MNS 367K Mid term

Aristotle (4th century BC)

(384 - 322 B.C.) -The meteorlogica -evaporation and precipitation are a cycle -Seas & rivers are constantly renewed -Water changes state -total amount of water stays the same tutored alexander the great the father of marine biology -180 species in Aegean sea described -incl. crustaceans, echinoderms, mollusks, and fish. - recognized that cetaceans are mammals, and that marine vertebrates are either oviparous (producing eggs that hatch outside the body) or viviparous (producing eggs that hatch within the body)

Plato (5th century BC)

(c. 427 - 347 B.C.) -Huge body of water at the center of the earth, oscillates back and forth, tunnels carry water to rivers and oceans? -left world with myth of Atlantis

Ancient greece ocean exploration

-(egyptians also: Food, Trade, Navigation, Colonization, Exploration) -Science and geography -Aristotle (384-322 BC)- why is the sea salty -Marine organism catalog -Earth circumference (Ptolemy, 127-151 AD; Eratosthenes, 264-194 BC -Deep ocean soundings

plate tectonics

-1955 discovery of magnetic reversals in the earths crust, -1959: rift valley of Mid -Atlantic Ridge discovered. 1960s: -Henry Hess; seafloor spreading and plate tectonics ---Oceanic crust is thin and <200 million years old

Alvin and diving

-1964: research submersible built by OMR, sandwich, It was discovered that organic decomposition was greatly retarded at temperatures and pressures of the deep sea -Key in discovering hydrothermal vents decades later

Zeng He's Voyages (1405-1433)

-Captured and castrated, Director of Eunuch Affairs in 1404, Muslim, made pilgrimage to Mecca - Seven total voyages • Each generally lasted 2 years • 1405-1433 • Covered around 6000 or more miles each voyage -meant to display China's power and culture and bring foreign treasures back to the Ming court -diplomatic ties, east & west trade -tech (compass, invented in china) was important

Spanish explorers

-Columbus (1492) -North america, earth not flat, treaty of tordesillas: split world between portugal and spain -Juan Ponce de Leon (Spain, 1513) - Described the swift and powerful Florida current. -Vasco Núñez de Balboa (Spain, 1513 - 1518) - Crossed the isthmus of Panama and sailed in the Pacific Ocean. -Peter Martyr (Spain, 1515) -Proposed an origin for the Gulf Stream. - Historian as well; Ten Decades of Peter Martyr

Fram Expedition

-During late 19th and 20th century, oceanography changed from descriptive science to a quantitative one Theoretical models of ocean circulation and water movement were developed -based on the hypothesis that surface currents carried the Arctic pack ice over the North Pole from Siberia to Greenland- -For three years, the ship was carried by the ice across the Arctic, but never exceeded 86°N latitude, so Nansen and Frederick Johansen set out to the Pole on skis, with kayaks, sleds, and provisions. -Although Nansen did not achieve the North Pole, the Fram expedition finally put an end to the "Open Polar Sea" theory, and made numerous scientific observations, providing the first oceanographic data from the central Arctic. -Nansen confirmed the existence of the Transpolar Drift and discovered that the Polar Basin was deep. Furthermore, he noticed that ice drifts were not parallel to the wind direction, but were consistently offset to the right, and suggested that it was due to the rotation of the Earth (Coriolis force) later explained by ekman transport

Arctic Sea Ice

-Formed by low air and water temperatures - Freezing seawater leaves cold, salty water that sinks (heavier): brine rejection -typically pretty flat

Meteor expedition

-German Atlantic expedition begun in 1925; the first to use an echo sounder and other modern optical and electronic instrumentation. -1925 - 1927 -Crossed atlantic 14 times and used 310 hydrographic stations, 67,400 echo soundings, 9400 chemical analyses Discovered oxygen minimum zone Driven by interest in gold extraction

iron fertilization

-Iron added to test systems response at Southern Ocean high nutrient low productivity zone (phytoplankton growth was limited by iron in these areas) Helps populations increase productivity One group dumped tons of iron into the ocean to attempt to increase salmon populations and got in legal trouble

