Midterm

Huguenots

French Calvinists

Popolo grosso

"fat people", the newly rich merchant class, capitalists and bankers who challenged the old rich for political power

Popolo minuto

"little people", the lower economic classes

The Starry Messenger (1610) and Letters on Sunspots (1613)

Galileo used his rhetorical skills to argue that his newly observed physically evidence, particularly in the phases of Venus, required a heliocentric model of the heavens (solar system)

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)

-"every one calls barbarity to that which he is not accustomed to" -questions religious authority

Johann Tetzel

-1465 to 1519 -Dominican priest -was authorized by Pope Leo X and Archbishop of Maitiaz to sell indulgences, the proceeds of which would be used to rebuild St. Peter's Church in Rome and to provide funds to local dioceses -says that you can buy indulgences for anyone dead or alive -a coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory

Martin Luther

-1483 to 1546 -A Roman Catholic priest, Augustinian monk and theologian at the University of Wittenberg in Germany, condemned these sales as impious expediencies. Tormented by obsessions of his own damnation despite a life dedicated to holy service, he came to believe that the traditional means of attaining salvation (good works, such as the sacraments, prayer, and fasting) were inadequate. the supposedly nailed his 95 These to the door of the Wittenberg church

Ulrich Zwingli

-1484 to 1531 -established Protestantism in Switzerland -had been humanistically educated -credited Erasmus over Luther for setting him on his path of reform -known for his opposition to the sale of indulgences and to religious superstition -petitioned for an end to clerical celibacy and for the right of clergy legally to marry -agree with all of Luther's reforms except for the Nature of the Eucharist -believes that the Eucharist is a symbol of one's faith and that it is simply just bread and wine

Thomas Cromwell

-1485 to 1540 -devout Protestant -leads Henry to check out the Protestant Reformation -loses power and influence after Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves

Ignatius of Loyola

-1491 to 1556 -began spiritual pilgrimage in 1521 after he had been seriously wounded in a battle with France -would serve the church as a soldier of Christ -created the Society of Jesuits and wrote Spiritual Exercises

Menno Simons

-1496 to 1561 -founder of the Mennonites who set an example of non provocative separatist Anabaptism

Heinrich Bullinger

-1504 to 1575 -Zwingli's protege and later son-in-law, became new leader of Swiss Reformation and guided its development into an established religion

John Calvin

-1509 to 1564 -publishes his "Institutes of the Christin Religion" in Swiss city of Basel. -accepted most of Luther's ideas but differed on the role of the state in Church affairs

Michael Servetus

-1511-1553 -Spanish physician and amateur theologian -condemned by Inquisition for heresy -executed in Protestant Geneva in 1553 for denying the doctrine of the Holy Trinity

Spiritual Exercises

-1524 -written by Ignatius of Loyola -a set of exercises for one to become more religious and spiritual

Diet of Speyer

-1526 -each German territory was free to enforce the Edict of Worms (1521) against Luther

Reformation Parliament

-1529 to 1536 -Parliament met for a seven year session that passed a flood of legislation that harassed and finally placed royal reins on the clergy. -established a system where when fundamental changes are made in religion, the monarch must consult with and work through Parliament. -published official grievances against the church -passed submission of the clergy placing canon law under royal control

Schmaldkaldic League

-1530 -consists of Protestant Princes -made to defend themselves against Charles V -would gain support financially and militarily from Francis I

Act of Supremacy

-1534 -ends all payments to Rome from the English clergy and laity -declared Henry "the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England"

Act of Succession

-1534 -made Anne Boleyn and Henry's children legitimate heirs to the throne

Munster Rebellion

-1535 -lead by John of Leiden -they overthrow the Munster government -this makes Anabaptists universally despised by Christian sects -rebellion would eventually be crushed

Council of Trent

-1545 to 1563 -three sessions over the span of 18 years -Pope Paul III issues a meeting of every member of the clergy and high ranking bishop in the whole world to respond to the challenge of Protestantism by defining Catholic dogma 1. Salvation is both good works (such as the veneration of saints and fasts) and grace 2. The seven sacraments are valid and transubstantiation is reaffirmed 3. The sources of religious authority are the Bible, the traditions of the Church, and the writings of the Church Fathers. Individuals cannot interpret the Bible without the guidance of the Church, and the only valid version of the Bible is the Vulgate, St. Jerome's Latin translation 4. Monasticism, with celibacy of the clergy, and the existence of purgatory are reaffirmed 5. Attempts were made to reform abuses: the principle of indulgences is upheld while its seminaries are established in each diocese for the training of priests.

Schmalkaldic War

-1546 to 1547 -Charles V allied with Muslim King Suleimann therefore did not need support from the German Protestant Princes (Schmalkaldic League) anymore -War with France ended giving Charles the time to focus on stopping the spread of the Protestant Reformation -Charles V goes to war against the Schmalkaldic League -Schmalkaldic League loses

Edward VI of England

-1547 to 1553 -became King when he was ten years old -influenced by Thomas Cranmer -institutes major changes to the Church in 1553

Schmalkaldic vs Charles V part 2

-1552 Charles V's forces go to war again with the Schmalkaldic League (with aid from Henry II of France) -Schmalkaldic League wins and Charles realizes that he cannot stop the Protestants

Scientific Revolution

-16th to 17th Century intellectual movement that challenges the way humans view the natural world -was not a rapid movement for it took the brilliant minds of dislocated scientists in laboratories in Poland, Italy, Denmark, Bohemia, France, and Great Britain -science became the paramount subject of central authority in the western world

Enlightenment

-17th to 18th century intellectual movement that questioned the nature of government, emphasizing reason and common sense over tradition -profound time of optimism -it first occurs in Great Britain, it then spreads to France -contemporary western political and economic thought is a product of this thinking -it was inspired by the scientific revolution -was prepared to challenge intellectual and theological authority -goal was to achieve material and moral improvement, economic growth, and administrative reform -advocated agricultural improvement, commercial society, expanding consumption, and the application of innovative rational methods to traditional social and economic practices -characterized modern Europe and Western society -politically had a direct impact on some rulers in eastern and central Europe

Albrecht of Wallenstein (1583-1634)

-A Protestant mercenary who was a brilliant and ruthless military strategist -hired by Ferdinand II with permission to pillage any town he invades -By 1628, he commanded a crack army of more than 100,000 men and also became a law unto himself, completely outside the emperor's control

Petition of Right (1628)

-A document drawn up by Parliament that requires no forced loans or taxes without Parliament's consent and that no freeman should be imprisoned without due cause (habeas corpus), and troops should not be quartered in private homes -Charles agrees to sign this because he needs the funds, but has no intention of following through with the document -Parliament becomes angry that he does not follow this

Babington Plot

-A man named Anthony Babington was caught seeking Spanish support for an attempt on the queen's (Elizabeth) life -Mary Queen of Scots was involved in the plot

Major Themes of the Age of Absolutism

-Absolutism in France -Constitutionalism in England -Autocracy in Russia

Battle of Lutzen (1632)

-Adolphus' troops win again against Wallenstein -Adolphus dies in batte -Ferdinand orders for the assassination of Wallenstein because of his independence and contemplating disloyalty to Ferdinand

The Case of Peter's Son Aleksei

-Aleksei had been born to Peter's first wife whom he divorced in 1698 -Aleksei in 1716 went to Vienna to meet with Charles VI, the Habsburg emperor to discuss a plot to overthrow Peter -Peter's informants found out about the plan -Peter would personally carry out an interrogation of Aleksei in 1718 -On June 26, 1718, Aleksei died under mysterious circumstances

Charles I and Parliament

-Although pressure from Parliament led England into war with Spain, its members refused to allow Charles to raise taxes to finance the war -Charles I resorted to extra-parliamentary measures which included levying new tariffs and duties, adding a tax on property owners -Parliament met in 1623 and agreed to grant new funds to Charles I only if he signed the Petition of Right, which he agreed to, but would dissolve Parliament the next year -Charles I would not call Parliament again until 1640

Spain's Inflation

-Because there was a great amount of wealth in Spain due to the Spanish colonies in the New World, there was an inflation -the gap between the haves and the have-nots widened -The Castilian peasantry became the most heavily taxed people of Europe

The Major Themes of the Age of Religious Wars

-Calvinists vs Catholics -Political agendas increase tension -politiques vs religious rulers

Short Parliament (1640)

-Charles I calls Parliament to ask for revenues for war against the Scots -Parliament refuses to consider funds for war until Charles agrees to redress a long list of political and religious grievances -In response to the list, Charles immediately disbands Parliament

Treasury of Merit

-Church says that you need merit to get into Heaven -since there is extra merit, God puts all of it into a Jar and that the indulgences are the transfer of funds from Jesus to you -Martin Luther says that this is not true

Columbus' Voyage

-Columbus landed in San Salvador in the eastern Bahamas on October 12, 1492 after a 33 day voyage thinking that he landed on an outer island of Japan -it was not until the 3rd voyage to the Caribbean in 1498 that he realized that Cuba was no Japan and that South America was not China -Columbus believed that he had landed on the East Indies so he called the natives, Indians -Columbus was amazed by the natives generosity for they gave his men all the corn, yams, and sexual desires they desired -he noticed how easily the Spanish could enslave the natives because they never said no -Columbus' discoveries led to the beginning of a Spanish empire in the Americas -The Spanish would win a series of wars of conquest and missionary efforts against the native Americans -Gold and silver from Spain's colonies in America led to a period of economic expansion in Europe and it also financed Spain's wars of religion later on -the American Indian population would be devastated by the epidemics of measles and smallpox that Europeans carried with them -Europeans would return to Europe with a deadly form of syphilis -Spanish conquest left an imprint of Roman Catholicism, economic dependency, and hierarchical social structure in the Americas

Puritan Interregnum (1649-1660)

-Cromwell rules as a religious military dictator -England became a Puritan republic -Cromwell's army brutally conquered Scotland and Ireland and persecuted Irish Catholics about 1/3 of Irish Population -When the House of Commons suggested to Cromwell that he should disband his army of 50,000 men because it was too expensive to maintain, he disbanded Parliament and named himself Lord Protector of England -The people of England hated the strict Puritan regulations against drunkenness, theatergoing, and dancing -When Cromwell dies in 1658, people of England restore Anglicanism and the monarchy

Oprichniki

-Czar's secret police also known as terror squad -used to arrest and imprison boyars who opposed Ivan's absolutist drive

Divine Comedy

-Dante's greatest work -was composed of 100 individual poems and written in the vernacular -it is an elaborate allegory where each character and event could be understood on 2 or more levels -guides readers through the afterworlds: hell (inferno), purgatory, and heaven (paradise) showing every Christian's struggle to overcome a flawed human nature and to ward off worldly sin

Cartesian Circle

-Descartes proves God's existence through this -the mind is divine, so it cannot be wrong -something imperfect can never give birth to something perfect -God has to exist because our ability to reason is perfect and only something perfect can create something perfect

Discourse on Method (1637)

-Descartes states that he would doubt everything except those propositions about which he could have clear and distinct ideas -his approach rejects all forms of intellectual authority except the conviction of his own reason -deduced the existence of God and since God was not deceiver, the ideas of God-given reason could not be false -concludes that human reason could fully comprehend the world

Perpetual Edict (1577)

-Don Jon, the victor over the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, signed the edict after defeat against Netherlands -edict provided for the removal of all Spanish troops from the Netherlands within 20 days -the withdrawal gave the country to William of Orange and effectively ended, for the time being, whatever plans Philip may have had for using Netherlands as a staging area for an invasion of England

Louis XI (1461-1483)

-During his reign, the English Empire in France ended when the English were slowly, but steadily forced out of France during the Hundred Years' War -France also gains land and their biggest rival gets eliminated during his reign when Charles the Bold dies in 1477 without an heir -Burgundy gets divided between him and Habsburg emperor Maximilian I -by the end of his reign, he nearly doubled the land holdings that he inherited when he came into power -he successfully harnessed the nobility, expanded the trade and industry that Jacques Coeur built, created a national postal system, and established a profitable silk industry -he built a strong nation, however his successors made poor foreign policy decisions and France would suffer from losing conquests in Italy in the 1490s and losing a series of wars with the Habsburgs in the first half of the 16th century

William of Nassau, Prince of Orange (1553-1584)

-Dutch Protestant noble -placed the political autonomy and well-being of Netherlands above religious creeds -people recognized him as a stadholder (governor)

Elizabeth's Conflict with Spain

-Elizabeth resisted marriage to Philip II -there was tension between England and Spain over religion and politics, but both Elizabeth and Philip wanted to avoid confrontation -In 1567, the Spanish duke of Alba marched his mighty army into the Netherlands, which from England's point of view made for a convent staging area for a Spanish invasion of England -In 1570s, Elizabeth's famous seamen John Hawkins (1532-1595) and Sir Francis Drake (1545-1596) began to prey regularly on Spanish shipping in the Americas -Elizabeth's execution of Mary Queen of Scots was the last straw for Philip II and he sent his Spanish Armada to England

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

-English political philosopher -traveled to Paris were he studied alongside Descartes -traveled to Italy where he exchanged ideas with Galileo -his first publication was a translation of the Thucydides' classic History of the Peloponesian War from which he developed a dark view of human nature -believes humans are inheritantly bad because we are a self-interested animal as well as the fact that we are born free and equal and we all have the same needs and desires -believes that we are driven by 2 measures which are things that cause pleasure (food, shelter, water) and move from things that cause pain (starvation) -wrote Leviathan (1651) and The Social Contract -"The condition of man (in the State of Nature) is a condition of war of everyone against everyone. The life of man is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." meaning that we are constantly going to kill each other given our equality and our appetite

Bubonic Plague (1346-1353)

-Europe's population doubled from the years 1000 to 1300 and the population growth strained the food supply and led to high unemployment rates and low wages -crop failures between 1315 and 1317 led to the greatest famine of the Middle Ages -the average European could possibly face the probability of extreme hunger at least once in their lives -it was called the "Black Death" for it referenced the discoloration of the patients -it traveled through fleas on rats on trade routes from Asia to Europe -led to the lost in faith in the Church -left 2/5 of Europe population dead -affected commercialism (demand for material goods) leading to the Renaissance

Islam and European Universities

-European universities did provide professorships to study Arabic during the 17th century, however these university scholars generally agreed with theological critics that Islam embodied religion fanaticism -well-informed works based on knowledge of Arabic and Islamic sources such as Barthélemy d'Herbelot's Bibliothèque orientale [Oriental Library], which was a reference book published in 1697, and George Sale's introduction too the first full English translation of the Qur'an in 1734 were still very hostile to the subject of Islam -these books remained influential well into the 19th century

The League of Venice

-Ferdinand of Aragon, who was hoping to gain land in Italy from a base he had established in Sicily, established this league with the Papal States, and Emperor Maximilian I -this would set the stage for a bitter rivalry between France and Spain -Ludovico joins because he realized that he made a fatal mistake by inviting the French into Italy -they become strong enough to force Charles out of Italy

James II (1685-1688)

-Final Stuart ruler -a devout Catholic -immediately demanded the repeal of the Test Act -imprisoned 7 Anglican bishops for refusing to publicize his suspension of laws against Catholics -people of England wanted him to be succeeded by his Protestant daughter, Mary (wife of William III of Orange -those who opposed him in Parliament invited William to invade England to preserve its "traditional liberties" of Anglicanism and parliamentary government

Robert Walpole (1676-1745)

-First English Prime Minister -supported by George I and experienced great success from 1721 to 1742 -maintained peace abroad and expanded Great Britain's commercial interest from New England to India -his policies encouraged nobles and other landowners to serve as local government administrators, judges, military commanders, and to collecting pay taxes to support a strong navy for Great Britain's protection

The Great Northern War (1700-1721)

-Following the Thirty Years' War, Sweden consolidated its power in the Black Sea which prevented Russia from having a port on it -Meanwhile Peter had been relentlessly building up his navy and army and Peter wanted a warm-water port (closest one is in Sweden) -Russia vs Sweden -Sweden was led by Charles XII, who was known for being a great military leader and had a fiercely loyal army -Sweden won many early battles -Battle of Narva and Battle of Poltava -war ends in 1721 with the Peace of Nystad

War of the League of Cambrai

-France invaded Italy a third time under Louis' successor, Francis I -The French armies massacred Swiss soldiers of the Holy League at Marignano in September 1515 -Concordat of Bologna

Peace of Utrecht (1713-1714)

-France makes peace with England in July 1713 and then with Holland and the emperor at Rastatt in March 1714 -stated that France and Spain had to remain separate states and powers -Philip V remained King of Spain but renounced his place in line to the throne in France preventing the union of the two major powers -England was given control of Gibraltar and the island of Minorca -Louis recognized the right of the House of Hanover to the English throne

War of Devolution (1667-1668)

-France vs Spain over the Netherlands -fought by Louis in order to support his first wife, Marie Therese to inherit the Spanish Netherlands -Louis' armies invaded Flanders and the French-Comte and faced stiff opposition from an alliance of England,Sweden, and the United Provinces of the Netherlands -ends with Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

Massacre of Vassy (1562)

-Francis of Guise violates the January Edict -surprised Huguenot congregation at Vassy in Champagne and massacred many worshippers -marked the beginning of the French wars of religion

3 Major Works of Resistance Theory

-Franco-Gallia by Francis Hotman -On the Right of Magistrates over their Subjects by Theodore Beza -Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants by Philippe du Pleases Mornay

Partition of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795)

-Fredrick the Great of Prussia made a proposal to Russia and Austria in an effort to prevent war among the major powers while also granting them each something they wanted and saving their appearances as major powers -Russia agreed to abandon the conquered Danubia provinces and in return they would receive a large portion of Poland -Because Prussia agreed to remain neutral in the growing hostilities, it received most of the territory between East Prussia and Prussia proper allowing Fredrick to unite the two separate sections of his kingdom -Austria took Galicia in southern Poland with its important salt mines -this split Poland into 3 partitions throughout three separate years

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

-French mathematician and physical scientist -rendered his wealth to pursue an austere, self-disciplined life -made one of the most influential efforts to reconcile faith and the new science -allied himself with the Jansenists who were the opponents of the Jesuits -aspired to write a work that would refute dogmatism and skepticism -rejected the skeptics of his age because they either denied religion altogether (atheists) or accepted it only as it conformed to reason (deist) -believed that atheists and deists of his day placed too much emphasis on reason which was too weak to resolve the problems of human nature -he never produced a definite refutation of the two sides -he formulated his views on these matters in piecemeal fashion in a provocative collection of reflections on humankind and religion in a published posthumously called Pensées (Thoughts) -believed that in religious matters only the reasons of the heart and a "leap of faith" could prevail -believed there to be two Christian truths: a loving God exists and that because human beings are corrupted by nature, they are utterly unworthy of God -he engaged in a famous bet with skeptics to whom he insisted that it is a better bet to believe God exists and to stake everything on his promised mercy than not to do so

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632)

-Galileo presents the two ideas (heliocentric and geocentric) in the form of a dialogue -this book was clearly designed todefeni the physical truthfulness of Copernicanism -the character that advocates for the heliocentric model is named Galileo -the character that advocates for the geocentric model is named Simplicio, which appeared slow-witted -this puts him on trial, house arrest, as well as subjects him to the inquisition because Pope Urban VIII found it insulting

Maria Cunitz

-German female astronomer -from the artisan class and took over her husband's shop, which produced equipment for astronomy -published a book on astronomy that many people thought her husband had written until he added a preface supporting her sole authorship

