others claim that the negative effects of the destruction of biodiversity, decimation of native populations, and overpopulation of several areas outweigh the positive effects brought about by the Columbian exchange.

Mahogony

Definition: A tree whose wood is highly valued as a luxury for use in building expensive furniture and other architectural amenities. Context: Environmental issue. Mahogany is cut down in the Amazon because it is a highly valued wood used for expensive furniture and various household decorations. Structure: The cutting of mahogany changes the structure of the Amazon, meaning that the ratio of the variety and abundance of trees is changed. The tree gains in value as it is further processed. It is worth the most when it is a piece of furniture and the least when it has just been cut. The deforestation of the Amazon rainforest in pursuit of luxury goods such as mahogany is a point of contention in economic policy and political voting points. Meaning: For loggers, and others involved in the manufacturing process, mahogany is a way of making money. But it also advances the destruction of the rainforest - a process that negatively impacts the environment on a global scale. Conflict: Environmentalists fight to preserve the rainforest while businesses seek to gut as much profit from the rainforest as they can. It is the fight of environmental interest groups to further develop environmental laws to help protect the rainforest that makes itself a significant player in politics and the political strategies used by politicians. There is intense conflict between the loggers and people who think the Amazon should be preserved and protected. People who get in the way of loggers are sometimes killed; which shows just how heated and polarized this issue is.

República de Indios

Definition: After the Spanish crown dominated the area, it resettled natives and attempted to transform the indigenous into "people of reason" and shield them from outside influences. Context: This was the legal identity superimposed on the natives by the Spanish crown after their domination of the area. The culturally-based thoughts of the Spanish caused them to look upon the indigenous populations like they were children, in need of civilization and protection. Was in contrast to the República de Españoles which governed Spaniards, Creoles, Mestizos, and Africans. Structure: República de Indios was an actual legal arrangement imposed on the natives, which made them legally subordinate to the Spanish Crown in order to avoid a concentration of power by the encomenderos (conquistadors). Established segregated communal lands for indians (Indian towns) that were governed by crown officials. They contained a church and hospital, required periodic labor obligation (mining manufacture), and taxes were collected. Meaning: While the Spanish viewed their presence and imposed structures as a favor to the natives, who supposedly lacked reason and sophistication, many natives resented their presence and governing. Some of the existing nobility of the Inca/Aztec empire were incorporated into the government, which caused internal tension in the Andean/Mesoamerican native groups. Conflict: Though the Spanish successfully imposed this in the core regions of former Inca/Aztec empires, they had much more difficulty doing so in the peripheral regions. Many of the tribes in the peripheral region were less stratified and less sedentary, which made access limited and imposition of a structure difficult. In addition, many natives resisted the Spanish rule (resistance of "Barbaros").

slaves for hire

Definition: As demographic shifted from rural to urban, people continued to rely on the assistance of slaves in everyday life. Masters would hire out their slaves to work for people in the cities. Within this system, slaves were allowed more freedom and sometimes were even allowed to make money for themselves. This created a financial opening for slaves who could retain some of the profit and allowed for social mobility. Some slaves worked in Brazil's cities for independent wages - usually trade work. These slaves had more autonomy and were often able to save small amounts of their wages to eventually buy their freedom or the freedom of someone else. Context: Following the colonization of Brazil by the Portuguese, slaves were imported for all types of labor. Foreign born or Brazilian-born slaves in urban areas with a trade would do wage work and give their earnings to their owners for the most part. Sometimes they were able to keep additional income after paying their owner a certain amount. Structure: The autonomy and freedom accessed by 'slaves for hire' provided an opportunity for upward mobility in Brazilian society. Meaning: Urban slaves utilized their autonomy, independence, skills, and personal agency to transform their limited freedom while working into an opportunity to earn additional wages that enabled them to save for self-purchase/purchase of another, resulting in a change in their social status. Conflict: Unlike the slave practice in the United States, sustainability did not exist in Brazil's market. This lead to a much larger need for importation of slaves which extended and thrived after the abolishment of trans-atlantic slave imports. Also the freedom that was granted to slaves in this type of workforce enabled some to runaway to quilombos. Slave owners responded to this by placing missing ads for their runaway slaves. This created an inner conflict between slaves because slaves who worked in the urban centres looked down upon slaves who worked in rural areas.