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

-German philosopher -he valued the essential ideals of the Enlightenment -In his essay, What is Enlightenment? (1784) he argued that the Enlightenment marked a new way of thinking and eloquently affirmed the Enlightenment's confidence in and commitment to reason -wrote Metaphysical Foundations of Morals in 1785 in which he set forth the categorical imperative that remains a crucial principle in moral philosophy -he believed that people should think about whether they would want the moral principle underlying their action to be elevated to a universal law that would govern others in similar circumstances -wrote Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone in 1793 -he criticized European empires across the world by attacking the European perspective that the lands that have been conquered belonged to no one because they counted the native inhabitants as nothing -he also disagreed with the dehumanization efforts of the colonial powers

Effects of the Thirty Years War

-Germanic states were devastated, population was reduced in some parts -the age of religious wars ended, the modern age of sovereign states began in Europe -The Habsburgs were weakened -The Counter-Reformation was slowed and Protestantism was firmly established in its European strongholds -The Holy Roman Empire ceased to be a viable political structure and the Germanic states would not be unified again until 1871 -Calvinism gained acceptance throughout Protestant Europe -Anabaptists were persecuted and disappeared as a religion -Bourbon France would become the dominant political power in Europe -Militarism will define German culture and politics

Antitrinitarians

-Group of radical protestants -they say that the Holy Trinity (God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit) does not exist because it is not in the Bible

Swedish Phase (1630-1635)

-Gustavus Adolphus led the Protestants in Sweden -Adolphus and his troops invade the HRE with the funding of France (Cardinal Richelieu) and support from the Dutch -Battle of Breitenfeld in 1630 -Battle of Lutzen 1632 -Peace of Prague in 1635 -Swedes won

War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

-Habsburg King Charles II dies without an heir, but left his entire inheritance to Louis' grandson Philip of Anjou -Philip of Anjou became Philip V of Spain causing people to think France is too powerful -France, Spain, Bavaria vs Great Britain, HRE, Portugal, Dutch, and Savoy -France entered this war poorly equipped and without adequate finances or skilled generals -England had advanced weapons such as flintlock rifles, paper cartridges, and ring bayonets -England also had superior tactics like thin, maneuverable troop columns rather than tradition deep ones -Duke of Marlborough defeated Louis' soldiers at every major battle -the most devastating war -ends with Peace of Utrecht

Problems with Peter's Succession

-He and his half brother, Ivan V, were appointed co-rulers of Russia and were supported by the streltsy who expected to be rewarded for their support -Sophia, sister of Ivan and Peter, was named regent temporarily -Because Peter is very ambitious and always wants to learn, Sophia tries to overthrow Peter using the streltsy, but fails -Peter's army defeated the streltsy and he placed Sophia in a convent

Sebastian Castillo (1515-1563)

-He disapproved of John Calvin after he executed the Anti-Trinitarian physician Michael Servetus -says "To kill a man is not to defend a doctrine, but to kill a man"

Day of the Barricades

-Henry III attempted to rout the Catholic League with a surprise attack in 1588 but failed and was forced to flee Paris -Henry III had both the duke of Guise assassinated -As a result, Henry III was forced to strike an alliance with Protestant Henry of Navarre

Court of Star Chambers (1487)

-Henry VII creates this with the sanction of Parliament -it was intended to end the corruption of English justice where powerful nobles used intimidation and bribery to win favorable verdicts in court cases -it took away the power of administering justice from nobles and placed it firmly in the hands of the royal courts so that nobles were no longer able to use their old tricks to promote their interests -the result was a more just court system

Catherine of Aragon

-Henry VIII's first wife -she was first married to Henry's brother who had died -They had to get special permission from the Pope to annul Catherine's first marriage -She can only give Henry a daughter (Mary I), so he goes to the Pope to get his marriage annulled, but he refuses because she is related to Charles V and he is scared of him

Jane Seymour

-Henry VIII's third wife -gave Henry his only son (Edward VI) -she dies in childbirth

Anne Boleyn

-Henry's second wife -married Henry after he annulled marriage to Catherine -can only give birth to a daughter (Elizabeth I) -Henry wants to annul his marriage to her, but she refuses -Henry accuses her of alleged treason and adultery

Key to Dutch Success

-High urban population and consolidation, transformed agriculture, extensive trade and finance, and an overseas commercial empire in Netherlands -Windmill building makes them successful -focused on commerce and trade after 30 Years' War -grew tulips as their cash crop -Dutch fishermen caught and sold herring and dominated the dried fish market in Europe. -Dutch manufacturers supplied textiles to the people throughout Europe -oversea trade and shipbuilding -dominated in production of spices

Hobbes' Social Contract

-Hobbes contends that only a sovereign commonwealth established by a contract between the ruler and the ruled could enable human beings to meet their needs by limiting the free exercise of the natural human pursuit of self-interest with all its potential conflict -rejected the idea that human beings are naturally sociable but rather self-centered creatures -believed that in the state of nature humans live in constant conflict and fear of destruction and death -believes human beings are naturally willing to give up their natural rights for the comfort and protection provided by a strong central ruler and so that order can be established and progress can be made -this cannot be broken because people surrender all of their rights therefore they cannot do anything; this contract wants order and an absolute ruler will always want order as well

Factors that induced change

-Humanism in the Renaissance -The Age of Exploration -People challenging the Church laws and teachings -The Protestant Reformation

Protestant Resistance Theory

-In 1550 Lutherans in Magdeburg published an influential defense of the right of lower authorities to oppose the emperor's order that all Lutherans return to the Catholic fold -Scottish reformer wrote First Blast of the Trumpet against the Terrible Regiment of Women (1558) declaring that removal of a tyrant was a Christian duty

Bishops' War (1639-1640)

-In 1637, Charles I, with the help of Archbishop William Laud attempts to impose the Anglican Church beliefs and episcopal system on Presbyterian Scotland in order to establish religious uniformity -Scots rebelled and invade England -Charles does not have money, so he is forced to call Parliament in 1640 in order to raise money to suppress the rebellion, calls Parliament again for a long session when the Scots beat the English at the Battle of Newburn in the summer of 1640

Slavery in the Renaissance

-In Italy, slavery developed in the 12th century when the Spanish sold Muslims that they captured in raids and wars to wealthy Italians and other buyers -they were used as domestic slaves and were put to work on plantations in the savanna's of the Sudan and the Venetian estates on the islands of Cyprus and Crete where sugarcane was grown -the number of slaves increased in Italy during a major labor shortage caused by the Black Plague

English Civil War (1642-1646)

-In January 1642, Charles I invaded Parliament intending to arrest some of his opponents, but they escaped -Charles leaves London to raise an army to suppress the rebellious members of Parliament -The House of Commons passed the Militia Ordinance which gave Parliament the authority to raise an army of its own -Cavaliers (Charles supporters) vs Roundheads (supporter of Parliament) -Puritan member of Parliament, Oliver Cromwell trains a very disciplined army called New Model Army -Charles loses

Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755)

-In this writing Rousseau blamed much evil in the world on the uneven distribution of property -he raised the more fundamental question of what constitutes the good life rather than other philosophe beliefs that the human condition could improve itself from using the fruits of the earth to produce more goods -argued that human beings in a primeval state of nature had been good, but that as they eventually formed social relations and then social institutions, they lost that goodness -believed that society was the source of human evil and that one manifestation of that unnatural evil was unequal distribution of property

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

-Italian mathematician -discovers the law of the pendulum -in 1609 he used a telescope to observe the heavens -he saw stars where none had been before, mountains on the moon, spots moving across the sun, and moons orbiting Jupiter -by finding sun spots using a special filter on the telescope, he proves that the sun does not have a uniform color therefore it is not perfect -visually proves the heliocentric model by finding that the Earth is not the only planet that has a moon -publishes The Starry Messenger in 1610 and Letters on Sunspots in 1613 -his career illustrates the forging of the new science involved more than just presenting arguments and evidence -In 1610 he left the University of Padua for Florence and became the philosopher and mathematician for the Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany -he became dependent on princely patronage because he was pursuing natural philosophy in a princely court, so to win support for his works and theories, he named the moons of Jupiter after the Medici -became a high-profile advocate of Copernicanism -had problems with the Roman Catholic Church because of his ideas and his flair for self-advertisement -popularized the Copernican system and articulated the concept of a universe subject to mathematical laws -believed that the heavens conformed to mathematical regularity -Pope Urban VIII is a fan of his work, but tells him to publish the merits of both the geocentric and heliocentric models -he publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in 1632 -gets put on trial in 1633

Italian City States

-Italy was comprised of 5 rival states: Venice, Florence, Rome, Milan, and Naples -Italian merchants mastered the organizational skills that were needed for trade such as accounting, finding new markets, and banking in the 11th century -these trade-rich cities became powerful city-states that dominated the political and economic life of the countryside -these city states would become competitive with each other militarily, economically, culturally, etc.) -they each strived to be better, smarter, and more creative than each other, which sparked nationalism -competition created a demand for art, literature, and commerce -Rome, Florence, Milan, and Naples would adopt despotism and Venice would rule as an oligarchy

John Law and the Mississippi Bubble

-Law set up a national bank in Paris and printed money in order to increase the amount in circulation and to stimulate the economy -He organized a monopoly called the Mississippi Company on trading privileges with the French colony of Louisiana -The Mississippi Company took over the management of France's debt and issued shares of its own stock in exchange for government bonds, which had fallen sharply in value -The stocks soared in value and investors sold them for paper money to exchange for gold, however the French bank did not have enough gold to pay them -Law was forced to flee France

Second Treatise of Government (1689)

-Locke advocated for a government that must be responsible for and responsive to the concerns of the governed -regarded humans in the state of nature as creatures of reason and basic goodwill -believes human beings have natural rights (life, liberty, and property)

Letters Concerning Toleration (1689)

-Locke advocated for extensive religious toleration among Christians to prevent the chaos caused religious struggles throughout the century -believed that religious salvation was an individual endeavor not to be mandated by the state -he did not believe toleration should be extended to Roman Catholics whom he believed to have pledged allegiance to a foreign prince (the papacy)

Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678)

-Louis invaded the Netherlands again and faced a coalition of Netherlands, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Lorraine, and Brandenburg -Louis is now regarded as a menace to the whole of Western Europe -ends with Peace of Nijmwegen

Montesquieu's views on women

-Montesquieu believed that the status of women in society was the result of climate, the political regime, culture, and women's physiology -he did not believe in the idea that women were naturally inferior to men -he indicated a belief in the equality of the sexes, however he still retained the traditional view of marriage and family -he also expected men to dominate institutions that a man would traditionally dominate

Pillars of Spanish Power

-New World Riches: regular arrival in Seville of bullion (gold) from the Spanish colonies in the New World helped pay the king's bankers and mercenaries -Increased Population: As Europe became richer from New World exploits, the population increased rapidly -Efficient Bureaucracy and Military: Phillip II ruled by the pen rather than by personal presence and he organized the lesser nobility into a complex bureaucracy -Supremacy in the Mediterranean: first half of Phillip's reign focused his attention on the Turkish threat and in May 1571, Don John's fleet engaged the Turks and sunk or captured over one third of their fleet and nearly 30,000 Turks had died

Ideas of Newton and Locke

-Newtonian physics characterizes the natural world as a pattern of mathematical and mechanical rationality inspiring thinkers to believe that if nature was rational, society should be organized rationally as well -Newton also insisted on using empirical experience to check rational speculation -Locke believed in the idea that humans enter the world with a Tabula Rasa thus experience and only experience shapes character implying that human nature can be changed and modified by changing the surrounding environment -Locke's psychology rejected the Christian doctrine stating that sin permanently flawed human beings and that humans did not need to wait for God or other divine aid to better their lives because they control their own destiny

Affair du Placards

-October 18,1534 -When Protestants plastered Paris and other cities with anti-Catholic placards -mass arrests of suspected Protestants followed -it was the second major crackdown of Huguenots in France

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)

-On August 24, 1572, Coligny and 3,000 fellow Huguenots were butchered in Paris -Coordinated attacks would occur across France and over the course of 3 days would kill about 20,000 Huguenots including Huguenot leader, Coligny -The Protestant factions that are left would declare war on the royal family and the Guises -initiated War of Three Henrys

Persecution of Boyars

-Oprinchnina killed hundreds of boyars -boyar families relocated -Ivan IV consolidated his power and established bureaucracy

Pride's Purge

-Parliament is split on deciding what to do with Charles I (execute him or not) -Parliament decides not to fund the New Model Army -Cromwell removes the members of Parliament who are against him

Test Act (1672)

-Parliament passed this measure to exclude Roman Catholics from public service -did this to prevent the ascension of James, duke of York and brother of Charles II, to the throne because he was a Catholic

Grand Embassy (1697)

-Peter was the first czar to travel to Western Europe -he travels to inspect shipyards, docks, and warehouses where weapons were produced -In England, he learns about army and naval strategy -In Netherlands he learns how to expand wealth through trade -Also apprentices himself to a dutch shipbuilder -In Sweden he learns about military -He recruits craftsmen foreigners to teach Russians -Peter realizes that Russia needs to change -Peter wants to build a navy after trip -Streltsy rebellion cuts Peter's trip short

St. Petersburg

-Peter's window to the west and his Versailles -built during the Great Northern War -became the new capital of Russia -built on the Gold of Finland where Peter built structures for government affairs and encouraged the boyars to construct townhouses -symbolized a new western orientation for Russia and Peter's determination to hold his possession of the Baltic coast

Duke of Alba

-Philip II dispatched him to suppress the revolt -established the Council of Troubles/Blood -killed many Dutch Protestants -forced the Dutch to pay heavy taxes -During his six-year rule, tens of thousands fled from the Netherlands because of persecution and taxation -considered a man more hated than Granvelle or the radical Calvinist had ever been

Don Jon of Austria

-Philip's half brother -suppressed and dispersed the Moors in Granada -commanded a Holy League of Spain to check the Turkish threat

King John III Sobeiski

-Polish King -leads Polish army into Vienna to rescue it from Turkish siege -after he dies, Poland falls apart

Moral decline

-Priests did not fully understand the Bible -leads up to insecurity of people worrying about how they are going to get to Heaven

Puritans

-Protestants working within the national church to purify it of every vestige of popery and to make Protestant doctrine more precise -had 2 problems with Elizabeth's reign 1. The retention of Catholic ceremony and vestments within the Church of England which made it appear to the casual observer that no Reformation had occurred 2. The continuation of the episcopal system of church governance, which conceived the English church to be theologically the true successor to Rome, while placing it politically under the firm hand of the queen and her compliant archbishop

Frederick (II) the Great of Prussia (1712-1786)

-Prussian king who had a militaristic upbringing -invaded Habsburg province, Silesia, which was owned by HRE Maria Theresa which violated the Pragmatic Sanction starting the Silesian Wars, which fostered the Austrian-Prussian rivalry for control of Germany that would dominate Central European affairs for more than a century -the best example of the embodiment of enlightened absolutism -he forged a state that commanded the loyalty of the military, the junker nobility, the Lutheran clergy, which was a growing bureaucracy recruited from an educated middle class, and the university professors -because the authority of the Prussian military and monarchy were so strong and the nobles, bureaucracy, clergy, and professors were so loyal, he was able to allow a more open discussion off Enlightenment ideas as well as put into effect more Enlightenment values like extensive religious toleration -declared himself "the first servant of the State" which implied that he works for the people -required nobles who sought positions in his well-paid bureaucracy to qualify for those jobs by merit -created Prussian Civil Service Commission -kept the Junkers satisfied by protecting their local social interests and leadership of the army -he participated in the culture of Enlightenment by allowing professors in Prussian universities to discuss new ideas and in return he received support and praise from them -he allowed Catholics and Jews to settle in his predominantly Lutheran country -he protected the Catholics living in Silesia after he conquered the province from the Habsburgs -also stated that he would be willing to build mosques for Turks if they moved to Prussia -his amount of religious tolerance won the support of philosophes such as Immanuel Kant and Moses Mendelssohn -despite his religious tolerance, he tended to appoint Protestants to most key positions in the bureaucracy and army -he ordered a new codification of Prussian law in order to rationalize the existing legal system and make it more efficient, eliminate regional peculiarities, reduce aristocratic influence, abolish torture, and limit the number of capital crimes -he made economic reforms which included importing workers from outside of Prussia, draining swamps, introducing new crops such as potatoes and turnips, encouraging peasants to migrate to migrate where they were needed, and establishing a land-portage credit association in order to help landowners raise money for agricultural improvements

Junkers

-Prussian nobility -heavily represented in military

Ptolemaic System

-Ptolemy wrote the Almagest in 150 C.E. -believed that above the Earth laid a series of concentric spheres (most likely fluid in character), one of the spheres contained the moon, another sphere contained the sun, and the other spheres contained the other planets and stars -believed that the planets moved uniformly about a small circle called an epicycle and the center of the epicycle moved about a larger circle called a deferent with the earth at or near its center -the circles in his system were not orbits, instead they were components of mathematical calculations that were meant to predict planetary positions

Causes of the Thirty Years War

-Religious division because Calvinism was not recognized in the Peace of Augsburg -Raison d'etat -France sought to limit the power of the Habsburgs who sought to extend power in Germany -Fragmented HRE -weak emperor -German princes sought autonomy from the HRE -Sweden and Denmark hoped to strengthen their hold over the Baltic region -HRE was wealthy -There was a distrust between Catholics and Protestants -Council of Trent

The Major Themes of the Renaissance

-Revitalization of Learning -Humanism and its Effects -Development of a European Spirit of Inquiry

The Church in Spanish America

-Roman Catholic priests accompanied the earliest explorers and the conquerors of the Native Americans -believed that they could foster Erasmus' concept of the "philosophy of Christ" in the New World -wanted to convert the inhabitants to Christianity and introduce them to European learning and civilization -by the end of 16th century, the church became an institution confirming the colonial status quo and it prospered as the Spanish elite prospered through exploiting the resources and people of the new World -became a great landowner in the new world because it was given large amounts of land from the crown

Emile (1762)

-Rousseau declared that men and women occupy separate spheres -believed that women should be educated for a position subordinate to men emphasizing the skills needed for rearing children and other domestic needs -believed that the world of citizenship, political action, and civic virtue was the man's sphere and he did not portray the domestic role of women as a noble virtue -believed that the way to educate children is through experiencing direct contact with the world in order to develop their ingenuity, resourcefulness, and imagination so that they might become productive and responsible citizens -believed that the only way children will learn is if they feel a need to learn and if they find enjoyment in learning

Russia vs Ottoman Empire

-Russia wanted another warm-water port which required warfare with the Ottoman Turks -in 1769, the Turks declared war on Russia in response to a minor Russian attack -during 1769 and 1770 the Russian naval fleet sailed from the baltic to the Mediterranean -Russia won several major victories and by 1771, Russia gained control of Ottoman provinces on the Danube River and the Crimean coast on the Black Sea -treaty that ended this conflict was the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji

Boyars

-Russian Nobility -aristocratic class -owed little to the Czar -despised Ivan IV -wore long coats with sleeves as long as the coat and had long beards to show off wealth

Theologico-Political Treatise (1670)

-Spinoza attacked the power of superstition in human life -encouraged historical readings of the Bible, for he believed that the Bible should be used as a source of Moral guidelines, not rational knowledge -taught that religious institutions of Christianity and Judaism led people away from the original teaching of scripture

Ethics

-Spinoza closely identified God and nature, a pantheistic idea that God is not a distinct personality, but rather present everywhere in nature -in this he believed in pantheism and monism

Major Themes of the Scientific Revolution

-Spirit of Inquiry (people have been questioning traditional theories and traditional authorities) -Emphasis on Rationalism -Reaction from Traditional Authorities

Swiss Civil Wars

-Swiss cantons divided themselves between Protestantism and Catholicism -2 major battles occurred both at Kappel, one in June 1529 and the other in October 1531 -Protestants won the first battle -Zwingli was killed in the second battle

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)

-Tensions between the Catholic majority (90%) and Protestants in France remained high in the years following the issuance of the Edict of Nantes in 1598 -Louis started a systematic eradication of Huguenots from public life by banning them from government office and excluded them from certain professions like printing and medicine -quartered troops in Huguenot towns -Protestant churches and schools were closed -Protestant ministers were exiled -Non-converting laity were condemned to be galley slaves -Protestant children were baptized by Catholic Priests

Spanish vs the Aztecs

-The Aztecs ruled almost all of central Mexico from their capital Tenochtitlan -they demanded heavy tribute in goods and labor from their subjects -believed that the gods must literally be fed with human blood in order to guarantee sunshine and fertility, therefore they took thousands of captives each year for human sacrifice -When Hernán Cortés (1485-1547) landed in Mexico in 1519 with about 500 men and a few horses, the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II believed that Cortés was the god, Quetzalcoatl -Moctezuma II attempted to please Cortés with gold -Cortés made alliances with both the Aztec's subject peoples and with the Aztec's enemy, Tlaxcala -Cortés marched into Tenochtitlan with his forces and the Tlaxcala where they killed most Aztecs and drove away the rest -The Spaniards were then driven out by the Aztecs, but then they returned and laid siege on Tenochtitlan and defeated the Aztecs -Cortés proclaimed the Aztec empire to be New Spain

Factors that fostered the ideas of the Enlightenment

-The Newtonian worldview -The political stability and commercial prosperity in Great Britain after 1688 -The need for administrative and economic reform after the wars of Louis XIV -the consolidation of what is known as a print culture -rise of public opinion

The Siege of Vienna (1683)

-The Ottoman Empire surrounds Vienna, which is the furthest the Ottomans ever get -King John III Sobeiski of Poland leads a Polish army to rescue Vienna from Turkish siege -Following this event, Poland became a symbol for the dangers of aristocratic independence

Traditional view of the universe

-There are 3 sources used to view the universe: Bible, Aristotle, and Ptolemy -Aristotle's theory which forms the backbone of the people's knowledge of the world: •Everything in Heaven has to be perfect and it cannot be changed and since God is in Heaven, he is perfect (the sun is also in Heaven) •Everything in the firmament is semi-perfect (Angels, Planets, and the stars) •Earth is semi-flawed •Everything in Hell is perfectly flawed •a circle is a perfect shape

Europeans and Islam

-There were Muslims in the Balkans in Eastern Europe -European merchants traded with the Ottoman Empire and parts of South Africa -Everything that Europeans knew about Islam they gathered from books -the religious works of Christian missionaries, histories, and the reports of travelers were often hostile toward Islam and was deeply misleading -Islam was viewed as a rival to Christianity -Pascal wrote Pensees where he portrayed Islam as a false religion and Muhammed as an imposter and false prophet -islamic culture was criticized for promiscuity for they described heaven as a place of sensuous delights -there were writers such as Barthelemy d'Herbelot and Simon Ockley who presented a hostile view toward Islam in their works -Voltaire expressed his opinions about Islam in his tragedy called Fanaticism, or Mohammed the Prophet (1742) -some enlightenment writers spoke favorably of the Islamic faith such as Deist John Toland, who opposed to prejudice against both Jews and Muslims and contended that Islam derived from early Christian writings and was thus a form of Christianity, however his views offended many and became known as a "Mohametan" Christian -Edward Gibbon was another enlightenment writer who spoke favorably of the Islamic faith by respectfully writing about Muhammad's leadership and Islam's success in conquering a vast amount of territory in the 1st century -Philosophes such as Montesquieu criticized Islam on cultural and political grounds

Union of Utrecht

-Union created by the northern provinces in response to the Union of Arras -would formally declare Philip no longer their ruler on July 22, 1581

Netherlands

-Union of Utrecht and Union of Arras splits country -became target because of how small and wealthy they were -northern provinces (Union of Utrecht) emerged as unified state in 17th Century -maintained a republican system of government in which each province maintained a certain degree of autonomy -official religion of the Netherlands was the Reformed Calvinist Church, but tolerated people of all faiths

Glorious Revolution (1688)

-William III of Orange arrived with his army in November 1688 -James has no army to fight -James forfeits his throne without a shed of blood and flees to France

Battle of White Mountain (1620)

-With the help of Maximillian's and the Spanish Habsburg's troops, Ferdinand II defeated the Bohemian Protestants -Would end the first phase of the thirty years war

Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474-1566)

-a Dominican who was the most effective and outspoken critic of Spanish Conquest for he claimed that conquest was not necessary for conversion -his campaign resulted in the new royal regulation to protect the Indians after 1550 and the emergence of the "Black Legend" which stated that Spanish treatment of the Native Americans was unprincipled and inhumane -A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies

Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768)

-a German archaeologist -published Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture and The History of Ancient Art (1764) -in both works he attacked the superficiality of Rococo art with the seriousness of ancient art and architecture -helped foster the rise of Neoclassicism with his books

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

-a Scottish economist and writer -he was a professor at the University of Glasgow -considered to be the father of modern capitalism -published Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)

Episcopacy

-a centralized system where there is a hierarchy and the Pope has central authority -ex: Anglican Church and Catholicism

War of the Roses (1455-1485)

-a civil war following the Hundred Years' War between two rival branches of the royal family, the House of York (white rose) and the House of Lancaster (red rose) -caused because of succession inconsistencies after the forced deposition of the erratic king Richard II -conflict first occurred when the duke of York and his supporters in the prosperous southern towns challenged Henry VI, the Lancastrian monarchy -Edward IV the son of the duke of York seized power in 1461 and ruled England for over 20 years, but his reign was briefly interrupted by Henry IV's short-lived restoration -Edward increased the power and finances of the monarchy -Richard III, Edward IV's brother seized power from Edward IV's son -the growth of support for the exiled Lancastrian Henry Tudor increased during Richard III's reign -In August 1485, Henry Tudor returned to England to defeat Richard III on Bosworth Field -After Richard III's death, he was portrayed by the Tudor dynasty and Shakespeare's Richard III, as a villain who killed Edward IV's son in the Tower of London in order to secure his hold on the throne -this war establishes the Tudor dynasty

Decameron

-a collection of 100 tales that are told by 3 men and 7 women documenting their escape from the plague in Florence in 1348 to a safe country retreat -it is also a social commentary about sexual and economic misconduct -it is a sympathetic look at human nature as well

Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)

-a country squire known for discipline and his devout Puritan beliefs -took charge of Roundhead army

Print Culture

-a culture in which books, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets had achieved a status of their own -it impacted Renaissance humanism and the Reformation -a lively world of publication emerged first in the 17th century -many governments implemented strict censorship rules against this

Presbyteries

-a decentralized system that includes no religious authority and everyone believes in the same thing -ex: Calvinist Churches

Encomienda

-a formal grant of the rights to the labor of a specific number of Indians for a designated period of time -would be replaced by the repartimiento

Ciompi Revolt (1378)

-a great uprising of the poor -caused by the feuding between the old and new rich, the social anarchy created when the Black Death cut Florences' population almost in half, and the collapse of the great banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi all of which made the life of the lower classes unbearable and more vulnerable -it established a chaotic 4 year reign of power by the lower Florentine classes and stability did not return to Florence until the rise of the Medici family In 1434

Militarism

-a hierarchal system that focuses on maintaining a strong military -Prussian culture associates with this

Titus Oates Scandal (1678)

-a known liar named Titus Oates claimed that Charles' Catholic wife was plotting with Jesuits and Irishmen to kill Charles II, so James II could assume the throne -Parliament believed Oates and the Whigs made an unsuccessful effort to exclude James from succession to the throne -Charles II then grew suspicious of Parliament and ruled from 1681 to 1685 without calling it into session; also drove Shaftesbury into exile, executed several Whig leaders, and bullied local corporations into electing members of Parliament who would be submissive to the royal will -In 1685, on his deathbed, Charles II converts to Catholicism and leaves James the prospect of a Parliament filled with royal friends

Marburg Colloquy

-a meeting arranged by Phillip of Hesse between Luther and Zwingli in Marburg in early October 1529 -Phillip of Hesse wanted to unite Swiss and German Protestants in a mutual defense pact -it did not work and Luther left the meeting thinking that Zwingli was a dangerous radical -this would permanently split the Protestant Reformation into Lutherans and Zwinglism

Augsburg Confession

-a moderate statement of Protestant beliefs that had been spurned by the emperor at the Diet of Augburg -defining banner of the Schmalkaldic League -written by Phillip Melanchton

War of Three Henrys (1584 - 1589)

-a partially religious and partially dynastic war between Henry of Navarre (Bourbon), Henry III (Valois) and Henry of Guise -Huguenot vs Catholic -alliance between Valois and Guise ends -Henry III attacks Guise, so Henry of Guise invades Paris and Henry III is forced into exile -Henry III allies with Bourbons (Henry of Navarre) and makes Henry of Navarre his legitimate successor to the throne

Humanism

-a philosophy that focused on human potential, questioning, idealizing anitquity, and improving man's surroundings -the birth of modernity driven by an anti-Christian philosophy that stressed the dignity of humankind, individual, and secularism -opposed the pagan teachings of Aristotle -a form of historic scholarship adopted to promote a sense of civic responsibility and political liberty -Fathers of Humanism: Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Dante -religion was less depicted in art and writing

Port of Trieste

-a port developed by the Habsburgs on the northern coast of the Adriatic Sea -it turned into a profitable port for trade

Thirty-Nine Articles (1563)

-a revision of Thomas Cranmer's original forty-two, made a moderate Protestantism the official religion within the Church of England -the essential beliefs of the Anglican church -moderate Protestant theology, but maintains Catholic hierarchy

Fronde (1649-1652)

-a series of widespread rebellions among the high ranking French nobles -Nobility reaction to Richelieu and Mazarin's policies -rebellions did not do any damage and was crushed by royal army -these rebellions would lead Louis XIV to see the nobles as a threat to his power for the rest of his life -would convince Louis XIV and his advisors that heavy-handed policies could endanger throne

oligarchy

-a small group of wealthy elites who hired despots other wise known as podetsà

Italian Wars (1494-1559)

-a string of wars that would devastate Italy -consisted on the War of 1494 to 1498, War of 1499 to 1504, War of League of Cambrai, and War of 1521 to 1526 -leads to the decline of the Italian Renaissance

Mannerism

-a style of painting that allowed for the strange and the abnormal -gave freer reign to the individual perceptions and the mood of the artist -examples of artists: Tintoretto and El Greco

Forced Loan

-a tax that was theoretically supposed to be repaid -Charles I imprisoned those who refused to pay the tariffs and property taxes

Diet of Worms

-a tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with the power to outlaw. -occurred in 1521 -called by Charles V for Luther to plea his case -Luther says "I neither can nor will I recant anything, since it is neither right nor safe to act against conscience." (for his to recant would be against his conscience and the Bible) -he was condemned as a heretic

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

-a true Renaissance man and considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time -advised Italian princes and Francis I, the French king, on military engineering -approached his work empirically -he dissected corpses in order to learn anatomy -was also a self-taught botanist -had an inventive and that foresaw modern machines like airplanes and submarines -his greatest skill was showing inner moods through complex facial expression -his works include the Mona Lisa, Self Portrait, and The Last Supper

Enlightened Despots

-absolute rulers who were influenced by Enlightened thought -they were still absolutist rulers, however they applied Enlightenment ideas to their ruling policies -Voltaire was a strong monarchist whose ideas rulers favored over Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu -believed in the Enlightenment ideas surrounding speech, religion, and ownership of property -examples of these were Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine the Great of Russia

The Pacification of Ghent (1576)

-accomplished on November 8, 1576 -declared internal regional sovereignty in matters of religion -permitted political cooperation among the signatories, who were not agreed over religion -the unification of Protestants and Catholics against Spain

Augsburg Interim

-all of Charles' lands go back to Catholicism

Cardinal Granvelle (1517-1586)

-also known as Antoine Perrenot -hoped to check Protestant gains by internal church reforms -planned to break down the traditional local autonomy of the seventeen Netherlands provinces by stages and establish in its place a centralized royal government directed from Madrid -his goal was a politically docile and religiously uniform country

Voltaire (1694-1778)

-also known as François-Marie Arouet -influenced by the British because in the 1720s, he offended the French king and aristocrats by his socially and politically irreverent poetry and plays and was imprisoned in Bastille, then was released and went into exile in England where he visited coffeehouses and saw a tolerant English society in 1726 -advocated for religious toleration, however he hated the Catholic Church because it promotes religious intolerance, fanaticism, and etc, he said "crush the infamous thing" referring to the Catholic Church, he criticized the irrational act of witch trials, described religious fanaticism as an incurable disease and the only cure for it is death -advocated for the freedom of speech and said "I may disagree with what you have to say but I will defend to the death what you have to say" -returned to France in 1728 and published Letters on the English in 1733 -published Elements of the Philosophy of Newton with the help of the brilliant mathematician, Countess Emilie du Châtelet (1706-1749) in 1738, which popularized the thought of Newton across the continent -In 1742, he argued that Islam in general represents another example of religious fanaticism like that of Christianity in his tragedy, Fanaticism, or Mohammed the Prophet -published Candide in 1759 and Treatise on Toleration in 1763 -questioned the truthfulness of priests and the morality of the Bible in his Philosophical Dictionary of 1764 -believed that human society could and should be improved, but he was never certain that reform, if achieved would be permanent -was the most influential French thinker -stayed at the court of Frederick the Great of Prussia in Berlin for 3 years -his extremely popular plays, essays, histories, and stories along his far-flung correspondence made him the literary dictator of Europe

Henry of Navarre (1589-1610)

-also known as Henry IV -married to Margret of Valois -becomes King when Henry III orders for the assassination of Henry of Guise and in return a radical Catholic Dominican priest kills Henry III -he is widely favored in France and is a perfect example of a politique -wants political peace for France -converts to Catholicism in order to achieve peace in France on July 25, 1593 and says, "Paris is worth a Mass" which horrified Huguenots and caused skepticism for Pope Clement VIII, but most of the France rallied by his side because they wanted the internal strife to end -issues Edict of Nantes in 1598 -assassinated in May 1610 by a Catholic fanatic

Nine Years' War (1688-1697)

-also known as War of Grand Alliance -Louis attempted to expand the national boundaries of France and in 1681 sent his forces to occupy the free city of Strasbourg on the Rhine River -The League of Augsburg fights against France -ends with the Peace of Ryswick

Neoclassicism

-an 18th century European art and architecture style that and embodied a return to figurative and architectural models drawn from the Renaissance and the ancient world and it usually had to do with public lives or public morals and scenes of heroism and self-sacrifice -Winckelmann's books and the simultaneous rediscovery and partial excavation of Italy fostered the rise of this

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

-an Englishman who worked as a a lawyer, a high royal officer, wrote history, moral essays, and philosophical discourses -advocated experimentations in science (empiricism) -known as the father of empiricism and experimentation in science -his real accomplishment: setting an intellectual tone and helping create a climate conducive to scientific work -he perfected the scientific method -attacked humanist teachings that the pinnacle of human achievement was in the past (argues that the peak of human achievement is in the present) -In The Advancement of Learning (1605), the Nom Organum (1620), and The New Atlantis (1627), he attacks the scholastic belief that most truth had been discovered and one required explanation -attacked the old scholastic method of learning -believed that many scholastics paid too much attention to tradition and classics -he encouraged scientists to blaze new trails in their understanding of nature -believed human knowledge should produce deeds rather than words -he encouraged the application of knowledge to the improvement of the human condition -he linked science and material progress -influenced monarchs and governments as he encouraged leaders to use new knowledge to increase the efficiency and productivity of government -believed there were 2 books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

-an Enlightenment thinker, however was different from others because he thought humans should learn things when they eel they need to (don't teach people, let them teach themselves) -he emphasized role of reason and emotion in the decision making process -he was described as a strange, isolated genius who never felt comfortable with the other philosophes -he produced and abandoned numerous children -he hated the world because he believed that it was impossible for human beings to achieve moral or virtuous lives in the commercial society in which they lived -his major works were Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences (1750), Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755), Emile (1762) and The Social Contract (1762) -believed that civilized man was corrupted -believed that unhappiness derives from luxury -his genealogy of history was that man is a lazy beast and that corruption of man is due to private property

Rococo Style

-an European art and architecture style that originated in the early 18th century France and embraced lavish, often lighthearted decoration with an emphasis on pastel colors and the play of light -it spread throughout Europe -the most spectacular representations of this style is the Imperial Hall built in Wurzburg, Barvaria, which was designed by Balthasar Neumann and painted by Venetian Gian Battista Tiepolo -the common themes in this are fetes galantes, which are scenes of elegant parties in lush gardens idealizing landscape with carefree men and women pursuing a life of leisure -artist included Jean-Antinone Watteau, Boucher, and Jean-Honore Fragonard -it convinced many people in France that the monarchy of the court and aristocracy were decadent -Johann Joachim Winckelmann criticized this style of art and architecture

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)

-an Italian aristocrat and philosophe -published On Crimes and Punishment in 1764 -applied the study of social science to criminal punishment -believed in utilitarianism

Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros (1437-1517)

-an advisor to Queen Isabella of Spain -In 1508, he was appointed as "Grand Inquisitor" which allowed him to enforce the strictest religious orthodoxy -was a Spanish humanist -founded the University of Alcalá near Madrid in 1509 -he also printed a Greek edition of the New Testament as well as translated many religious tracts used to reform clerical life and to better direct lay piety -his six volume Complutensian Polygot Bible was his greatest achievement that compiled the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin versions of the Bible in parallel columns

Golden Bull (1356)

-an agreement that established a 7 member electoral college that functioned as an administrative body -elected the emperor and in cooperation with him provided the transregional unity and administration that existed -consisted of the archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, the duke of Saxony, the margrave of Brandenburg, the court of Palatine, and the king of Bohemia

John Ray's The Wisdom of God Manifested in His Works of Creation (1690)

-argued that God wanted human beings to first understand the work, then turn this knowledge into productive practical use through rationality -people came to believe that God wanted human beings to improve the world -provided a religious justification for the processes of economic improvement that would characterize the 18th century

Diet of Augsburg

-assembly of Protestant and Catholic representatives who were called to address the growing religious division within the empire in the wake of the Reformation's success -adjourned with a blunt and unrealistic order to all Lutherans to revert to Catholicism

Louis XIV (1638-1715)

-assumes power in 1661 at the age of 23 after Mazarin dies -known as the Sun King because the sun is believed to be the center of the universe and he is the center of France -he is the power source of France -devoted tremendous personal energy to his political task -ruled through councils that controlled foreign affairs, the army, domestic administration, and economic regulations -appointed members of families who had long histories of royal services and people just beginning to rise in social structure bc they did not threaten his power -managed the nobility well by conferring with parlements and consulting opinions before making rulings that would affect them -subtly reduces nobility power -was devoted to the glorification of France: Versailles, expand French universities, patron for art and fashion

Low literary culture

-authors who did not find financial success or acceptance from the upper upper rank of society -their lack of success led these lesser writers to produce radical ideas for consumption of the lower classes

Ecclesiastical Ordances

-became model for Calvinist churches throughout Europe and Americas -Each local church was governed by four types of officers: ministers, teachers, elders, and deacons -Ministers preached the Word of god and administered baptism and Eucharist -Teachers taught children and candidate members Elders closely supervised the morals of the congregation -Deacons cared for the poor and the sick -The Consistory was composed of ministers and elders who met every Thursday morning to hear accusations against and to discipline individuals whose conduct was contrary to the Church's moral teachings.