Ayllu

Definition: Basic kin unit in the Andes; an extended web of households that holds land collectively. Context: Traditional form of community in the Andes region. Extended family groups could adopt non-related members as part of Inca society. Ayllu were self-sustaining units and would educate their own offspring and farm or trade for all the food they ate. Each ayllu owned a parcel of land, and the members had reciprocal obligations to each other. The ayllu system still exists today in Andean communities. They would often have their own huacas usually embodied in a physical object such as a mountain or rock. Structure: Indigenous government across the Andes region of South America, particularly in Bolivia and Peru. Meaning: The Ayllu gave more variation to families and security to the land they farmed. Ayllu were able to solve issues and learned how to get along in bigger families. Conflict: These communities are self-sustaining and are not efficient in supporting themselves in times of natural disasters such as El Niño.

Black or White Legend

Definition: Black Legend - Spain as a brutal and tyrannical imperial power. White Legend - brought progress, modernity, and westernization to Latin America. Iberian colonies were religious, intolerant, barbaric, and sexist. Context: After the Spanish Reconquista, the discovery of America in 1492 brought on a sort of religious euphoria - Spain successfully defeated the Muslims and expelled the Jews, and now they discovered a new land, which needed to be conquered in the name of Jesus Christ. Structure: What role did Catholicism play in the establishment of Iberian Colonialism? Encomienda system. The Catholic Church had a strong presence in colonial social and political life. Meaning: Only until recently have historians critiqued the historical "Black Legend". Historians in the past have always had a negative view of the Spanish empire and of the Spanish people. This was brought on by the amount of negative propaganda about Spanish people and their treatment of the native peoples, especially from other European states. This outlook fails to take into account the positives of Spanish colonization. (Modernity, organization, food, technology, etc). The "White Legend" holds that Spaniards came due to their religious tendencies and neglects their want of "gold and glory". Conflict: How do you reconcile Catholic dogma and institutions with traditional cosmovisions, social structures, and communal identities? Disputes among many historical actors of the time (Bartolome de las Casas vs. Juan Gines de Sepulveda) as to whether colonialism was justified, and if so, how and why. Not all changes were bad, but at what cost?

Doña Marina

Definition: Cacique's daughter who was kidnapped and sold into slavery. Gifted to Hernán Cortes (as a slave) after he defeated one of the ethnic kingdoms under Aztec control. She eventually had a child with Cortes and was known for the fact that she spoke many different languages. Context: Familiarity with the indigenous was important for facilitating relationships among the colonial areas. This led to marriages, gifts, and identification of important intermediaries. Structure: She became a very important translator, speaking Maya and Nahuatl for Cortés as well as bearing his children. The presence of a female at the center of an intercultural discourse was striking in a strongly male-driven society Meaning: Her presence was crucial in Hernán Cortés's conquest of Mesoamerica because she allowed them to communicate with the Aztec and manipulate Cacique into fighting against the Aztec. Conflict: She became known in Mexican history as La Malinche, traitor, because of the help she gave the Spanish in the fight against the Aztec.

Tlaxcala

Definition: Cortes's allies who took down Tenochtitlan. They provided thousands of troops for Cortes and provided refuge. Context: The Aztec domination of the mesoamerican region led to tribal conflict and resistance; the Aztecs made enemies. Cortes was able to utilize these conflicts to create alliances. Structure: Worked through the King of Tlaxcala and Cortes. The Tlaxcalan king gave the Spanish refuge and promised further assistance in the conquest of Tenochtitlan under certain conditions: perpetual exemption from tribute of any sort, part of the spoils of war, and control of two provinces that bordered Tlaxcala. Meaning: Cortes could not have conquered the Aztecs without their help. They helped conquer Guatemala and other places as well. Conflict: They didn't aid the Spanish because they liked them; they wanted a reward. They told Cortes and the king of Spain that they deserved a reward for helping them in their time of need.

Operation Amazon

Definition: Encouraged investors to pour money into the region and in return gave the donators tax deductibles. Context: Came as a result of the modernizing ideology of Estado Novo brought into actual policy by the military government (1964-1986). Underscored the work to modernize and "civilize" the natural world through construction of public projects such as the Trans-Pacific Highway or the creation of Brasilia in the west. (Sort of like Brazil's Manifest Destiny) Structure: Underscored the structural power relations between humans and the environment as well as the Brazilian state against indigenous tribes. Also highlights the economics of land, agriculture, and urbanity. Meaning: Encouraged development, as well as environmental change/destruction in the Amazon. Conflict: development vs conservation - is there a balance?