Frederick I (1688-1713)

-became the first king of Prussia -known for being the least "Prussian" of the Hohenzollerns because he built palaces, founded Halle University, patronized arts, and lived luxuriously -during the War of Spanish Succession against Louis XIV, he sent his army to help the Habsburgs (HRE Leopold I) -as a reward for helping, Leopold I grants Frederick independence and his own kingdom in 1701

Geneva

-becomes a home to persecuted Protestants -if you obey Calvin's religious perception, you are excepted -a well structured society -has the rule of thumb making it illegal to beat your wife with anything thicker than a thumb

Frederick William the Great Elector (1640-1688)

-began the idea of centralization -realizes that the military needs to be strengthened (lesson learned from 30 Years' War) -established himself as the central unifying power in Central Europe by breaking down local noble estates, establishing an efficient bureaucracy, and building a strong army (consolidating power through militarism) -demanded obedience from the Junkers and in exchange he solidified serfdom for the Junkers -appointed Junkers to positions in which they administered the collection of taxes and thereby co-opted potential rivals into his service -he also appointed Junkers to leadership positions in the military and were required to pledge an oath of loyalty directly to him

Age of Exploration

-began with the voyages of the Portuguese and Spanish in 15th century -in search for an alternative route to the East Indies and access to the spice trade -Portuguese exploration focused east on India -Spanish exploration focused on finding a faster route to the east by sailing west across the Atlantic -exploration led to the discovery of the Americas, which expanded European horizons intellectually and geographically -mineral and human wealth put new cultural and economic forces in motion throughout Western Europe -commercial supremacy would shift from the Mediterranean and Baltic seas to the Atlantic seaboard -set the stage for global expansion

Civic Humanism

-belief that education is the key to improvement -believed that education should promote individual virtue and public service

Consubstantion

-belief that the bread and wine does not change, but it is infused with Jesus' power

transubstentiation

-belief that the bread and wine transforms into the body and blood of Christ -Catholic Interpretation of the Eucharist

Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)

-believed that economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system -urged that the mercantile system in England, including the navigation acts governing colonial trade, the bounties the government gave to favored merchants industries, most tariffs, trading monopolies, and the domestic regulation of labor and manufacturing, be abolished -Smith disagreed with the mercantilist assumption that the Earth's resources were limited or scarce, but rather that they were boundless and that they should be exploited to improve human comfort -believed that the best way to encourage economic growth was to unleash individuals to pursue their own selfish economist interests -his key ideas in this were laissez-faire and the idea of a four-stage theory of human society

Witchcraft and Witch-hunts

-between the years 1400 and 1700, courts sentenced an estimated 70,000 to 100,000 people to death for harmful magic (maleficium) and diabolical witchcraft -arose out of a pathological fear of women and black magic -80% of the victims of these were women -Widows, midwives, and women healers and herbalists were the three main groups of women targeted -accused of attending mass meetings known as sabbats and participating in sexual orgies with the devil (who appeared in animal form), as well as cannibalism (believed that they ate small Christian children) -believed to be able to fly -panic arose because of religious division, the belief that the Protestant Reformation took away traditional safeguards against devils and demons, and political consolidation leading rulers to eliminate potential rivalries to their loyalty in their realms

Intendant System

-bourgeois officials were answerable only to the king who supervised the provinces and diminished the power of the nobility -created by Cardinal Richelieu -chosen from low ranking families bc it was less threatening to the king and it reduces power of higher ranking families -these positions were not permenant -appointed by the King

Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683)

-brilliant economic minister to Louis XIV -promoted mercantilists policies -buys land called Louisiana -because of his economic policies, Louis XIV could afford to raise and maintain a large and powerful army

St. Basil's Cathedral

-built in Red Square, Moscow during Ivan IV's reign -Ivan hired Postnik Yakovlev, who was the most famous Russian architect, to build this

Administrative Colleges

-bureaus of several persons operating according to written instructions rather than departments headed by a single minister -created to oversee matters such as the collection of taxes, foreign relations, war, and economic affairs -Peter copied this system from the Swedes

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)

-challenged the Ptolemaic picture in the most conservative manner possible -provided an alternative model for the geocentric model (Ptolemaic system) and Aristotelian Physics -adopted many elements of the Ptolemaic model, but transferred them to a heliocentric model (the sun is at the center of the universe) -his model kept epicycles and retrograde motion of the planets was now explained as a result of an optical illusion that came about because people were observing them from Earth -argued that the farther the planets were from the sun, the longer they took to revolve around it, therefore making it easier to determine the order of the planets

Peasants in Russia

-conditions for them were worse than peasants in Western Europe -they are bound to the land -vast majority of the Russian population

Raphael

-considered to be a man of great kindness and a painter of great sensitivity -was loved by his contemporaries as a person and artist -he is most famous for his portrayals of the Madonna and the great fresco in the Vatican and The School of Athens, which is a perfect example of Renaissance technique for it depicts Plato and Aristotle surrounded by other great philosophers and scientists

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

-considered to be the father of modern philosophy -top-notch mathematician who invented analytic geometry -developed a scientific method that relied more on deduction than empirical observation and induction -was given a Jesuit education, but is familiar with the works of the Scholastics -"I think therefore I am" or "Cogito ergo sum", which basically says to doubt everything -argues that we have to exist because if you are doubting you existence, then you are thinking about you existence, therefore you exist -published Discourse on Method in 1637 and Meditations on First Philosophy in 1641 -believes in the divinity of the mind: the most divine part of us is our mind -the mind is divine, the body is not -reason is divine because it comes from the only thing in humans that is divine -God is essential for his philosophy: Cartesian Circle

Cardinal Richelieu (1624-1642)

-continues policies started by Sully -puts the idea of royal tax collectors into effect -encourages the commerce and industry that increased the tax base -attacks political power of Nobles, specifically targets Huguenots bc they have fortified towns due to Edict of Nantes -revokes many of the political privileges Henry IV had extended to French Protestants in the Edict of Nantes such as fortifying towns -strengthened the military -institutes the Intendant System -along with Mazarin laid the groundwork for political absolutism in France

Reuchlin Affair

-controversy that brought von Hutten onto the historical stage as well as unified reform-minded German humanists -Johann Reuchlin was Europe's foremost Christian authority on Hebrew and Jewish learning and wrote the first reliable Hebrew grammar by a Christian -In 1506, a Jewish man named Pfefferkorn who was supported by the Dominican order in Cologne, began a movement to suppress Jewish writings and attacked Reuchlin -German humanists then in the name of academic freedom and good scholarship rushed to defend Reuchlin -led to the publishing of the Letter of Obscure Men in 1515, a merciless spoof of monks and Scholastics in which von Hutten contributed to

Ivan IV "the Terrible" (1533-1584)

-crowns himself the 1st Czar in 1547 -becomes an absolute ruler expanding the country, reforming the government, the army, the economy, and the church -during the first half of his rule, he consolidated power and had a good relationship with the boyars, expanded his power, fought Livonia and Poland for 3 decades, but failed to conquer them, expanded Russia eastward past Urals, and became a power in Central Asia (Siberia) -his goal is to get hold of the Baltic Sea to get a port that is not frozen -After his wife suspiciously dies and he suspects that the boyars killed her, and undergoes a personality change that transformed him from a sensible political leader into a tyrant who ruled through violence and oppression -creates the Oprichniki -Begins to persecute his enemies using the Oprichniki -Massacre of Novgorod -divides country in two: the Oprichnina (territory governed solely by him) and Zemschina (territory governed by the boyars) -killed his son and heir, Alexander in an argument -St. Basil's Cathedral

Streltsy Rebellion

-cuts Peter's embassy short -Sophia's 2nd attempt at overthrowing Peter -Peter surpresses the rebellion by murdering and torturing an estimated one thousand conspirators

Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

-daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII -had remarkable and enduring successes in both domestic and foreign policy -her and her advisor, Sir William Cecil (1520-1598) would build a true kingdom -she was a politique and favored the Episcopal system because she wanted full control -referred to as "The Virgin Queen" because she never married, which she used to her advantage in international diplomacy to gain alliances through the idea of marriage to rulers of various countries -firmly controlled with a broadly defined Protestant doctrine and traditional Catholic ritual -passed a series of legislations through Parliament that guided a religious settlement that ended religious civil strife in England -not willing to compromise on any challenge to her authority -conflicts with Philip II

Mary I (1553-1558)

-daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII and half sister to Edward VI and Elizabeth I -extremely Catholic and was intent on returning England to Catholicism -known as Bloody Mary because she passed legislations through Parliament that reverted to Catholicism and she burned and executed 300 Protestants including Protestant leaders of the Edwardian Age, John Hooper, Hugh Latimer, and Thomas Cranmer -married Philip of Spain (Philip II) and established a powerful Catholic alliance -would die due to stomach cancer

Gian Lorenzo Bernini

-designed and oversaw the construction of the great tabernacle beneath St. Peter's Basilica's towering dome over the space where St. Peter is said to be buried -behind tabernacle, he designed a monument to papal authority known as the chair of St. Peter -he created a sculpture of the Spanish mystic St. Teresea of Avila in the Church of Santa Maria de la Vittoria in Rome

Anabaptists

-developed by Conrad Grebel (1498-1526) -had a problem with the sacrament of Baptism -rejected infant baptism because it is not in Bible -believed only adults could be baptized because Jesus was an adult when he was baptized -reject oaths (refuse to make promises to secular institutions) -believe secular governments are immoral because they don't have God -sworn pacifists -they are hated by Catholics and Protestants

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

-discovers cells with a microscope -discovers that their fundamental make up is what cannot see (microorganisms) -discovers Germ theory which is that diseases are caused by germs

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

-discovers the cause of planetary motion and established a foundation for the study of modern physics -publishes The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, otherwise known as Principia Mathematica in 1687 -believed in empiricism -opposed the idea of rationalism supported by Rene Descartes for he believed that it was insufficient guards against error -his work eliminates God from the universe -believed the universe to be rational for it can be explained using math -proposes that the universe runs on its own

Spiritualists

-distinguished by their disdain for external, institutional religion -believed that the only religious authority was the Spirit of God, which spoke not in some past revelation, but here and now in the heart and mind. of every listening individual

Renaissance Art

-diverged from the Medieval formula of no perspective, religious portrayal, and heresy -it embraced the natural world and human emotions giving their work a rational, even mathematical, order, perfect symmetry, and proportionately reflecting an emphasis on harmony with the natural world -praised antiquity and there were no Christian subjects -access to oil paint improved the quality of paintings and introduced new techniques such as chiaroscuro and linear perspectivism -gave more perspective (3D) -some Renaissance artists included Giotto, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo

English Bill of Rights

-document that limited the powers of the monarchy and guaranteed the civil liberties of the English privileged class -English monarchs would now be subject to the law and would be ruled by the consent of Parliament, which would be called into session every 3 years -prohibited Roman Catholics from occupying the throne -William and Mary signed document before ascension

Rise of Public Opinion

-due to the collective effect on political and social life of views circulated in print and it became discussed at home, in the workplace, and in centers of leisure -books and newspapers in the 18th century had thousands of readers who supported the writers who wrote the books they bought and the writers in return only had to answer to their readers -people began to have opinions about religious and governmental affairs -therefore governments began to have a hard time governing in secret

Mining in Latin America

-early conquistadors set up gold and silver mines in Potosi, Peru, one of the greatest mining center -silver mining provided the main source of metallic wealth -the Spanish crown received 1/5 of all mining revenues -the Spanish crown also maintained a monopoly over the production and the sale of mercury, which is required in the process of silver-smelting -forced natives to labor in the mines

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

-editor of the first Encyclopedia -he criticized European expansion across the world -believed that human beings may develop distinct cultures possessing intrinsic values that cannot be compared, one to the detriment of another because each culture possesses deep inner social and linguistic complexities

Charles V and his election

-election for Holy Roman Emperor was between Charles I of Spain and Francis I of France -The Pope was in favor of Francis -Charles I becomes Charles V Holy Roman Emperor -leads to a series of wars called Habsburg-Valois Wars

Peace of Nystad (1721)

-ended The Great Northern War -confirmed that Russia's conquest of Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia -secured Russia's access to warm-water ports in Baltic -helps Russia become a European power

Treaty of Ryswick (1697)

-ended the Nine Years' War -secured Holland's borders -prevented Louis' expansion into Germany

The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1570)

-ended the third war in France -acknowledged the power of the Protestant nobility -granted Huguenots religious freedom within their territories and the right to fortify their cities

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

-ends all hostilities within the Holy Roman Empire -not written in Latin, but in French -reinstates the Peace of Augsburg, but includes Calvinism -revokes the Edict of Restitution, guaranteeing the possession of former Church states to their Protestant holders -Switzerland and Holland were made independent states, freed from Habsburg dominions -France, Sweden, and Bradenburg received various territories -German princes were made sovereign ruler, severely limiting the power of the HRE and the influence of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs

Holy Synod

-established by Peter to replace the patriarch -a government department that consisted of several bishops and headed by the procurator general -was expected to rule the church in accordance with the czar's secular requirements -Church would become an organ of the state -Czar was now above the patriarch in both religious and political matters

Council of Troubles/Blood

-established by the Duke of Alba -a council in charge of putting any heretics on trial executing many Dutch protestants -launched a campaign of terror during which the counts of Egmont and Horn, along with several thousand heretics were publicly executed

Consolidation of Power

-every ruler wants power -every single government wants to do this

Michelangelo (1475-1564)

-excelled in a variety of arts and crafts -his 18-foot statue David is a perfect example of Renaissance harmony, symmetry, and proportion, which serves as the glorification of the human form -Pope Julius II was one of four different popes who commissioned his works (commissioned for the Frescoes in the Sistine Chapel) -his later works are more complex as well as show a deep personal change marking the pass from the symmetry and simplicity of the High Renaissance style to mannerism

Spanish conquests of the Incas in Peru

-expanded their empire during the 15th century -Incas controlled an enormous empire in the highlands of Peru -Fransisco Pizarro (1478-1541) landed on the western coast of South America with about 200 men and seized the leader of the Incas, Atahualpa, killed his followers, then killed him in 1533 -they also captured their capital, Cuzco

Portuguese Exploration

-explored Africa in order to acquire gold and slaves -tribal chiefs would trade slaves to Portuguese traders for horses, grain, ad finished goods like cloth and brassware -Portuguese ships delivered over 150,000 slaves from Africa to Europe in second half of 15th century -prior to Henry's expedition, Europeans could only get spices through the Venetians who bought and bartered them from Muslim merchants in Egypt and the Ottoman Empire -wanted to find a sea route around Africa to Asia's spice markets in order to beat the powerful Venetian-Muslim monopoly -they gained spice markers and new allies against the Muslims -Bartholomew Dias (1450-1500) became the first Portuguese explorer to sail around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 -Vasco de Gama (1469-1525) sailed to India and returned with a cargo filled with spices worth 60 times the cost of the voyage -The Portuguese established colonies in Goa and Calcutta on the coast of India -they also challenged the Arabs and the Venetians for the control of the spice trade

Amerigo Vespucci (1451-1512) and Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)

-explored the coastline of South America -their travels proved that Columbus had discovered an entirely unknown continent -Magellan rounded the tip of South America and continued across the Pacific to the Philippines where he would get killed, however the remains of his crew eventually sailed back to Spain becoming the first sailors to circumnavigate the globe

Catherine Howard

-fifth wife of Henry VIII -loves the attention of being the favorite of the King -she is nieve and does not realize what her marriage to Henry physically means -horrified by Henry, she has an affair with a younger man -she is executed for treason and adultery as well as the man she had an affair with

James I (1603-1625)

-first monarch in England from the Stuart dynasty -son of Mary, Queen of Scots -succeeds childless Elizabeth to throne of England in 1602 -King of both Scotland and England and unifies the two countries -strongly believed in the divine right of kings and expected to rule with little consultation beyond his own royal court -doesn't like Parliament because it represents a check to divine right -refused to consider Puritan ideas about destroying the hierarchical organization of the Anglican Church and replacing it with a more representative Presbyterian form -sought to enhance the Anglican episcopacy -caused many religious dissenters to leave England and establish Plymouth Colony in North America -his court had a scandalous reputation due to the authority influenced by the Duke of Buckingham (his rumored homosexual lover) -believed that he was a Closet Catholic and sought to re-Catholicize England due to the peace he established wth Spain, relaxed penal laws against Catholics, did not rush to defend German Protestants in 30 Years' War, and arranged marriage of his son with Henry IV's Catholic daughter -In 1624, England went to war with Spain during end of his reign

Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

-first scientist to use a microscope

Long Parliament (1640-1660)

-forced to reinstate Parliament after Scots defeat the English at the Battle of Newburn for a longer session -impeaches and executes Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford (1641) and Archbishop William Laud (1645) -abolishes the royal courts used to enforce royal policy -prohibited the levying of new taxes without Parliament's consent -instates the Triennial Act -reinforces Habeas Corpus -the only thing that Parliament does not agree on is the purifying of the Anglican Church for the moderate (the Presbyterians) and more extreme Puritans (the Independents) wanted to abolish bishops and the Book of Common Prayer, meanwhile the religious conservatives wanted to preserve the Anglican Church in its current form -religious division between Puritans and Conservatives intensified in October 1641 when they were asked to raise funds for an army to suppress the rebellion in Scotland because some did not trust Charles with an army

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

-formed by Ignatius of Loyola -holy order that was organized in a military fashion, requiring of its members blind obedience and absolute faith to save Catholic Church -they value education -They swore to serve as advisors to Catholic kings, suppress heresy throughout the Inquisition, establish schools in Catholic nations to indoctrinate the young, send missionaries to far corners of the Earth to convert "the heathens".

League of Augsburg

-formed to stop French aggression after Louis occupied Strasbourg -was comprised of a coalition of English, Spanish, Swedish, German, and Dutch troops

The Encyclopedia

-founded by Denis Diderot (1713-1784) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783) -it was a collection of essays and compilation of human knowledge -there were over 100 contributors -contained seventeen volumes of texts and eleven of illustrations -between 14,000 and 16,000 copies were sold before the year 1789 -it promoted enlightenment ideas and succeeded in spreading them throughout Europe -the first volume appeared in 1751 -shows the determination of the enlightenment movement to probe life on earth rather than in a religious realm -considered to be a collective lea for freedom of expression -it was critical of ecclesiastical institutions and authoritative governments -contained articles about manufacturing, canal building, ship construction, and improved agricultural methods

Baroque Art

-founded by the Catholic Counter-Reformation -presented life in a grandiose, three-dimensional display of raw energy

Anne of Cleves

-fourth wife -Thomas Cromwell arranges marriage -Hans Holbein paints a portrait of her -they marry, but it is never consummated -Henry finds her ugly in person -Henry gives her a choice to either stay his wife or annul the marriage and she chooses to annulment

Salons

-gatherings held at private residences of wealthy women -it was a sanctuary for the diffusion of ideas opened up by Parisian women where philosopher met to discuss their intellectual ideas -it allowed the ideas to flourish despite government efforts to stop it

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji (1774)

-gave Russia control of the Black Sea, free navigation rights in Ottoman waters, and free access through the Bosphorus -Crimea became an independent state, which Catherine would annex in 1783 -As empress of Russia, Catherine was made the protector of the Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire

Twelve Year Truce (1609)

-gave northern provinces virtual independence -a truce for twelve years between Netherlands and Spain

Louis' Methods of Limiting Power of Nobility

-gets rid of chief minister -personally appointed ministers to people who were Louis' long time loyal families and people from the lower class -encouraged nobles to live at Versailles with him to keep an eye on them and to make nobles in debt to him

Peter's Laws on Fashion

-got rid of long coats and long beards -Peter puts a tax on beards: only nobles who paid the tax could have a beard -does this in attempt to break the image of Russia being a backward country

William III of Orange (1650-1702)

-grandson of William the Silent -the stadholder of Holland -led the Dutch to victory against France

January Edict (1562)

-granted Protestants freedom to worship publicly outside towns, although only privately within them -also allowed them to hold synods

Peace of Beaulieu (May 1576)

-granted the Huguenots almost complete religious and civil freedom -would get truncated in October 1577 and would once again limit areas of permitted Huguenot worship

Johann Gottlieb Herder (1744-1803)

-he believed that the people who Europeans had encountered in the Americas had possessed cultures that should be respected and understood rather than destroyed -he embraced cultural relativism

Peter Transforms Russia

-he built a powerful army with about 130,000 men during the first half of the 18th century and nearly a total of 300,000 men by the end of his reign -Peter built Russia's first navy in the 1690s -expanded Russia in the Baltic Sea -Azov Campaign 1695 to 1697 -iron production increased -there was state domination of economy -Peter made administrative reforms

Maximillian of Bavaria (1597-1651)

-he organized a Catholic league to counter a new Protestant alliance in 1609 -his cousin Ferdinand II would ask for his help in fighting the Protestants in the Bohemian Phase of the war

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

-he studied under Brahe and was given his data when he died -was a firm believer of the heliocentric theory -using Brahe's models, he concluded that planets revolves in elliptical orbits rather than circular orbits -published "The New Astronomy" in 1609

Niccoló Machiavelli (1469-1527)

-he was a humanist who studied classical Rome -was impressed by the Romans to fend off their enemies as well as their commitment to the idea of virtu (the ability to act decisively and heroically for the good of the country) -lived through the tumultuous years when French, German, and Spanish armies wreaked havoc on Italy which made him conclude that Italian unity was necessary -wrote The Prince in 1513 -was a expert in politics -was an advisor to the Medicis -had a pessimistic view of human nature -he is a realist

Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)

-he was far less secular than Petrarch -wrote in the vernacular which was a big deal because all writings were in Latin, which was the language of the Church and the only people who were able to read and write in Latin were the monks and clergy, but now everyone could read it -was one of the earliest writers to not write in Latin -his works Vita Nuova and Divine Comedy with Petrarch's sonnets formed the cornerstones of Italian vernacular literature -wanted to improve society

Charles VII of France (1422-1461)

-his ministers created a permanent professional army, which drove the English out of France -he also used the help of an independent merchant-banker, Jacques Coeur, to build a strong economy, diplomatic corps, and national administrative for France

French Humanism

-humanism in France was caused by the French invasions of Italy -the leaders of French Humanism were Greek scholar, Guillaume Budé (1468-1540) and biblical authority, Lefèvre d'Étaples (1454-1536) -Lefèvre's work influenced Martin Luther -Bishop of Meaux, Guillaume Briçonnet (1470-1533) and sister of King Francis I and future queen of Navarre, Marguerite d'Angoulême (1492-1549) cultivated a generation of young reform-minded humanists where future Protestant reformer, John Calvin was educated

Humanist Educational Reforms and Goals

-humanist became innovative educators and were constantly searching for new sources of information that addressed the ills of contemporary society -the gathered manuscript collections consisting of the history of the past, potent remedies for contemporaries, and advice to politicians and rulers -the goal of humanist studies was wisdom eloquently spoken and that both knowledge of the good and the ability to move others to desire it -believed that learning was not meant to remain abstract and unpracticed -believed that learning always ennobled people

Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457)

-humanist who was critical longstanding traditions like the Catholic Church -wrote the Elegances of the latin Language in 1444 revealing that the document Donation of Constantine appeared to be a grant of vast territories that the Roman emperor Constantine donated to the Pope during the 4th century, was fraudulent

Battle of Narva (1700)

-humiliating loss for Russia -8,000 Swedes beat 20,000 Russians -many leaders who were aligned with Peter called the alliance off after this battle -it was a setback for Peter, but it led him to learn from his mistakes and to train his army even more -Peter established technical schools to train military

Liberum Veto

-if one member staunchly opposes a piece of legislation, this practice could prevent it from passing -created a major block to effective governing

Distant Church

-increases the anxiety people have about salvation -there is no authority that they depend on -people look for a leader in time of crisis

Printing Press

-invented by Johann Gutenberg in middle of the 15th century in response to the demand for books and the expansion of lay education and literacy -printing with moveable type -books on were produced more rapidly -it produced books that were both profound and practical for ordinary lay readers, scholars, and clerics -the most popular books that were printer were books of piety and religion, calendars and almanacs, and how-to books (childrearing, making brandies and liquors, curing animals, and farming) -it was cheaper to print books this way therefore the literacy of lay people increased and anyone who was literate was made an instant authority -Mainz, Germany became the printing capital for all of Western Europe -by 1500 they operated in at least 60 German cities and in more than 200 cities in Europe -led to Kings being able to indoctrinate people and clergymen were able to mass-produce indulgences and pamphlets

Death of Henry II of France

-it was a shock to the world -began shift of the European balance of power -it was an accident that occurred at a tournament to celebrate the marriage of his 13 year old daughter to Philip II -he was mortally wounded when a lance pierced his visor and he died -his 15 year old son, Francis II came to the throne afterwards

Massacre of Novgorod

-killed the last of the opposition of Boyars -several hundred would die

Ivan III (1462-1505)

-known as Ivan the Great -he is the Prince of Muscovy -declares Russia's independence from the crumbling Mongol empire in 1480 -builds the Moscow Kremlin -declares Moscow the "3rd Rome" -adds 1.5 million square miles -he gave privileges to the Boyars, which reduced his power and decentralized the state

Lorenzo de Medici (1449-1492)

-known as Lorenzo the Great -ruled Florence in almost totalitarian fashion -the assassination of his brother in 1478 by the Pazzi, a rival family that pitted with the pope against the medici, made him a cautious and determined ruler -he did not focus on the medici bank as much as others have before, however it eventually led to the decrease of influence from the Medici bank -he successfully bridges the gap between noble and non-noble -his daughter marries the King of France, Henry VII bringing the Medici family into nobility

Michelangelo Caravaggio

-known for contrasts between light and darkness, which created dramatic scenes -his works were known to be theatrical as they draw the viewer into an emotional involvement in the work

Sumputary Laws

-laws regulating the dress code -Only Nobles could wear stockings and britches

Effects of Spanish Conquest

-led to destruction of whole civilizations with long histories and great social, architectural, and technological achievements -marked the beginning of the transformation of South America into Latin America

Effects of the Hundred Years' War on Europe

-led to nation states -awakened French nationalism and called for the transition to a centralized state -Burgundy became a major European power -England developed its own clothing industry and foreign markets

Table of Ranks (1722)

-list of positions in the Imperial Russian government and military -social position and privileges was based on an individual's rank in the government or military instead of being based on having noble status (nobility must serve the state) -believed his advisors should get job based off of a merit system -many of them were Peter's foreign recruits and friends

Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786)

-lived in Germany and was known as the "Jewish Socrates" -advocated for the assimilation of jews into modern European life -wrote On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism (1783) where he argued for religious toleration and the sentence of distinct Jewish communities

Thomas é Kempis

-looks at the crisis and the anxiety that people are facing -can't trust popes and clergy -believes you should follow the example of Jesus Christ (live like Jesus)

Louis' Legacy

-made France the center of the world -spends so much money on Versailles and wars that it leads France into bankruptcy -system of mercantilism becomes unsustainable

Women during the Enlightenment

-many women hosted salons in Paris such as prominent socialites Marie-Therese Geoffrey, Julie de Lespinasse, and Claudine de Tencin which gave philosopher access to useful social and political contacts -the mistress of King Louis XV: the marquis de Pompador played a huge role in overcoming efforts to censor the Encyclopedia -Madame de Tencin actively promoted Montesquieu's ideas

Battle of Breitenfeld (1630)

-marked the first major victory for the Protestants in the Thirty Years War -turning point in the war -Adolphus beats Wallenstein

Raison d'état

-means reason of state -developed by French cardinal, Cardinal Richelieu, who is the chief minister/regent to the King -the central government was a higher priority than any important group in the country -encourages stability

Rump Parliament

-members left after Pride's Purge -they execute Charles I on January 30, 1648 -abolished the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the Anglican Church

Battle of Poltava (1709)

-momentum shifted to Russia as Peter's military defeated Charles XII's troops (Sweden) -thereafter, the Swedes could maintain only a holding action against their enemies -Charles sough refuge in Turkey and did not return to Sweden until 1714

Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

-most devastating of all wars in the Age of Religious Wars -the first continent-wide war in modern history, fought mostly in Germany, it involved the major European powers -It was the culmination of the religious wars of the sixteenth century between Catholics and Protestants -starts out a religious war and ends as a political war

Philip II of Spain (1556-1598)

-most powerful monarch in Europe until 1588 -son of Charles V -heir to the intensely Catholic and militarily supreme western Habsburg kingdom -seeks religious unity -known as the Defender of Catholicism -Gold and silver found in the Spanish colonies in the New World provided great sums needed to pay the king's bankers and mercenaries -He used the money to build his great armada -he managed his kingdom by pen and paper rather than by person presence -he was a generous patron of the arts and culture -conflicts with Elizabeth I of England

Great Schism

-occurred 1377-1417 -moves capital back to Rome -Italian Pope is elected (considered himself to be a reformer) -French elected a French Pope in Avignon -The Italian Pope and the French Pope excommunicated each other -lasted for forty years

German Peasants' Revolt

-occurred from years 1524-1526 -Luther's theological dissent (The Twelve Articles) inspired a variety of radical religious sects to form and demand social reform based on the early Christian model. German peasants rebelled against their landowners and nobles. -Luther responds with publishing "Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants" saying that the Bible says that there needs to be authority and that the nobles have the authority to make change and peasants do not. -encourages German nobility to mercilessly crush the revolt and calls peasants "un-Christian" -Between 70,000-100,000 peasants died by the time the revolt had ended

Council of Constance

-occurred in 1417 -ended Great Schism

Economic Decline in the Netherlands

-occurred in the 18th century after the death of William III -the provinces resisted the emergence of another strong stradholder, therefore unification under a political leader vanished -Naval supremacy passed to the British -fishing industry declined -Dutch lost their technological superiority in shipbuilding -Countries between which Dutch ships once carried goods now traded directly with each other

Time of Troubles (1598-1613)

-occurs after Ivan IV's death -Ivan IV killed the groomed heir, Alexander (more fit for the job) -the crown is passed to Feodor III, who is mentally incapable of ruling; Boris Gudoriov becomes regent to Feodor III and is very ambitious and universally hated and despised by boyars -Gudoriov becomes suspected of killing the youngest son, Dimitri because he was getting older and was able to rule -private armies vied for power back using False Dimitris -Poland invades and takes Moscow and puts their False Dimitri on the throne -outrages boyars and they unite together to fight against Poland -Mikhail Romanov led the armies, took Moscow back, and overthrew the False Dimitri -Mikhail Romanov gets chosen to rule as Czar -Romanovs rule Russia until 1917

The Revival of Platonism

-one of the most important revivals of the past made during the Italian Renaissance -the recruitment of Manuel Chyrsoloras from Constantinople to Florence by the Medici Family to promote Greek learning in 1397, laid the foundation for this revival -then in 1439, the Council of Ferrara-Florence met to negotiate the reunion of the Eastern and Western churches opening the door for many Greek scholars and manuscripts to go to the west -In 1453, many Greek scholars fled to Florence for refuge after the fall of Constantinople -Renaissance thinkers were especially interested in the Platonic tradition and to Church Fathers who attempted to synthesize Platonic philosophy with Christian teachings -platonism was appealing because it had a flattering view of human nature and it distinguished between an eternal sphere of being and a perishable world that humans actually live in -Platonism influenced many humanist writings

Archanglesk

-only Port in Russia, it is on the White Sea that opens up to the Arctic Ocean -frozen for half of the year

John Churchill, the English Duke of Marlborough

-originally from France, but was forced to flee after Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes -he defeated Louis' soldiers at every major battle in the War of Spanish Succession

The Florentine Academy

-patroned by Cosimo de Medici and supervised by Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Riandola -it was not an actual school, but rather an informal gathering of Renaissance humanists devoted to the revival of Plato and the Neoplatonists (Plotinus, Proclus, Porphyry, and Dionysius the Areopagite)

Locke's Social Contract

-people enter into the social contract in order to form political society to secure and preserve the rights, liberty, and property that they already possess prior to the existence of political authority -the relationship between the governed and the government is one of trust, if the government breaks that trust, it is the responsibility of the governed to replace them -people empower the government to one end and that is for the preservation of their natural rights

Influence of Books

-people in aristocratic and middle-class society were increasingly expected to be familiar with books and secular ideas -The Spectator (1711) by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele -coffeehouses became centers of discourse for discussing political ideas and writing -the lodges of Freemasons were another place for discussing secular ideas and secular books -authorship became an occupation, writers were able to make a living for their work for the first time -Alexander Pope in England (1688-1744) and Voltaire in France grew in wealth and status based on merit and commercial competition rather than through heredity and patronage

Charles I (1625-1649)

-people suspected him to be a secret Catholic -was a firm believer of Divine Right -get involved in the 30 Years' War -Petition of Right 1628 -Bishop's War -Raised money outside of Parliament by levying new tariffs and duties and adding a tax on property owners -in order to conserve money, Charles ends wars with France in 1629 and then Spain in 1630 -centralized power with help of his advisor, Thomas Wentworth -Short Parliament 1640 -tries to impose the Anglican Church on the Scots who were Presbyterians -Long Parliament 1640 to 1660 -English Civil War 1642 to 1651 -He was executed for treason on January 30, 1649

Louis' Religious Policies

-persecuted the Jansenists, who were Roman Catholic Puritans because a lot of them were part of the Fronde and Louis wants to come off as a true Catholic king -Louis permitted the papal bull banning Jansenists and therefore turned his back on the traditional Gallican Liberties of the French Church which fostered opposition to royal authority within the French Church -He revoked the Edict of Nantes in October 1685 signifying that he was a fanatic and France became a symbol of repression in contrast to England's moderate religious toleration

Physiocrats

-philosophes who believed that existing legislation and regulation of trade in the mercantilist economic system hampered the expansion of trade, manufacturing, and agriculture -they mainly believed that governments were primarily responsibly for protecting private property -they encouraged the consolidation of peasant lands -they also improved methods of agriculture -leading spokesmen for this were François Quesnay (1694-1774) and Pierre Dupont de Nemours (1739-1817)

Louis LeNain

-portrayed still lives and scenes of everyday life -was fascinated with French peasant life

95 Theses

-posted on church door on October 31, 1517 by Martin Luther -criticizes the Church

Russian Military Class

-power based on service to crown -they decided when they wanted to help the Czar -favored expansion -received land for service

Despotism in the Renaissance

-powerful families controlled city-states in Italy: Medici family controlled Florence, Sforza family controlled Milan, Borgia family controlled Rome -being a despot was a dangerous job because the oligarchy were allowed to dismiss them and they were popular objects of assassination attempts -many despots established resident embassies and appointed ambassadors to other powerful city-states and nations

Edict of Nantes (April 13, 1598)

-proclaimed a formal religious settlement -recognized minority religious rights within what was to remain an officially Catholic country -gave Huguenots the freedom of public worship, the right of assembly, admission to public offices and universities, and permission to maintain fortified towns -could exercise these rights within their own towns and territories

Hacienda Economy

-produced food for the mining regions -also produced leather goods that were used in mining machinery

Great Britain's Toleration and Political Stability

-provided a living example of society in which enlightened reforms seemed to benefit everyone -had high amounts of religious toleration to all religions except for Unitarians and Roman Catholics, however they were not actively persecuted -established the English Bill of Rights providing citizens relative freedom of speech and press, as well as rights; it also limited the power of the monarchy and Parliament had political sovereignty and it allowed the courts to protect citizens from arbitrary imprisonment -there was no extensive literary censorship, overregulation of the economy, or influence of aristocratic military value

Principia Mathematica (1687)

-published by Newton -found that the principle of inertia applied to both objects at rest and in motion: if it is at the same speed, it never changes -reasoned that all bodies move through mutual attraction (gravity) -the attraction of gravity explained why the planets moved in an orderly fashion instead of a chaotic fashion

Deism

-rationality applied to religion led to the belief that the universe is so well made due to these mathematical and intellectual laws -suggests that God was a divine mechanic and clockmaker who had arranged the world like a machine that would thereafter function automatically -believe in the existence of God and they thought that the study of nature could empirically justify his existence -also believe in life after death because they believed a rational God must favor rational mortality -was an empirical, tolerant, reasonable, and virtuous way of living

Deductive Reasoning

-reasoning from a general principle to arrive at facts -his method of gaining knowledge is through thought, logic, and reason to come to a conclusion -senses are not used because they can be deceiving

Effects of Reformation in Western Europe

-religion changed in major cities -greater implementation of many of the educational reforms of humanism in new Protestant schools and universities -Women were viewed as necessary to society for being housewives -marrying at later ages -the bride and groom gave more say in arranged marriages -the family size increased -wet nursing became more common among upper class women -major literary figures of the post Reformation period had elements of both the old and the new in their own transitional works

Reasons for Religious War in France

-religious tension rising between Huguenots and Catholics because the Peace of Augsburg didn't include Calvinists and there was religious radicalism -there was an appeal of Calvinism in the more powerful segments of French society -there was political decentralization where two-fifths of the Nobility was Huguenot and favored a Presbytery system -there was intellectual criticism where people started to question the whole idea of religious fanaticism -Huguenot persecutions due to Affair du Placards -Edict of Fontainebleau and Edict of Chateaubriand -Death of Henry II -Catherine de Medici

Austrian Habsburg's land and power

-retained hold of the title HRE due to their network of connections and skill in diplomacy -began to consolidate their power outside the HRE including the kingdom of Bohemia and the duchies of Moravia and Silesia; and the crown of Saint Stephen, which ruled Hungary, Croatia, and Transylvania -Treaty of Rastatt -their lands were diverse and included people of many different cultures and language it was hard to establish unity

Edict of Restitution (1629)

-revokes the Peace of Augsburg -reaffirms the illegality of Calvinism -orders for the return of all church lands that Lutherans had acquired since 1552