Racial Democracy

Definition: Idea that regardless of your color you stand the same chance as everybody else. Regardless of color/race all people have the same chances for social mobility. Context: Much miscegenation has occurred in Brazil since colonial times due to Brazil's diverse populations contributed by: Portuguese immigration, massive slave importation from the transatlantic slave trade for work on sugar plantations, late slavery abolishment/lack of enforcement of slavery limiting legislation, and free black populations/ability of slaves to purchase their freedom. Brazil has a very large African-descendent population due to the slave trade/most people in Brazil are of mixed races. Structure: Brazil never legalized discrimination/segregation like the United States, causing some people to argue that Brazil never had overt racism/institutionalized racism. There is a hierarchy with blacks at the bottom; exists in gradients though. Racism exists on a scale from darker to lighter. Meaning: In spite of claims of Brazil as a color-blind nation, free of racism, there is evidence to support that the impacts of slavery and colonization still affect the lives of Afro-brazilians in modern Brazilian society. Conflict: Existing racism can be seen in current affirmative action legislation in Brazil that requires for a panel of judges to determine the "blackness" of students by simply looking at a photograph. Black movements and counter-narratives become more outspoken and militant about the discrimination of people of color. People argue that due to miscegenation Brazil does not have racism, that people in Brazil are color-blind. This idea conflicts with the fact that the Afro-brazilian populations are the most marginalized in Brazilian society. ex: lower life expectancy, less education, paid less.

Patronato Real

Definition: Institutional connection between church and state; crown appointment of all bishops and archbishops. They funded the construction of cathedrals and churches and instituted religious exclusivity throughout Latin America - only Catholicism could be practiced. Had a combination of regular and secular clergy which created internal divisions about who had authority. They were constantly overlapping due to separate authorities and jurisdictions of the church and the crown. The crown was concerned with a lot more issues than what the church was concerned with. Context: Helped the crown maintain control over the church in the colonies. As seen in the film 'The Mission', control of the church was important because the clergy could challenge the authority of the state. Structure: Within the Spanish government there exists a system in which members of the clergy are appointed by the Spanish crown - therein linking trade, politics, and religion. Meaning: Resulted in conflict, disagreements, and the butting of heads between church and state on the part of activist clergy. Conflict: church v. state, or church and state v. popular classes. The church played an interesting role in the military dictatorships in Latin America during the 1970s - 1990s - some church leaders supported dictators (as seen in Chile) whereas others, such as the archbishop Romero in El Salvador, supported the cause of the poor classes and social justice.

Mita

Definition: Labor draft with set period of service. Context: Incan tribute system of rotational labor; built public works, buildings, roads, etc. The Inca mit'a provided public goods, such as maintenance of road networks, sophisticated irrigation, and cropping systems that required inter-community coordination of labor. The majority of Inca subjects performed their mit'a obligations in or near their home communities, often in agriculture; service in mines was extremely rare. In contrast, the Spanish mit'a acted as a subsidy to private mining interests and the Spanish state, which used tax revenues from silver production largely to finance European wars. Structure: Instituted Inca hierarchy and domination of Andes region. Meaning: Counted as tribute sometimes instead of agricultural goods. Emphasizes the willingness of the Inca indigenous to serve their state. Conflict: Ayllus would supply labor tribute in exchange for protection from Inca troops. Form of draft, which engendered conflicts at times with local communities. After the conquest, the Spanish kept this system in place. Communities were required to provide one seventh of their male labor force at any given time for public works, mines and agriculture. The system became an intolerable burden on the Inca communities and abuses were commonplace.

Pipiltin

Definition: Nobility of the Aztec empire. Context: Nobility - headed by Teuctli (lords). Prior to the Spanish conquest they were the Aztec ruling elites/class under the emperor. Structure: The communities were divided by a hierarchy. The Pipiltin were the head of the communities (high priests, prominent military officers, and influential government leaders), and they were distinguished by their attire, jewelry, and their ability to speak well. They wore plates and were "fashionistas" for their time; the way they adorned themselves was very important. They were entitled to special services. Meaning: This showed how the community was structured. It proves that they did have a political system/ organization. Conflict: There was conflict within the structure of the hierarchy at times. If people violated the structure, they would have consequences (most likely death penalty). This also played a role in the society's education, sumptuary laws, and privileges.