Hohenzollern Family

-ruling family of Brandenburg, a big state in HRE, since 1415 -added the duchy of Cleves, and the counties of Mark and Ravensburg, East Prussia, and Pomerania in the seventeenth century -their lands were scattered and they had a desire to connect all of them -2nd largest German territory next to Habsburg Austria

Dutch East India Company (charted in 1602)

-sailed to areas of East Asia—like Java, Moluccas, and Sri Lanka—to participate in the profitable trade of spices. -held several territorial holdings

Clerical Laity

-says that they need to do something -population is criticizing the Church -more aware of what is going because they are becoming more educated

Scientific Revolution Effects on European Society

-science becomes paramount authority -everything is now mathematically proven -ontology (existence) and epistemology (knowledge) -people began to believe that genuinely new knowledge about nature and humanity could be discovered contrast to medieval and Renaissance notions of looking back on antiquity for knowledge -scientists formed "institutes for sharing" ideas about science -there was a reduction in witchcraft because witchcraft lacked empirical evidence to prove that it is real -universities slowly began to include new sciences into their curriculum -the Royal Society of London was founded in 1660 and consisted of members who followed the path of Bacon -Academy of Experiments in Florence was established in 1657 -the French Academy of Science was established in 1666 -people outside of. the elite class like craftspeople, who could manufacture scientific equipment, sailors who had traveled to different parts of the world and explored different cultures, and workers who had practical knowledge of problems in the countryside were inverts to these new scientific societies that mainly consisted of the literate class -explorers brought back specimens and experiences from exotic places that required classification, analysis, and observation

Habsburg-Valois Wars

-series of wars that occur all over Europe -ends the Italian Renaissance -France gets defeated at the Battle of Pavia which was a turning point -This distracts Charles V and it allows Luther to spread the Protestant Reformation

Duke of Buckingham

-set off a number of controversies -rumored to be James I's homosexual lover -sold positions of rank to the highest bidder annoying the nobles who believed this undermined their rank -starts war with Spain

Emilie Châtelet (1706-1749)

-she aided Voltaire in his composition of an important French popularization of Newton's science -her knowledge of mathematics was more extensive than Voltaire's -she was crucial to Voltaire in completing his book -she also translated Newton's Principia Mathematica int French, which was only made possible by her exceptional understanding of advanced mathematics

Elizabeth's Foreign Policy

-she became the Protestants in France and the Netherlands only protector after St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre -In 1585, she signed the Treaty of Non-such providing English soldiers and cavalry to the Netherlands -has to be careful because she sees Catholic Spain as a threat to England

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762)

-she was one of the most positive commentators on 18th century Islam -between the years 1716 and 1718 she lived with in Istanbul with her husband, who was the British ambassador to Turkey -wrote a series of letters about her experiences that were publishes a year after her death -she praised the Ottoman society and urged the English to copy the Turkish practice of vaccination against smallpox in her Turkish Embassy Letters -she had private access to he private quarters of women in Istanbul -despite upper-class Turkish women had to wear clothing that completely covered them in public, she thought that they were remarkably free and that their husbands treated them well -she actually believed that the anonymity that being fully covered granted women allowed them to move freely in Istanbul -also considered the Ottoman architecture to be better than anything in Western Europe -declared that many of the hostile comments about Islam and Islamic morality were wrong

Catherine de Medici (1519-1589)

-she was the mother of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III -was regent to her second son Charles IX -her top priorities were to protect her sons and to protect the royal family (Valois) -would constantly shift alliances between 3 families in order to maintain power

Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673)

-she was the wife of the duke of Newcastle, which introduced her into a circle of natural philosophers -made significant contributions to the scientific literature of the day -as a girl, she was privately tutored and became widely read -understood the new science, quarreled with the ideas of Descartes and Hobbes, she criticized the Royal Society for being more interested in novel scientific instruments than in solving practical problems -her most important works were Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) and Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1688) -was the only woman in the 17th century who was allowed to visit a meeting of the Royal Society of London -composed a Description of a New World, Called the Blazing World (1666) to introduce women to the new science

The Renaissance (1375-1527)

-signaled by a rebirth of learning, culture, and commercialism -located in Italy -there was a growing lay control of secular thought and culture -people began to approach the world empirically and draw rational conclusions based on observation -Greek and Roman manuscripts were sought out during this time -urban economy became based on organized commerce and capitalism -Italian city states would become powerful -despotism emerged -humanism would become the philosophy of this -goal was to get back to the Golden Age

Peace of Nijmwegen (1678)

-signed with different parties in successive years -France gained more territory by the provisions of this treaty including the Franche-Comté

Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790)

-son of Maria Theresa and co-ruled with her from the years 1765 to 1780 -he was a ruler the embodied rational and impersonal force -was an austere and humorless person -he prided himself on a narrow, passionless rationality, which he sought to impose by his own will on the various Habsburg domains -despite his personal eccentricities and old personality, he sincerely wanted to improve the lives of his people -after the War of Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa worked hard to strengthen the power of the crown by building a larger, more effective bureaucracy, imposing a more effective system of taxation, establishing central councils to handle governmental problems, expanding primary education, having concern for the peasants and the serfs, and expanding royal authority over the nobility in order to protect serfs from lords by limiting the amount of labor landowners could demand from serfs -he was more determined than Maria Theresa for he wanted to extend his territory at the expense of Poland, Bavaria, and the Ottoman Empire, but more than anything, he wanted to exert more control over the Habsburg territories and take the power of regional rulers, specifically the Hungarian autonomy, by imposing central authority on areas of political and social life -to reduce the Hungarian autonomy, he refused to crown himself king of Hungary in an effort to avoid having to guarantee Hungary's existing privileges or extend new ones -he also sent the Crown of Saint Stephen, a symbol of the Hungarian state, sent to the Imperial Treasury in Vienna -he then proceeded to reorganize the Hungarian government to increase the authority of his own officials and also required the use of German in all governmental matters -he was a practicing Catholic, however he extended freedom of worship to Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox worshippers, he allowed these groups to build churches, operate their own schools, enter skilled trades, and hold academic appointments and positions of public service -he relaxed rules against Jews, but did not fully grant them equality -he sought to bring the Roman Catholic Church directly under royal control by forbidding the bishops of his realm to communicate directly with the pope, closing more than 600 monasteries, confiscating the church's lands, creating new parishes in areas where there was a shortage of priests, and reorganizing the training of priests where seminaries were put under governmental supervision and priests became employees of the state -he abolished internal tarriffs on trade, encouraged road building, and improved river transport in order to improve the economic life of his lands -he also personally inspected farms and manufacturing districts, reconstructed the judicial system in order to make laws more uniform and rational, did not abolish the authority of landlords over peasants, but he did seek to make the authority more moderate and subject to oversight of royal officials, granted peasants the right to marry, to engage in skilled work and to have their children learn a skill -he also wanted to reduce the traditional burdens on peasants in an effort to make them more productive and industrious farmers -during his reign all owners of land were to be taxed regardless of social status, however nobles blocked the implementation of this decree

Charles II (1660-1685)

-son of executed Charles I -restored after Glorious Restoration -was asked by leaders of England's armed forces to return and take the throne -took throne and immediately restored England to the normalcy of 1642 with a hereditary monarch, a Parliament of Lords and Commons -advocated religious toleration however Parliament passed the Clarendon Code and the Test Act -issued the Declaration of Indulgence -was a Closet Catholic -had an alliance with Louis XIV of France and got funding from him -signed Treaty of Dover with Louis XIV -Titus Oates Scandal

the creation of nation states

-sovereign monarchs began to consolidate and centralize their power -the nobility and the clergy were in decline and were less able to block the power of growing national monarchies after the Hundred Years' War and the Great Schism in the church -representative assemblies such as parliament and estates general, lost power for the powers of taxation, war making, and law enforcement no longer belonged to them -loyal, business-wise townspeople were increasingly staffing the royal offices, rather than nobles and clergy -feudal societies were broken because of the new alliance between the King and the townspeople -monarchies also started to create standing national armies resulting in the infantry and artillery replacing noble cavalry -there was an increase in nationalism

Schism in Russian Orthodox Church

-split between people who wanted to reform the Orthodox Church and the people who did not want reform (Old Believers) -Peter sides with the reformers

The Northern Renaissance

-starts after the Hundred Years War in the Northern countries (France, Germany, England, etc.) -inspired by the Italian Renaissance -scholars of this would create conditions that would lead to the Protestant Reformation for they read the original Latin texts of the Church fathers and saw many inconsistencies to the dominant Catholic Church -humanists during this period came from more diverse social backgrounds and were more devoted to religious reform than Italian humanists -the development of print (moveable type) gave way to the popularization of northern humanists, the Church and state's opinions freely and to a wider audience

Silesian Wars (1740-42, 1744-45, 1756-63)

-starts with Fredrick the Great invading Silesia, which was a Habsburg territory owned by Maria Theresa, which meant he violated the Pragmatic Sanction that allowed Maria Theresa to stay ruler of the HRE -it is also known as the War of Austrian Succession -there were 3 wars in which Prussia wins all 3 -this leads to the Partition of Poland

Peter the Great (1689-1725)

-strengthens absolutism and takes the title Emperor of all Russia in 1711 -going to change Russia into a modern European country -rapidly transforms Russia on modern lines -embraces Western culture and forces Russians to embrace Western culture -has a volatile personality (extremely bipolar) -he tortured his son, ruthlessly killed his opponents, and was a raging alcoholic -he was unwilling to sacrifice his power -focuses on beautifying Russia -rejected tradition and court ceremony -devout Orthodox Christian, but hated the Church -extends government control over the Russian Orthodox Church -creates strong loyal army and disbands the streltsy -ruthlessly crushes boyar revolts

War of 1499-1504

-successor of Charles VIII, Louis XII (r: 1498-1515) returns to Italy aligned with Pope Alexander VI, who was known as the most corrupt Pope in history who aligned his Church policies with his personal ambition to gain power and land -Alexander VI aligned with Louis XII in order to gain the lost territory in Romagna during the years that the papacy operated from Avignon -In 1499, Louis II and his French army invaded Milan and conquered Naples who was split in half between Louis and Ferdinand -Alexander and his son Cesare Borgia conquered the cities of Romagna without opposition and Cesare was given the title as duke of Romagna -Pope Julius II (r: 1503-1513) succeeded Alexander Vi and fought to place the lands under the control of the Borgia family in the Romagna under papal jurisdiction -Julius would form the Holy League with Ferdinand in 1511 and would eventually be joined by the alliance of Venice, Emperor Maximilian I, and the Swiss -The Holy League was successful in driving France from Italy

Cardinal Mazarin (1642-1661)

-successor of Richelieu -Prime Minister to Louis XIV -imposes Richelieu's laws and adds a corvée to take away the labor peasants did for nobles (limiting nobles power)

Thomas Cranmer

-teaches Edward VI (Henry's son) -makes many Protestant Changes under the reign of Edward VI -writes the Book of Common Prayer

Bohemian Phase (1618-1621)

-the Bohemians (Czechs) were mainly Calvinist and they wanted more autonomy from the HRE -war broke out when Ferdinand II (extremely Catholic) became king and revoked the religious freedoms of Bohemian Protestants -Protestants responded with the Defenestration of Prague 1618 -Protestants declared the Calvinist elector Palatine, Frederick V (1616-1623) as their king after Ferdinand II became Holy Roman Emperor -This phase ended with the Battle of White Mountain -Ferdinand would give away the lands of Protestant nobles and enable the Spanish to consolidate power along the Rhine River -Protestants lose this phase and Bohemia gets re-catholicized by 1622

Counter Reformation

-the Church's attempt to reform itself to stop the Protestant Reformation after losing political and social influence -England breaking away from Church gives them a wake up call -Pope Hall III gives Casper Contavini (priest) job of investigating the accusations made against the Church from reformers

Leopold I

-the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia -he was able to defend Habsburgs lands against Turkish aggression -he also defeated the Turks when they laid siege on Vienna leading the Habsburgs to take control of much of the Balkan Peninsula -made gains in Romania at the expense of the Ottoman Empire

Ferdinand II (1619-1637)

-the Habsburg King of Bohemia -becomes elected as the Holy Roman Emperor -wants all of his lands to be Catholic

Divine Right of Kings

-the belief that God chose the monarch -only God could judge a king -sin to kill the King -Jacques Benigne Bousset (tutor of Louis XIV) says that anything is beholden to the king -Bousset also says "L'état c'est moi" meaning I am the state

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)

-the brother of the king of Portugal -set foot in Americas 77 years prior to Columbus -captured North African Muslim city of Ceuta where he was in search for gold and slaves -he also laughed missionary efforts in Ceuta in order to save the Muslims and pagans who had no knowledge of Christ -his expedition started the Portuguese exploration of the African coast

vernacular

-the common language of the people -ex) French, Italian, and German

Mary Queen of Scots (1542-1587)

-the daughter of King James V of Scotland and Mary of Guise -was married to king Francis II, but he died in 1561 -Extremist Catholics want her to replace Elizabeth I and approach her about permission to assassin Elizabeth, however the plot was discovered and she was executed for treason -here execution lead Pope Sixtus V to publicly announce his support for Catholic Spain's invasion of Protestant England

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

-the document that accepts the political principle that a region's ruler determined its religion (cuius regio, eius religio) and it also made Lutheranism a legal confession in the Holy Roman Empire -did not extend to non-Lutheran Protestants -ends the first stage of Protestant Reformation -makes political consolidation almost impossible until 19th century

Rudolf Agricola (1433-1485)

-the father of German humanism -spent 10 years in Italy and introduced Italian learning to Germany when he returned

Giotto (1266-1336)

-the father of Renaissance painting -signaled the new direction -was inspired by his love for Saint Francis, for they shared a love for nature, to paint a more natural world -still devoutly religious in practice and theme, but his works were no longer abstract and unnatural like middle age paintings

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374)

-the father of humanism -left the legal profession to pursue letters and poetry -he was involved in a popular revolt in Rome in 1347 to 1349 -his critical textual studies, elitism, and contempt for the learning of the Scholastics were things that later humanists would share -wrote In Praise of Antiquity, which criticizes his contemporaries for their ignorance of ancient writers and it also shows his commitment to classical learning -Classical and Christian values coexisted in his works -in his Letters to the Ancient Dead, he celebrated Ancient Rome -he wrote personal letters to Cicero, Livy, Virgil, and Horace -wrote a Latin epic poem, Africa, which was a tribute to Roman general Scipio Africanus, as well as biographies of famous Roman men -his most famous contemporary work was his Sonnets to Laura, who was a married woman that he admired romantically from a safe distance -in his later years, he served the Visconti family in Milan

Public Debate with John Eck

-the first response of the Church in 1519 -Eck connects Luther's ideas to a convicted heretic's ideas.

Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825)

-the foremost French Neoclassical painter -used ancient republican themes in the 1780s to emphasize the corruption of the French monarchical government -His Other of the Hortii illustrates scene derived from the story of the Roman Livy, of soldiers taking an oath vowing to die for the Roman Republic and while the brothers take the oath to defend the republic with their lives, the women in the scene appear too emotional to enter the m

Swedish-French Phase (1635-1648)

-the fourth and final phase of the Thirty Years War -also known as the International Phase -Denmark (Protestant) enters war on the side of HRE (Catholic) to stop Swedish expansion -France (Catholic) and Spain (Catholic) enter the war on side of Sweden (Protestant) -Germany becomes battleground for armies and would get devastated -By 1644, the war killed an estimated one-third of the German population -The HRE and Denmark get defeated

Philosophes

-the intellectual thinkers during the Enlightenment -the writers and critics who flourished in the expansion of print culture and who took lead in forging the new attitudes that were favorable to change, championed reform, and advocated religious toleration -their goals were to apply common sense and rationality to all aspects of life especially government, to criticize traditional practices and beliefs of government that violate common sense, and to work towards what they viewed as a better society guided by research -they targeted demographics, which included the Bourgeoisie

Henry III (1574-1589)

-the last of Henry II's sons to wear the French crown -found the monarchy divided between a radical Catholic league and radical Huguenots -he would shift between sides -received support from both neutral Catholics and Huguenots who wanted to put the political survival of France above its religious unity.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

-the major work of European psychology during the 18th century -believed the mind to be a "blank tablet" at birth whose content would e determined by sense experience; therefore, the human condition could be improved by changing the environment

Case of Galileo (1633)

-the most famous incident of conflict between modern science and religious institutions -after the Council of Trent, the Catholic Church taught a more literal interpretation of scripture in order to respond to Protestant criticisms and it did not want to surrender the interpretation of scripture to a layman like Galileo -Galileo published a Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615) in order to explain how scripture should be interpreted to accommodate the new science -Galileo chooses to defend himself -the Church wants Galileo to recant his ideas, but Galileo does not recant -Galileo argues that if one wants to find information about the natural world, the Bible is not the place to find that information -Galileo is found as a heretic and is condemned for his discoveries -Galileo is forced to recant his theories in order to not receive the punishment of a heretic -this event symbolizes the Church's repression of learning -In 1992, Pope John Paul II formally ordered the reassessment of the Galileo case and the Roman Catholic Church admitted that errors had occurred, particularly in the biblical interpretations of Pope Urban VIII's advisors

Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)

-the most famous northern humanist who made it clear in his works that devout Catholics wanted to reform the Church -he as both an educational and religious reformer -was Dutch and non-partisan -he prepared short Latin dialogues called Colloquies, for his students in order to teach them good manners of speech and how to live well -these were also anticlerical dialogues and satires on religious dogmatism -he also collected over 5,000 ancient and contemporary proverbs in a book titled Adages -wanted to unite classical ideals of humanity and civic virtue with the Christian ideals of love and piety -believed that disciplined study of the classics and the Bible, if begun early enough, was the best way to reform individuals and society -philosophia Christi: the phrase that he used to summarize his beliefs of a simple, ethical piety in imitation of Christ, which was in contrast to what he believed to be the dogmatic, ceremonial, and bullying religious practices of the later Middle Ages -he did not like the Scholastics because they let their dogma and arguments overshadow Christian piety -was critical of the corrupted practices of the Roman Catholic Church like veneration of saints -was a true idealist and expected more from people than the theologians believed them capable of doing -he translated old Christian texts from Latin and Greek into vernacular languages so that they were more available to more people -most famous work was In Praise of Folly (1509) -In the mid 16th century his works were put on the church's Index of Forbidden Books -Luther used his translations when he translated the New Testament to German in 1522 -"Laid the egg that Luther hatched"

Village origins of witchcraft

-the origins for the belief in witches are found in both poplar and elite culture -people in village societies respected "cunning folk" which helped the simple folk cope with disasters by magical means -possession of magical powers made one an important person in a village -oftentimes widowed-women were those who needed to boost their social prestige -witch beliefs in village societies were a way to defy urban Christian society attempts to impose orthodox beliefs, laws, and institutions on the countryside

Versailles (built: 1676-1708)

-the palace of Louis XIV -made with baroque style called Rococo -he used this palace to exert political control -dominated nobility by proving he could outspend them on social displays -cost approx 1/3 of the entire national budget throughout 32 years of contruction -housed thousands of the more important nobles, royal officers, and servants; the nobles in theory, grew dependent upon the king -ritual and etiquette were very important at Versailles and moments near the king were important to most court nobles who were excluded from the real business of government -court life revolved around Louis' daily routine -court life=socially and politically no power and expensive -palace became center for big/major government events -hall of mirrors