Aztec tribute

Definition: Obligated goods, services, and sacrifices given to the Aztecs from surrounding conquered nations now demoted to tributary states. Context: Tribute for Aztecs was usually paid for 2-4 times a year at differing times and collected by tax collectors who were part of the Pipiltin, the Aztec elite. Structure: Tribute was based on Aztec - ruled provinces. The empire relied on local kings and nobles to keep the tribute flowing. The Aztec empire was able to amass much wealth by raking in tribute from its tributary states. In addition they required the tributary states to give them humans for sacrifice as part of their tribute, and to show their power/authority over them. Meaning: The Aztecs were powerful enough to impose their rule over many of the surrounding areas and require tributes from them without having to physically occupy the area. The latter fact alone is a testament to the power of the Aztecs; that they were so feared that they didn't even have to physically occupy the tributary states, but could rely on their fierce reputation to get them to send tribute and obey. Conflict: Imperial tribute imposed a burden on commoner households, who had to increase work to pay share of tribute. Towns that felt exploited or abused by the Aztecs were more likely to join happily with the Spanish to conquer the Aztecs. The tributary system increased social stresses across the empire and increased the internal social weakness that led to the empire's downfall.

Guaman Poma de Ayala

Definition: Quechua noble man known for chronicle in which he denounced the ill treatment of the Andean natives by the Spanish after conquest. Context: Those that came from powerful families were often better treated by the Spaniards who hoped to use their influence to their own benefit. Guaman used his influence in order to draw attention to the grievances of his people. Structure: His family belonged to the wealthy among the Inca empire and were nobles. His status as a noble put him in a prime position to be able to have his thoughts heard by many. Meaning: Guaman Poma proposed a new direction for the governance of Peru, that is, he proposed a "good government" which entailed Inca social and economic structures, European technology, and Christian theology adapted to the practical needs of Andean peoples. He was the first native to propose such an idea. Conflict: Guaman Poma, known for his famous Peruvian chronicle, calls attention towards deep problems caused by the Spanish government in the region. The Manuscript was never published.

Castas

Definition: Racial categories used to identify Spaniards and non-indians; middle-level status between Europeans and pure minorities (mestizos and mulattoes). Used in the post-conquest period to classify illegitimate children of white men and non-white women. Context: Social class for non-spanish and non-Indians; considered to be illegitimate. A way children were demonized or discriminated by elites. Some restrictions were placed. Structure: Elites developed the system and the church/schools participated in it by using it as a form of discrimination to help keep the ruling class as pure white and European as possible. Even full whites born in the Americas (Criollos) were of lower status than a full white born in Europe (Peninsulares). Meaning: Its existence shows the prominence of the idea of inherent inferiority of native populations because it dehumanizes natives and those of mixed descent by putting them in a separate category. Conflict: Shows the exploitation of both race and gender and its effect on creating a stratified social hierarchy. Castas were often derogatory and were used to deny people access to elite institutions such as higher education. They also attempted to demonize these groups in the eyes of the elites and construct them as products of dishonor. Contributes to current racial problems in Latin America where whiteness is still viewed higher than blackness and is still upheld in higher institutions and businesses where darker people are not hired.

Quilombos

Definition: Runaway slave communities that existed during the boom of slavery in Brazil and Latin America; Palmares, lead by Zumbi was most well known. Context: Given the atrocities committed during the slave period in Brazil, many slaves saw desertion as the only option, however, refuge was needed for those that successfully escaped their owners. This led to creation of quilombos. Structure: The sugar plantations of Brazil, which mostly slaves worked on were labor intensive. In addition to intensive work, slaves were subjected to violence and social control in many forms: rape, use of religion/the church, separation of family, etc. With these oppressive conditions, the quilombos formed as a way of protecting slaves who escaped. Meaning: For slave owners, this kind of insubordination undermined their control and most sought to end it quickly. From the outside, many interpreted the formation of quilombos as evidence of the cruelty the slave population was subjected to. Conflict: The slave owners (Europeans mostly) saw this as completely unacceptable and sought to bring the quilombos down. They were successful in the case of Palmares, seeking out and beheading Zumbi on the spot when they found him.