Simony

-the practice of selling church positions to the highest bidder -higher the position, the more it costs -problem with this way that these people were not qualified

Danish Phase (1625-1629)

-the second phase of the thirty years war -Christian IV of Denmark (1588-1630), a Lutheran would start this phase by invading the HRE in order to bolster the weakened Protestant position in Germany and to annex German lands for his son -Ferdinand II HRE, countered by commissioning Albrect of Wallenstein to raise a mercenary army, which pillaged and plundered Germany and defeated the Danish -Ferdinand issues the Edict of Restitution in 1629 -He revokes the Peace of Augsburg and prolongs the war

Catherine Parr

-the sixth wife of Henry -a patron of humanists and reformers -Henry was her third husband -outlived Henry VIII

Epistemology

-the study of what is true -philosophical method to arrive at what constitutes knowledge

Influence of Scientific Revolution on Enlightenment

-the universe is rational and everything in the universe is rational -something rational should make something rational, therefore the government should be rational too

Mechanism

-the view that the universe is a machine -sees a universe that is rid of unpredictability

Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464)

-the wealthiest Florentine and natural statesmen -controlled Florence from behind the scenes by manipulating the constitution and the elections -did not want to be in the public eye therefore he never held an official position -everything that he does is to support the medici family -kept the councilors that were loyal to him in the Signoria -favored congenial factions -sponsored artists, architectures, and etc. -gained the support of the people in Florence by spending a tremendous amount of money on beautifying Florence -he is the perfect example of Renaissance despotism

Rules of Calvinism

-the whole household has to attend church services every Sunday, except for the person who has to left at home to take care of the children and the house -if there is preaching on week days, all who can come must come, unless there is a good excuse, but one person from each household should be there -those who have servants should bring them when it is possible, so they have instruction -If you come late, you will be punished -Church is only open when there is service so no one can go with superstitious motives -If anyone is found with superstition, he should be punished

Emergence of Print Culture

-there was a huge demand for printed works -the volume of printed material (books, journals, magazines, and daily newspapers) increased immensely throughout Europe, but especially in Britain during the 18th century -Prose became valued as highly as poetry and the novel emerged as a distinct literary genre -the increase in literacy in Europe contributed to this -a growing concern with everyday life and material concerns with secular issues as opposed to religious issues accompanied this as well -novels often provided moral and social instruction that religious books once provided -books were inexpensive in 18th century -private and public libraries emerged allowing copies to reach many readers

Fragmented Germany

-there were about 360 autonomous political entities in Germany with independent secular principalities, ecclesiastical principalities numerous free cities, and knights ruling small areas from castles -The Peace of Augsburg gave each of them sovereignty within its borders -had their own tolls and tariffs -each coined their own money -land travel and trade became difficult -became decentralized -because of its wealth and central location in Europe an incentive for invasion increases

Peter and the Russian Orthodox Church

-they do not get along -Peter needed iron to make cannons -to get iron, Peter steals Church bells all around Russia -also after some bishops had sympathized with Peter's son, Peter abolished the Patriarch, the bishop who had been the head of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1721

Small Merchant Class in Russia

-they lived near the Archangelsk (the port) -population of class consisted of foreigners -limited trade with England through Archangelsk

Ferdinand of Aragon (r: 1479-1516) and Isabella of Castile (r: 1474-1504)

-they married in 1469 and unified two poorly ruled and divided kingdoms, Castile and Aragon -their marriage created a new power in Europe alarming both France and Portugal -Castile had a larger population and was wealthier than Aragon -Though Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage, they remained separate for they each had separate laws, armies, coinage, taxation, and cultural traditions -together they were able to subdue their kingdoms, secure their borders, venture abroad militarily, and Christianize all of Spain -During the years 1482 to 1504, they conquered the Moors in Granada, made Naples a Spanish possession, and conquered the kingdom of Navarre in the north -they also won the allegiance of a powerful league of cities and towns that served them rather than the noble landowners -prior to their rule, Spain was a place where Islam, Judaism, Christianity coexisted with a certain degree of toleration, however that changed when they made Spain the ideal example of a state-controlled religion -they exiled non-converting Jews as well as confiscated their property in 1492 and exiled non-converting Moors in 1502 -they sponsored Christopher Columbus' oversea exploration leading to the creation of the Spanish Empire in Mexico and Peru, whose gold and silver mines helped make Spain Europe's dominant power in the 16th century, as well as the wealthiest nation in Europe

Bourbons Family

-they were a moderate Huguenot family -were powerful in the south and west of France -Louis I Prince of Conde

Montmorency-Chatlillons Family

-they were militant/radical Huguenots -controlled the center of France -Gaspard Coligny

Northern Humanists

-they were more focused on religious reform and improving the quality of life for Christians -they were also more willing to write to a lay audience -they diverged from Italian thinkers

Guises Family

-they were the most powerful family and were dominant in eastern France -militant and radical Catholic -closely linked to the French monarchy -Guise and Henry of Guise

The Social Contract (1762)

-this book outlines the political structure that Rousseau believed would help overcome the evils of contemporary politics and society (his solution for society) -he sees that man is inauthentic -his opening line states "All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains" -he believed that society is more important than its individuals meaning that each person could maintain personal freedom while behaving as a loyal member of the larger community -"man surrenders his individual liberty to the collective whole of citizens who in turn govern using reason and common sense according to the general will" implying that the decisions of the general will, will be guided by reason and common sense and that the worst ideas will be eliminated -the general will can never be wrong because it is in the best interest of most people -those who do not follow the general will, will be forced to -this justifies dictatorship

Louis' Military Goal

-to secure international boundaries for France -to frustrate Habsburg ambitions that endangered France

Duke of Orleans

-uncle and regent to Louis V -was marked by moral and financial scandals decreasing the prestige of the French monarchy -would turn over the financial management of France to John Law, a Scottish mathematician and fellow gambler -weakened the monarchy in France by drawing the nobility back into the decision-making processes of the government by setting up a system of councils on which nobles served (failed) -reversed the policy of Louis XIV and reinstitute the full power of Parlement

The Holy Roman Empire during Consolidation of European States

-unlike France, England, and Spain, who began to politically centralize, the Holy Roman Empire continued to partition their kingdoms and by the late 15th century, Germany was divided into over 300 autonomous political entities -The Golden Bull was established by Emperor Charles IV and major German territorial rulers in 1356 to create law and order within the divided empire -the rights of the princes in the HRE were always balanced against the power of the emperor -in 15th century, constant fighting led to the creation of an imperial diet known as the Reichstag -the princes would become virtually sovereign rulers to their various domains in the 16th and 17th centuries

Address to the Christian Nobility of German Nations

-urging all German nobles to force reform on the Church -Luther does this to solidify his alliance with the German nobles

Duke of Sully, Chief Minister of France

-was Henry IV's chief minister -ruled France in the name of the King when Henry IV was too busy -wants to consolidate power in France -targets finances by making new laws restricting local nobles from creating new taxes bc no money=no power -new additional revenue streams are gone -he would fight against tax evasion by appointing royal tax collectors

Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543)

-was a Polish priest and scientist -educated at the University of Krakow -first philosopher to question the traditional view of the universe -was influenced by a Scholastic named William of Ockham who had the idea of Ockham's Razor -realizes that if you move the sun from the outside to the center, it becomes easier to calculate the revolutions of Planets -published "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" in 1543 -provided an intellectual springboard for a complete criticism of the then-dominant view of the position of Earth in the universe -helped the papacy reform the calendar so it could correctly calculate the date for Easter based on a more accurate understanding of astronomy

Thomas More (1478-1535)

-was a close friend of Erasmus -best known English humanist -wrote Utopia -became King Henry VIII's top advisor -was executed in July 1535 for refusing to accept the Act of Supremacy as well as recognize the marriage of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)

-was a controversial Jewish Enlightenment thinker -lived in the Netherlands and advocated for a secularized version of Judaism -was heavily influenced by Descartes -looked to the power of human reason to reconceptulize traditional thought -his works include Theologico-Political Treatise (1670) and Ethics -seen as a sell out by the people of the Enlightenment -Jews hate him because of his stance of championing toleration while condemning Judaism itself (would later characterize the outlook of many non-Jewish Europeans regarding the assimilation of Jews into European civic life) and Jewish communities could not welcome this outlook without considerable modification

Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523)

-was a fiery knight who fused humanism with nationalism and spread ideas that were hostile toward people of non-German cultures -admired Erasmus -attacked indulgences -published an edition of Valla's exposé of the Donation of Constantine -involved in Reuchlin Affair

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

-was a lawyer, nab;e pf the robe, and a member of a provincial parliament -belonged to the Bordeaux Academy of Science where he presented papers on scientific topics -saw a need for reform -used Islamic culture as a reason to criticize European society -wrote Persian Letters (1721), which was a satire of European culture from the perspective of two Muslim travelers -publishes Spirit of Laws in 1748

Treaty of Dover (1670)

-was a secret treaty between England and France to become allies with each other against the Dutch, their chief commercial competitor -secret part of the treaty was that Charles II promised to announce his conversion to Catholicism as soon as conditions in England allowed for it -Louis XIV promised to pay Charles II a substantial subsidy for his conversion to Catholicism

Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

-was born a German princess -married the descendant of Peter the Great, Peter III of Russia -Peter III was a weak ruler who many contemporaries considered to be mad, and as czar he immediately exempted the nobles from compulsory military service and made peace with Fredrick the Great who he greatly admired, however a few months after his succession as czar, he was murdered with Catherine's approval -while she was in the court of Elizabeth (Peter's aunt who he succeeded) she befriended important nobles and read the books of the philosophes -after Peter III died, she was immediately proclaimed empress -became familiar with the Enlightenment and the culture of Western Europe and came to the conclusion that Russia was backward and it needed major reforms in order to remain a great power -she expanded educational opportunities for very select Russians, tried to improve life for Russians, and made beautification projects to beautify Russia, specifically St. Petersburg -she wanted to revise law in Russia, so she invited over 500 delegates from different walks of life to participate in the legislative commission that she summoned to help her revise Russia's law and government where she opened with an address that she wrote herself that included instructions to incorporate key ideas of the philosophes in the new legal code, however reform of Russian law did not take place until 50 years later -the conference ended up gathering information about local economics and administration -she gave strong support to the boyars, therefore she received support from them -she appealed to the Boyars because she expanded Russia into the Ottoman Empire, who were enemies of Russia, which allowed for more economic opportunities, more land, and etc, she also gained the Crimean peninsula where she created another warm-water port on the Black Sea, and in 1785 she issued the Charter of the Nobility -she wanted to continue the economic developments that Peter the Great had started by attempting to suppress internal barriers on trade -exporting grains, flax, furs, and naval supplies drastically grew -tried to maintain ties of friendships and correspondence with the philosophes in order for them to give her a progressive reputation throughout Europe -the Pugachev Rebellion would end her enlightened despotism

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

-was not a very influential scientist -he did not believe Copernicus' view (heliocentric model) -spent much of his life advcating for a geocentric system -suggested that Mercury and Venus revolved around the sun but the moon, the sun, and the other planets revolved around the Earth -worked on the math to prove his theory for 30 years -collected a tremendous amount of very detailed data of his observations -left all of his work for Kepler therefore paving way for Kepler

Kievan Russia

-was seen as a backward country bc politically and geographically lay on the periphery and never emerged as a major commercial power because it lacked consistent access to warm-water ports -Follows the Russian Orthodox Church, which looks eastward to Constantinople -Byzantine Influence -Cyrillic alphabet -Mongol Conquest sets Russia back -views any western influence as corrupted

Henry VII of England (r: 1485-1509)

-was the first King of the new Tudor dynasty -in order to bring the rivaling Lancaster and York families together as well as secure the hereditary claim of his offspring to the throne, he marries Elizabeth of York, Edward IV's daughter -creates with the sanction of Parliament in 1487, the Court of Star Chamber -manipulates English law in order to confiscate lands and fortunes from nobles -he was also able to manage the government without depending on Parliament for royal funds -his reign began to shape a monarchy that would later develop into one of early modern Europe's most exceptional governments

Spanish Armada

-was the greatest navy in the world -Philip II sent 130 ships to England -To a shock to everyone, they were defeated in a devastating fashion by English and Netherlands' ships -major turning point because it marked the decline of Spain's power and England began to establish a global empire -would make England's navy the strongest in the world until WWII

John Locke (1632-1704)

-was the most influential philosophical and political thinker of the 17th century -his family had Puritan sympathies -his father fought on the side of Parliament in the English Civil War -was a close associate of Ashley Cooper, the earl of Shaftesbury and was considered radical; they were both forced to flee to Holland after Shaftesbury organized an unsuccessful rebellion to overthrow Charles II -wrote First Treatise of Government (1689), which was proved enormously important because it cleared the philosophical decks of a long-standing traditional argument that could not stand up to rigorous analysis -also wrote Second Treatise of Government (1689), Letters Concerning Toleration (1689), and Essay Concerning Human Toleration (1690) -had an optimistic view of man -believes that man has the ability to cooperate -he criticized absolutism -believed that all we are is a collection of experiences -believes that when we are born, we enter the world with a tabula rasa -influenced by Newton -environment and education is very important to Locke -was a contract theorist

Jean-Antinone Watteau (1684-1721)

-was the most prominent artist -painted Pilgrimage to Isle of Cithera where young lovers embark to pay homage to the goddess Venus

Almagest (150 C.E.)

-was the standard explanation of the place of the earth in the heavens which combined the mathematical astronomy of Ptolemy with the physical cosmology of Aristotle -considered the authority on astronomy throughout the Middle Ages -suggested a geocentric model of the universe (Earth is the center of the universe)

Baroque Style

-was the style associated with 17th century paintings, sculptures, and architecture -artists depict subjects in a more naturalistic way rather than an idealized manner -faith and interest in nature paralleled the new science and understanding of the natural world -deeper understanding of human anatomy -baroque artists included Michelangelo Caravaggio (Italian), Louis LeNain (Dutch), and Gian Lorenzo Bernini -became associated with Roman Catholicism and absolutism -painters portrayed biblical scenes from the lives of saints, which were intended to instruct the observer in religious truths -King Charles I of England ruled in 1630s hired the Roman Catholic Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens to decorate the ceiling of Banqueting Hall at his palace in London

Women during the Scientific Revolution

-women were excluded from the growing advances in science -it was suggested that women's ideas about medical practice, philosophy, and biology made them and their minds different from and inferior to men -women were able to exercise influence over princely courts where natural philosophers like Galileo went for patronage, but they usually did not determine the patronage decisions or benefit from them -Queen Christina of Sweden (r: 1632-1654) had a major impact on the development of science because she brought René Descartes to Stockholm to provide the regulations for a new science academy, but she was an exception to women in science -there was virtually no social spaces that might have permitted women to pursue science easily -women associated with artisan crafts achieved greater freedom to pursue the new sciences than noblewomen did -a few noblewomen and women from the artisan class however did manage to engage in scientific activity such as Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673), Maria Cunitz, Bernard Fontenelle (Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds), Francesco Algarotti (Newtonianism for the Ladies 1737), and Emilie du Châtelet -Elisabetha and Johannes Hevelius and Maria and Gottfried Winkelmann constituted husband-wife astronomical teams, however the wife served as the assistant to to an artisan astronomer -Winkelmann worked with her husband at the Berlin Academy of Sciences, but after his death her application to continue their work was rejected -still with few exceptions, women were barred from science and medicine until the late 19th century and not until the 20th century did they enter these fields in significant numbers

Frederick William I (1713-1740)

-worked tirelessly building the Prussian military -military grew from about 39,000 in 1713 to over 80,000 in 1740 -the fourth largest army in Europe -spends a fortune on military in an effort to promote militarism and consolidation -the officer corps became the highest social class in Prussian state and military priorities and values dominated Prussian society, government, and daily life during his reign -showed off army for the purpose of intimidation

Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford (1593-1641)

-worked to centralize the power of the monarchy -took advantage of every legal fundraising device -enforced previously neglected laws -extended existing taxes in new areas

Book of the Courtier

-written by Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529) -it was written for the nobility at the court of Urbino which was a small duchy in central Italy -it provided humanists guidelines for the standard of education and etiquette to which a member of court ought to aspire

On Crimes and Punishment (1764)

-written by Beccaria -applied critical analysis to the problem of making punishments both effective and just -scorned torture and capital punishment -believed that torture is not common sense -wanted the laws of monarchs and legislatures to conform with the rational laws of nature -believed that the purpose of laws was not to impose the will of God or some other ideal of perfection, but to secure the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number of human beings -believed that laws and punishments should be governed by reason -encouraged the judicial system to grant speedy trials and to deal out punishments designed to deter further crime

The Treasure of the City of Ladies

-written by Christine de Pisan (1363-1434) who was the Italian daughter of the physical and astrologer of French King Charles V -her most notable poem -it was a chronicle of the accomplishments of the great women of history

The Prince (1513)

-written by Machiavelli -a handbook on how to become a dictator -encourages rulers to use fraud and except to maintain power -believes that morals and ethics should not play a role in a rulers decision -also believed that the scholastics are more innovative because they make something new from something old -"ends justify the means" meaning that the goal justifies the way in which we got there -believes that if one had to choose, it is is better to be feared than loved because feared people are respected and obeyed

Spirit of Laws (1748)

-written by Montesquieu -one of the most influential books of the century -exhibits the internal tensions of the Enlightenment -Montesquieu pursues an empirical method, taking illustrative examples from the political experience of both ancient and modern polities leading him to conclude that no single set of political laws cold apply to all people at all times and in all places -believed good political life depended on the relationships among many variables such as what the best form of government for a country was (monarchy or republic), which depended on the country's size, population, social and religious customs, economic structure, traditions, and climate -for France he favored a monarchical government, but believed that the power of the monarch should be limited by aristocratic groups like parliament, corporate bodies, and the towns -believes that liberty and freedom cannot exist if all power is concentrated in one institution -advocates for the separation of power where he admires the English system of separation of power in government: the legislative, judicial, and executive branch (checks and balances) -this book also explains how the excessive influence of Islamic religious leaders prevented the Ottoman Empire from adapting itself to new advances in technology

On the Morals That Befit a Free Man

-written by Pietro Paolo Vergerio (1349-1420) -the most influential tract on education encouraging the ideal of a useful education -it also explained that well-rounded people inspired far-reaching reforms in traditional education

Utopia (1516)

-written by Thomas More -it is a conservative criticism of contemporary society -it rivals the plays of Shakespeare as the most read 16th century English work -it portrayed an imaginary society that was based on reason and tolerance that overcame social and political justice by holding all property and goods in common as well as required everyone to earn own bread by doing their own work

Candide (1759)

-written by Voltaire -his response to critics of his deeply pessimistic poem commemorating the massive earthquake that struck Lisbon, Portugal, killing at least 60,000 people -it is still a widely read satire -it attacks war, religious persecution, and what he considered unwarranted optimism about the human condition

Letters on the English (1733)

-written by Voltaire -praises the virtues of the English, especially their religious toleration -implicitly criticizes the abuses of French society -Parlement of Paris condemned this book

Treatise on Toleration (1763)

-written by Voltaire -he wrote this after learning about the execution of a Huguenot, Jean Calas, who had been accused of murdering his son to prevent him from converting to Roman Catholicism -Calas was publicly tortured and strangled to death -he hounded the authors for a new investigation

Leviathan (1651)

-written shortly after the English Civil War -philosophically advocates for an absolutist government -Hobbes traced all psychological processes to bare sensation and regarded all human motivations as egotistical -it was intended to increase pleasure and minimize pain -rejected the idea that the state should not be obeyed when it violated God's law -believes human beings only exist to meet the needs of daily life rather than spiritual ends or any moral purpose -thought that rulers should be absolute and have unlimited power for he believed that the dangers of anarchy (no government) to be greater than tyranny -also believed that humans in a natural state are creatures of uncontrolled passion and selfishness so they need to be governed by an absolute ruler or there would be constant warfare -represents a giant sea monster that destroys the world

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375)

-wrote Decameron -assembled an encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology -also conflicted with Scholastics

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

-wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792 as a response to the implementation of Rousseau's views on women during the French Revolution -she accused Rousseau of attempting to narrow women's visions and limit their experience -believed that by separating women and men in different worlds, women were essentially tyrannized by men

Causes of the Reformation

1. Corruption of the Roman Catholic Church 2. Impact of Renaissance (humanism questioned Church traditions) 3. Prosperity brought the "virtue of of poverty" into disrepute and the Church lost the "spirit of Christ's message and was out of touch with the mass of believers 4. Declining prestige of papacy 5. Influence of religious reformers 6. Resentment of secular rulers over the power of the popes and clergy 7. Resistance to the power of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V 8. Invention of the printing press

Major Themes of Protestant Reformation

1. Factors that led to Reformation 2. Division within the Reformation 3. Catholic Response (Counter Reformation)

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

1. Planets move in elliptical orbits 2. Planets velocity is not uniform, but changes due to proximity of the sun 3. The square of the revolution of any 2 planets are proportional to the mean distance of the sun (planets are moving in a mathematical fashion)

four-stage theory of human societies

1. hunter-gather 2. pastoral or herding 3. agricultural 4. commercial (Smith believed that this was a more civilized system than the first 3)

Cornelius Jansen (d. 1638)

A Flemish theologian and the bishop of Ypres. He published Augustinus in 1640 which condemned Jesuit teaching on grace and salvation as morally lax

Gotthold Lessing (1729-1781)

A German playwright who wrote Nathan the Wise as a plea for toleration of not only Christian sects, but for people of all religious faiths

Jansenism

A Roman Catholic religious movement in opposition to the theology and the political influence of the Jesuits. They adhered to the teachings of St. Augustine that had also influenced many Protestant doctrines. They particularly opposed Jesuit teachings about free will. They believed with Augustine that original sin had so corrupted humankind that individuals could by their own effort do nothing good nor contribute anything to their own salvation. They defended Gallican Liberties and were Roman Catholic Puritans.