Huaca

Definition: Sacred beings materialized in natural landscape. They were seen as divinities in forms of nature, such as an impressive mountain or body of water. Context: Huacas were sacred beings materialized in natural landscapes that would uphold natural and human order, as believed by Andean societies. The Andean people would find particularly impressive/beautiful natural areas and things and would say that they were crafted and inhabited by whatever sacred being. Structure: The Andes region is an area known for large, unique rock formations and complex landscapes. The presence of sacred beings in the physical landscape made it impossible to remove all aspects of Andean religion, possibly contributing to the incorporation of Andean religion into the Inca belief system instead of total eradication. Meaning: The grandeur of the natural settings of these indigenous groups contributed to the idea of gods being found in nature (Animism) in their polytheistic belief system. A polytheistic belief system is inevitable when a society accepts Animism, because there are so many different forms of nature to attribute a divine being to. Conflict: When the Inca nobility seized control of these Andean societies, they superimposed their deity over the local deities, however, it was a system of incorporation. They didn't rid them of their local gods. In stark contrast, when Pizarro and Iberian colonizers arrived with the idea of Christianizing the indigenous population, they tried to force them into a monotheistic belief system where the Huacas and other pillars of their indigenous faith were non-existent. The indigenous groups were in part christianized, but there is no substantial evidence that they chose the Christian faith and all its tenants. Many still believed in the huacas. Unlike churches or a piece of art, huacas can't be destroyed, which made it hard for Christians to totally eradicate their belief of huacas.

Andean reciprocity

Definition: The Andean 'welfare state' that made sure the elderly and poor didn't go hungry. Context: It is the most important concept in Andean culture. It means that there is a conscious and willing acknowledgement of the interconnection between humans and the natural world that sustains them. Structure: Central code of the Q'ero and root principle of Andean values Meaning: To Andean people, the Earth is not just our world, but is shared by all things visible and invisible. Conflict: In western culture, the way of reciprocity is not respected as compared to Andean culture. "In the 1560s, discovery of native idols in a secret cave in the Yucatan Mexico brought inquisition proceeding which resulted in the torture and jailing of thousands of natives, as well as fleeing. This caused a labor force reduction and mass fear that threatened the encomienda system. Instead of trying to work with the natives so that both themselves and the natives might mutually benefit, the Spaniards were aggressive and selfish the whole way through, making no attempt to be reciprocal in manner with the natives."

Abolitionism in Brazil

Definition: The Brazilian state abolished slavery in 1888. It had been an ongoing process since independence from Portugal. Context: Abolitionism was facilitated by the appearance of alternate forms of labor: Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, etc. that took the space that at one point only African slaves were able to fill. Brazil officially abolished the transatlantic slave trade in 1831 but internalized slavery continued; illegal slavery also continued until 1850. Finally, after extreme pressure from the British, Brazil abolished slavery in 1888. Prior to the official emancipation, abolitionists organized underground railroads to maroon communities throughout Latin America. Also must take into account the growing ideology of liberalism after gaining independence from Portugal. Structure: Brazilian state vs slave owners. slaveowners vs slaves. Brazil vs. international actors. Meaning: Brazil began to develop a negative view of slavery and abolitionists began to raise up and put pressure on the government. The modernization of the economy, decrease in slave populations, and the pressures the Brazilian government received from Great Britain lead to the abolishment of slavery. Conflict: social/racial hierarchy; slave owners vs slaves. Britain was a huge power in the 1800's - pressured Brazil diplomatically and through its navy. Just because slavery ended didn't mean racism and prejudice against blacks ended too. It's something that still is an issue in modern day Brazil, more than a century after slavery was abolished.

Tawantinsuyu (Inca Empire)

Definition: The Inca empire was the largest empire in the pre-Columbian New World. The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was located in modern day Cusco, Peru. in The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century, and the last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. Context: The largest, wealthiest, and most advanced empire in the New World; even greater than that of the Aztecs. Structure: A complex, effective, and extremely well developed administrative bureaucratic structure that successfully managed as many as 9 million people spread out over 4,000 km that lacked wheels, markets, draft animals, and a writing system. Had a vast network of roads stretching throughout the entirety of the empire. Highly skilled and agile runners called "chasquis" ran along these roads to deliver messages across the empire. Through this "runner" system the Inca were able to effectively stay up to date and keep tabs on all parts of their vast empire. Meaning: The Inca reigned as a complex imperialistic state. The Inca showcased some of the best and most developed aspects of new world civilization and society. The Inca empire is to the New World what the glory and sophistication of the Roman empire was to Europe. Conflict: There ruled only one leader over the empire, causing intense conflicts between successors to the throne because understandably, so much (the future of an empire that had taken centuries to establish) was at stake. The conflict of succession ultimately helped aid their downfall when a civil war broke out within the empire between two sons of the late Inca emperor, greatly helping the Spanish conquer the newly divided empire.

Tenochtitlán

Definition: The capital of the Aztec empire which had a population of over 200,000 people. It is believed to have been the largest city in terms of population in THE WORLD at the time. Context: The urban, political, and cultural center of the Aztec empire. Mexico City was built upon its ruins. Structure: The might and glory of Tenochtitlán was used to impress prominent guests and demonstrate Aztec superiority. The Aztecs had control over several hundred city-states that paid tribute to the rulers stationed in Tenochtitlán. Tribute was imported from the periphery. Contained ethnic centric neighborhoods and had bridges for defense. Meaning: The Aztec show a highly developed understanding of urban planning, architecture, and a mastery of complex engineering showcased in the building of Tenochtitlán. Conflict: The city being surrounded by a large body of water allowed the Spanish to block passage of food and water to the Aztec during a siege, allowing to them to easily starve their warriors and general population.

human sacrifices in Latin America

Definition: The ceremonial and religious practice of mesoamerican societies (Mayans, Aztecs) where a human was killed as a tribute to a deity in hopes of gaining their favor and good fortune. Context: Mesoamerican societies regularly practiced human sacrifice as a method of communicating to and appeasing their gods. Structure: Humans chosen to be sacrificed came from lower classes. Higher tiers of society never had to fear of being sacrificed. Often times the ruling people would take people to be sacrificed from their tribute states, the person being sacrificed being apart of the tribute they enforce upon the tributary states. Meaning: To the mesoamericans, human sacrifice provided a method of communicating with their gods. To the Spanish, it was an act of pure and utter barbarism, but to the natives it was viewed as an act of honor and reverence to the deities they believed played such huge roles in their futures and fortune. In addition, the Aztecs used human sacrifices as a demonstration of their power and authority to their tributary states, whom they often extracted their human sacrifices from. Conflict: When the Spanish came to conquer, they used the human sacrifice as an excuse to take over. The Spanish viewed their sacrifice as barbaric and used this as a necessity for them to take control. Were they justified in their colonialism based on the elimination of human sacrifice though?

Syncretism

Definition: The combining of two or more religious, cultural, or societal traditions in order to blend and establish a compromise amongst differing ideologies. Context: Spanish attempted to aggressively convert indigenous people to Catholicism, however, many natives converted to Catholicism while retaining elements of their traditional religions. Structure: There were similarities between the Catholic faith and some rites and practices of the indigenous faiths such as the existence of the complementary forces of good and evil, and God and the devil, which natives could easily understand in comparison to their own god and own version of a "devil" figure. An example of the mixing of Catholicism with native faiths is that natives equated Catholic saints with the notion of multiple divinities; something they were familiar and comfortable with in their polytheistic faiths. Meaning: Shows how natives blended their own religious beliefs and practices with those the Europeans established to make themselves more comfortable and at ease with this new faith that was being forced upon them. Although the native populations were able to accept certain aspects of Catholicism, this practice reveals the concrete nature of native beliefs and their inability to completely abandon old traditions. Conflict: Practices such as confession, baptism, and notions of the afterlife were extremely different between Catholicism and the indigenous faiths of the New World. Although they were by name Catholics, many indigenous peoples retained the majority of their customs and practiced a different form of Catholicism than the Spanish had intended. This resulted in tension between the natives and the wholly frustrated missionaries. However, some missionaries used the similarities to gain more converts, sometimes employing elite natives to use their influence and status to spread Catholicism to their own communities.