Theocracy

A government controlled by religious leaders

El Escorial

A massive palace that uses a Spanish baroque style that has influence from Jewish and Muslim architecture

Reformation

A religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches.

Pragmatic Sanction

A series of agreements between Charles VI HRE, his family, and other rulers of Europe (including Frederick-William I) to recognize his daughter Maria Theresa as his rightful heir

Spanish Fury (1576)

After the death of Requesens, Spanish mercenaries, leaderless and unpaid, ran amok in Antwerp on November 4, 1576, leaving 7,000 people dead in the streets

Mercantilism

An economic theory that maximizes national prosperity, which is linked to capitalism. The difference lies in the favorable balance of trade. It was the standard economic system from the 17th century to the late 18th century. The system sought to acquire colonies in order to get resources for the mother country.

Conciliar Movement

Believed that it would be better to have a council of clergymen to act as a checks and balance system to the Pope rather than having the Pope have sole authority

Predestination

Calvin argued (from an idea of St. Augustine) that since God knows even before birth whether a person is saved or damned, there is nothing anyone can do to win salvation.

Church Government

Calvin replaced the Catholic hierarchy with a democratic system whereby each individual congregation elected its minister and governed its policies. He disagreed with Luther's claim that the church should be subordinate to the state and argued that it should actually be a moral force in the affairs of secular government. This stand encouraged theocracy, whereby Calvinism became the official religion and intolerant of dissent not only in parts of Switzerland but later in England and the Massachusetts Bay Colony in North America

Tree of Misery

Catholic army would string Protestants on the tree, and Protestant army would string Catholics on the tree

Meditations on First Philosophy (1641)

Descartes encourages an emphasis on deduction, rational, speculation, and internal reflection of the mind

Conventicle Act of 1593

Elizabeth had little tolerance for the independence-minded Congregationalists and gave them the option to conform or face exile or death

Sir Francis Drake

English explorer/pirate who circumnavigated the globe from 1577 to 1580 and was sent by Queen Elizabeth I to raid Spanish ships/settlements for gold

Edward Gibbon

English historian and author of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776) and explained the rise of Christianity in terms of natural causes rather than the influence of piety and miracles

In Praise of Folly (1509)

Erasmus' most famous work in which he repremands monks, theologians, and other Christians for failing to see the true purpose of Christian life, which was the imitation of Christ

3 Main Families of France

Guises, Bourbons, and the Montmorency-Chatilons

English Reformation

Henry VIII breaks away from the Roman Catholic Church because he wants to divorce Catherine of Aragon

the Apology

In December 1580, William of Orange publicly denounced Philip as a heathen tyrant whom the Netherlands did not need to obey

Exsurge Domine

In June 1520, Pope Leo X's papal bull condemning Luther for heresy and gave him 60 says to retract.

Babylonian Captivity/Avignon Papacy

In the fourteenth century when popes, subservient to the French king, took up residence in Avignon and lost prestige in the rest of Christendom

Impositions

James I levied new custom duties as a source of income in order to replace parliamentary approved revenues

conversos

Jews and Muslims who converted to Catholicism

The New Astronomy (1609)

Kepler used Copernicus's heliocentric model and Brahe's empirical data to solve the problem of planetary motion

Henry VIII

King of England from 1509 to 1547 and he had an obsession with getting male heir.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)

Louis XIV gained control of certain towns bordering the Spanish Netherlands

Parlement of Paris 1673

Louis clashed with them and would require them to register laws before raising any questions about them

Babylonian Captivity of the Church

Luther attacked the traditional seven sacraments, arguing that only two, Baptism and the Eucharist, were unquestionably biblical, and it exalted the authority of Scripture, church councils, and secular princes over that of the pope.

January 3, 1521

Luther gets excommunicated

Cossacks

Martial people from Eastern and Asian parts of Russia

Peter's Rise to Power

Peter takes personal control of Russia in 1689 and establishes two goals: First, to rid the czar of the threat of the jealousy of the boyars and the greed of the streltsy and second, to increase Russian military power

Margaret of Parma

Philip II's half sister who he made regent in his place in Spanish Netherlands

Sejm

Polish parliament (diet)

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

Published collections of essays as books that once appeared in newspapers and journals

Dogma

Religious doctrine

Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences (1750)

Rousseau states that the process of civilization and the Enlightenment had corrupted human nature

War of 1521-1526

Spanish troops under the Charles V HRE sacks Rome

Pantheism

Spinoza disagrees with the Jewish belief that God is all powerful, instead believes the substance of God is everywhere

Priesthood of all Believers

The Bible is the ultimate authority, not the Pope or the clergy. All believers are priests and the clergy cannot hold any power beyond that of the laity.

Conspiracy of Amboise

The Bourbon and Montmorency-Chatillion families planned, but never carried out the kidnapping of Francis II of France from his Guise advisor

Peace of Prague (1635)

The German Protestant states reached a compromise with Ferdinand, however France and the Netherlands continue to support Sweden and refuse to join the agreement, their resistance leads the war into the fourth and most devastating phase

Dutch Revolt (1556-1648)

The Netherlands revolts against Spain when Philip tries to impose Catholic doctrine within the Netherlands

Defenestration of Prague (1618)

The Protestant nobility in Prague responded to Ferdinand's act in May 1618 by throwing his three of his regents out the window of the royal palace (50 feet), none of the regents died

Battle of Pavia (1525)

The capture of King Francis I of France by forces of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V provided a basis for the first wave of Protestant persecutions

Dualism (Descartes)

The idea that mind and body are separate but intertwined

Congregationalists

The more extreme Puritans who wanted every congregation to be autonomous with neither higher episcopal nor presbyterian control

Justification of Faith Alone

The only way to achieve salvation is to have true faith in Jesus Christ. The way to have true faith is to follow the example of Jesus Christ. You do not need to do good works because you should naturally be doing good works if you have true faith.

Social Factors for Reform

There was a desire for reduction of the Roman Catholic power among political leaders

Jansen's Augustinius

Was banned from the Church along with certain Jansenists teachings for being heretical by Pope Innocent X on May 31, 1653

Jean-Antoine Houdon (1741-1828)

a French Neoclassical artist who produced numerous portraits in stone of leading philosopher such as Voltaire and Rousseau as well as American representatives of the Enlightenment like Ben Franklin and Thomas Jefferson

Pontiff

a Pope

Presbyters/Elders

a board that represented and instructed the individual congregations that were directly shaping policies both sacred and secular

Revolution

a change so drastic that people's lives can never go back to the way it was before

Signoria

a council of eight members that governed the Florence who were chosen from the most powerful guilds, mainly those representing the major clothing industries (cloth, wool, fur, and silk) and such other groups as bankers, judges, and doctors

Declaration of Indulgence (1672)

a document that suspended all religious tests and permitted free worship

Enlightened absolutism

a form of monarchical government in which central absolutist administration as strengthened and rationalized at the cost of other, lesser centers of political power, such as aristocracy, the church, and parliaments

electors

a group of seven princes who elected Charles V as the new Holy Roman Emperor

Hacienda

a large unit of land that is owned by a peninsular or a creole where the laborers are bound in some legal way to the owner and they were early allowed to move from working for one landowner to another

Repartimiento

a law that required male Indians to devote a designated number of days annually to the Spanish economic enterprises

Modern devotion

a lay institution that is devoted to reading the Bible -it is heavily involved in humanism -outwardly seeks to educate members and children -trying to train priest on their own to make future priests better than the present priests -AMONG THE PUBLIC

Pugachev Rebellion (1773-1775)

a massive peasant rebellion that makes Catherine fear the social and political upheaval that it released leading her to end any enlightened despotism ideas and reforms that she had

Reichstag

a national assembly composed of seven electors, the non-electoral princes, and representatives from the 65 imperial free cities

Absenteeism

a person not being at the dioceses that he owns

Creoles

a person of Spanish descent that was born in America

laity/lay people

a person who does not have an official Church position

Peninsulares

a person who was born in Spain

David Hume (1711-1776)

a philosophe that criticized Christianity by arguing that there was no empirical evidence that supported the possibility of divine miracles central to much of Christianity in "Of Miracles" a chapter in his Inquiry into Human Nature (1748)

Gustavus Adolphus (1611-1632)

a pious king of a unified Lutheran nation, became the new leader of Protestant forces and is known as the lion of the north

Treaty of Lodi (1454-1455)

a political alliance that brought Milan and Naples, long traditional enemies, together with Florence in opposition to an alliance between Venice and the Papal States, however if a foreign enemy threatened, the five states could present a united front

The Spectator (1711) by Joseph Addison (1672-1719) and Richard Steele (1672-1729)

a popular publication that fostered the value of polite conversation and the reading of books

Lettres de Cachet

a royal edict that sends people to prison

Religious Ruler

a ruler who's goal is religious uniformity

The Elect or Saints

a select few saved only by God's love from corrupt humanity and given indications of their status by conversion (a mystical encounter with God) or by material prosperity

Corvée

a tax on the peasantry that was paid through labor instead of money

The Compromise

a vow from the opposition (created by William of Orange's younger brother, Louis of Nassau) to resist the decrees of the Council of Trent and the Inquisition

Penance

act of asking for forgiveness (confession)

Salvation

after you die you will be saved by going to Heaven

Grand Alliance (1701)

alliance between England, Holland, and the Holy Roman Empire to preserve the balance of power in Europe

Contrapposto

an Ancient Greek sculpting technique to slouch hips in order to show realism

Triennial Act

an act that guarantees that Parliament meets every 3 years

Prussian Civil Service Commission

an agency that oversaw the education and examinations required for all major government positions making it clear that merit rather than privilege from birth would determine who served the Prussian state

Concordat of Bologna (1516)

an agreement between King Francis I of France and Pope Julius II giving Francis I control over the French clergy in exchange for French recognition of the papal authority over the church council and the right to collect tannates in France

The Whigs

an anti-Catholic sentiment group led by the earl of Shaftesbury

laissez-faire

an economic policy that favors a limited role of government in economic life, however Smith did recognize the benefits of government commercial activities like the opening of dangerous new trade routes that were economically desirable, and providing schools, armies, navies, and roads

Sea Beggars

an international group of anti-Spanish exiles and criminals among them many Englishmen

Anthropocentricity

appreciation and glorification of the body

Tabula Rasa

blank slate or page

Eucharist/Communion

bread and wine

Jesuits in France

confessors to Henry IV, Louis XIII, and Louis XIV who were fiercely loyal to the Catholic Church and monopolized the education. of French upper-class men

Middle-burgher ranks

consisted of the smaller businesspeople such as guild masters, shop owners, and professionals, and often sided with the new rich against the conservative policies of the old rich

Renaissance Architecture

continued middle age Gothic style where the exteriors and interiors were highly decorated

Edict of Chateaubriand (1551)

established by Henry II in order to restrict French Protestants

Clarendon Code (1661-1665)

excluded Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and the Independents from the official political and religious life of the nation

Hall of Mirrors

famous hallway inside the Palace of Versailles

King James Bible

final edition of Bible for Anglican Church

Purgatory

first circle of Hell (waiting room of heaven)

Union of Arras (1579)

formed in January 1579 among the southern provinces and made peace with Spain

Giovanni de Bicci (1360-1429)

founder of the Medici Bank

Debt Peonage

free Indian laborers were required to purchase goods from the landowners or mine owners, to whom they became forever indebted to

Thomas Munter

he was an anabaptist and a key leader in the German Peasant's Revolt

Tenth Penny Tax

issued by the Duke of Alba forcing the Netherlands to pay a 10 percent sales tax for the suppression of its own revolt

ontology

learning about the world through scientific means

Act of Uniformity (1559)

mandated a revised version of the second Book of Common Prayer (1552) for every English parish

Presbyterians

members of an alternative national church of semiautonomous congregations governed by representative presbyteries following the model of Calvin and Geneva

Clerical ignorance

members of the Church could not read (were not literate)

Condottieri

military brokers who sent mercenary armies who were hired by the despots of the different city-states

Streltsy

military royal guards in Moscow

Holland

most important province in Netherlands

empiricism

one must observe phenomena before attempting to explain it through mathematics

Brotherhood of Common Life

organization that creates lay religious societies AWAY from public eye -monasteries that are full of laypeople who are ultra religious

Toleration Act of 1689

permitted worship by all Protestants and outlawed only Roman Catholics and those who denied Christian doctrine

Bastille

political prison that enemies of the government went to

inflation

price of goods increases due to influx of gold and silver

Diocese

region of Christian world that is controlled by a Bishop

Parlements

regional judicial bodies in France

Physio-theology

religious thought associated with the deducing of religious conclusions from nature

indulgence

remissions or exemptions for penance in purgatory due to an individual for the sins he had committed in life. They could be granted by the papacy because of the doctrine that it could draw on the treasury of merit or pool of spiritual wealth left by Christ and extraordinarily good Christians over time. Martin Luther would go on to attack these.

Act of Supremacy (1559)

repealed all of the anti-Protestant legislation of Mary Tudor's reign and asserted Elizabeth's right as "Supreme Governor" over both spiritual and temporal affairs

Politiques

rulers who subordinates religious uniformity in favor of national stability

Act of Settlement

sanctioned that the English crown be passed to the Protestant House of Hanover in Germany if Anne, the second daughter of James II and heir to the childless William III, died without issue

Podestà

strongmen who held executive, military, and judicial authority, and had the task of maintaining the normal flow of business activity in the city state by whatever means necessary

Edict of Fontainebleau (1540)

subjected French Protestants to the Inquisition

High literary culture

successful Enlightenment authors addressed themselves to monarchs, nobles, the upper middle class, and professional groups wo were read and accepted in these upper levels of society

Freedom of a Christian

summarize the new teachings of salvation by faith alone

ceptor

symbol of royal authority

Fleur de leis

symbol of royal family

Paupers

the 1/3 of the population of Florence that were officially listed as having no wealth at all

Battle of Lepanto (1571)

the Spanish Armada defeats the Ottoman Turks and establishes Spain as naval power in the world until 1588

linear perspectivism

the adjustment of the size of figures to give the viewer a three-dimensional sense of the painting while providing artists with the ability to create realistic paintings

cultural relativism

the belief that human beings living in different societies possessed the capacity as human beings to develop in culturally different fashions

Monism

the belief that nature and God are the same substance and it is found everywhere in the universe

utilitarianism

the belief that society should seek to secure the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number of human beings

Bourgeoisie

the educated, non-noble, middle class in France

Gallican Liberties

the idea that the French church should be independent of the Vatican Church

Procurator General

the layman that headed the Holy Synod

Grandi

the old rich, or nobles and wealthy merchants who traditionally had ruled the city

Pluralism

the practice of having multiple dioceses

Ockham's Razor

the principle that irrelevant detail should be cut away to find the truth

haves

the propertied, privileged, and educated classes in Spain

social science

the study of social laws in hope of ending human cruelty

have-nots

the underprivileged class in Spain

Chiaroscuro

the use of shading to enhance naturalness in art

Baron d'Holbach (1723-1789) and Julien Offray de La Metrrie (1709-1751)

they wrote about atheism and materialism

Charter of the Nobility (1785)

turns the privileges of the boyars into a law, which makes their privileges rights that cannot be taken away

despotism

tyrants and absolute rulers appointed by aristocratic families

Christianity

umbrella term for any religion who worships Jesus Christ

Ferdinand I (1556-1564)

was an example of a weak emperor because he had less land that he ruled

Index of Prohibited Books

was instituted in Catholic countries to keep heretical reading material out of the hands of the faithful

Florence

was known as the center of humanism

Treaty of Rastatt (1714)

was part of the Treaty of Utrecht and it gave the Austrian Habsburgs control of part of the Netherlands and Lombardy in northern Italy

War of 1494-1498

when Ludovico il Moro rises to power in Milan around 1490 resuming hostilities between Milan and Naples -Treaty of Lodi officially ends in 1494 when Naples threatens Milan and Ludovico asks the French for aid -French kings had ruled Naples from 1266-1442 before they were forced out by Duke Alfonso of Sicily -Ludovico invited the French to enter Italy and claims Naples, however he did not realize that France also had dynastic claims to Milan as well and they soon threatened Milan -Charles VIII and the French army marched over the alps and into Florence where Florentine ruler, Piero de Medici tried to make peace with him by handing over Pisa and other Florentine possessions, which would then lead to the citizenry of Florence to exile Piero de Medici from Florence -Dominican preacher Savonarola convinced the people of Florence that the French were the rightful rulers of Florence and Charles VIII leaves Florence under the control of Savonarola -Charles' march through Italy devastates the peninsula -League of Venice forms and forces French army to retreat from Italy

tax evasion

when one doesn't pay their taxes

Nepotism

when someone related to you takes over your position when you die

The Peace of Kappel

would allow the Swiss cantons to determine their own religion