Marianismo

Definition: The idea that the Virgin Mary is the pinnacle of womanhood and that all women should be matronly, benevolent, charitable and morally upright. Context: The colonizers of Mesoamerica and South America (Spain and Portugal) had strong Roman Catholic convictions. Women were expected to live up to the ideal of Mary, who is highly revered in the Catholic faith, and thought to perfectly embody the way a woman should behave. Structure: Society viewed women as subordinate and inferior to men, and several laws reflected this belief. Women were told to stay virgins until marriage, be motherly, stay in the house, and be under the control of a male relative, such as a father, brother, or husband. Meaning: This ideal version of womanhood reveals how colonial society viewed women and their distinct roles in society. Conflict: It was hard for women to live up to this ideal and there was a definite double-standard. Men were given free reign with their sexuality but women would receive punishment and be considered unfit for marriage if they acted the same way. Women were placed under a great deal of pressure and had a lot of demands to live up to. It created a lot of issues and the only woman to write about and address the hypocrisy at the time was Sor Juana, a Mexican nun.

Kuraka

Definition: The indigenous leader of the Inca responsible for overseeing community disputes and overall order. He had an elevated status and was not required to work in the fields like others were. Context: Kurakas were the indigenous leaders of various Andean groups. They represented a loose form of local government for Andean communities and villages (comparable to a modern day mayor or magistrate). Structure: Andean communities were based on a system rooted in reciprocity, which was essential to survive. Though kurakas did not labor like the rest of the community, their oversight and stewardship of the group was considered their contribution - and a valuable one at that. Meaning: The presence of kurakas in Andean societies shows not only an understanding and social acknowledgement of hierarchical structure, but also the existence of local governance and a cultural consciousness about the privileges and obligations of people from each social tier. Conflict: When the Inca empire was established, the Incan governing power used kurakas as a means to impose their authority upon these smaller, scattered communities. The kurakas represented their tribes, but also operated under the Inca nobility who ran the government, which caused a conflict of interests of kurakas wanting what's best for their community but having to submit to the power and authority of Incan law and decree despite what negative consequences it might mean for their people. The regular men and women of the tribe may have resented their cooperation regarding labor drafts for huge, labor intensive, Incan building projects.

Atahualpa

Definition: The last sovereign emperor of the Inca Empire before Pizarro's conquest. Context: The imperialistic nature of the Inca Empire required one supreme ruler and an elite class of people to determine this ruler. Atahualpa's father, Huayna Capac, died of smallpox at the eve of the Spanish military invasion and destruction of the Inca empire. There was a then power struggle between Atahualpa and his older half-brother, Huascar, at the worst time possible. Structure: The ruling system of the Inca empire was not unlike that of much of the world at the time. The ruler was believed to be divine and above other human beings, much like the concept of "divine right" used in Europe to justify a king's reign. There was a rigid and well established hierarchy as well, with the higher social tiers holding significant privileges and status over the common folk. Meaning: This internal division gave the Spanish room to capitalize on the lack of stability within the empire at the time and succeed in conquering the Inca. Had the Inca been cohesive and united at the time of the Spanish conquest, they might have been able to put up a longer and more impactful fight against the Spanish. After all, they did out number the Spanish by a huge proportion. Conflict: To obtain the position of Sapa Inca, Atahualpa had to defeat and execute his older half-brother, Huascar. Shortly after emerging as victor in the civil war, the Spanish commenced their toppling of Atahualpa's empire.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Definition: Treaty instilled by the pope that divided the new world between the Spanish and the Portuguese. Context: The Treaty, brokered by the Papacy in 1494, resulted in a longitudinal divide of lands outside Europe between the Portuguese and Spanish empires, both of whom were exploring new territories in hopes of finding new sea routes to the "Indies". The western portion was given to Spain, the east was given to Portugal. Structure: Underscored the hegemonic power of the Roman Catholic Church in diplomatic arbitration. Also highlighted the growing power of the Iberian states, Aragon and Castile, and Portugal. This also showed the disregard of Indigenous land rights and paved the way for continued European domination of the New World, in terms of land, mineral, and agricultural wealth. The political-economic structure of the world favored European power and resulted in the loss of indigenous power in the Americas. Meaning: Seen as the emergence of Iberian domination for the next two centuries in exploration and conquest. Also seen as a confirmation of Papal power over European diplomacy; asserted church influence in exploration. Conflict: Territorial disputes over the conquest and exploration of new lands between the Portuguese and Spanish Kingdoms. European power over indigenous power and Roman Catholic Church over European nations.