Cod characteristics / Cod wars / fisheries / issues

-Longtime favorite fish to eat in many cultures because of its good size and freezability Livers processed to make vitamin-rich cod oil -Cod Wars (throughout the 50s, 60s, and 70s): Iceland had to protect cod after independence from Denmark bc UK depleted it due to their exceptionally strong navy presence -Led to expansion of Iceland exclusive economic zone as they threatened to pull out of NATO and buy larger ships from Russia -There is a preventative moratorium on fishing atlantic cod that are moving into the arctic due to temperature changes

Shackleton's expeditions

-On the Endurance (1914-1916) -Ship got crushed in 1915 -Crew rowed to elephant island -Shackleton went to south georgia whaling station -Nobody died! -Planned to cross the antarctic on sled

Vikings (793-1041)

-Scandinavian seafaring raiders and traitors -built many different kinds of craft, from small fishing boats and ferries to their famous longships -square sail -same navigation etc as polynesians + crystals/ sunstones? -traded animal products (furs, skins, bones) and wanted crops and other goods from europe (wine, salt, glass) -ancient cod from norweigen sea found in germany... European fish trade dating back?? (Medieval Warm Period (AD 950-1250), disappeared with "little ice age" -Azores?

Critical Thinking

-Skills to analyze and synthesize, identify assumptions, and appreciate others' points of view -Intellectual standards: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, breadth, depth, logic

MOSAiC Expedition

-The goal of the MOSAiC expedition was to take the closest look ever at the Arctic as the epicenter of global warming and to gain fundamental insights that are key to better understanding global climate change -stuck in ice for a year -multidisciplinary studies of arctic meteorology, space science, ocean ecosystems etc

intertropical convergence zone

-The latitude that receives the most intense sunlight, which causes the ascending branches of the two Hadley cells to converge -monotonous windless weather, is the area where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge -where tropical winds from the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere converge along the boundary where the air mass gets warmer and rises to higher altitude, -the main lateral movement of winds at the ground level is from east to west (tropical easterlies) - ITCZ boundary is not stationary but fluctuating by time and regions. -a meandering boundary between NH and SH that fluctuates between 5-10°S to 5-10°N. -Due to ITCZ the air mass of NH does not spill into SH, and vice versa for the SH air mass.

Azoic Theory

-Theory proposed by Edward Forbes in the nineteenth century that no living organisms can be found on the seabed at depths deeper than 300 fathoms. -1868-1869 - Wyville Thomson dredges from the HMS Lightning and Porcupine and discovers life as deep as 2,400 fathoms, casting doubt on Edward Forbes' theory of a lifeless deep sea

Convection cells are? how many? , what are they?

-air is warmed at one location and cooled in another (coastal breeze) (warm air rises and cool air sinks) -3 in each hemisphere -polar easterlies, westerlies, trade winds (northeast in N hemisphere, south easterlies in S hemisphere)

ocean surface currents

-zonal (wind driven) -Meridional (continuing) AMOC, thermohaline -Meridional means that the flows is roughly along N-S direction -zonal means that the flow is roughly along E-W direction -if flow is driven by the winds at the surface, we call them wind-driven currents. -If the flow is driven by deep water formation and ocean conveyor belt, we call it the thermohaline circulation.

3 bad takes of discussing climate change

1. Alarmist 2. Denial 3. Coercing instead of embracing

9 planetary boundaries

1. Climate change 2. Ocean acidification 3. Stratospheric ozone depletion 4. Nitrogen cycle / Phosphorous cycle 5. Global freshwater use 6. Change in land use 7. Biodiversity loss 8. Atmospheric aerosol loading 9. Chemical pollution

Steps to communicate science with the public

1. connect the threat of climate change to people's lives 2. Point out the economic benefits of using clean energy 3. Appeal to universal values when discussing climate change

Polynesian explorations

1300-900 BC -great migration of people -greatest maritime explorers the world had known prior to euro expansion. -used star charts, bird observation, ocean swells, clouds and reflections off clouds, color of the sky, stick charts -Kon Tiki expedition -ancient polys encountered south americans? -chicken bones found in Chile were radiocarbon-dated to between 1304 and 1424, prior to the documented arrival of the Spanish -Sweet potato (domesticated in the Andes but grown and eaten all over Polynesia for hundreds of years before Europeans arrived) -Modern people from Rapa Nui had native American ancestry dating back between 1300 CE and 1500 CE (~200 yrs before the first Europeans landed in 1772 CE -crossed the prevailing winds?? -winds might have switched directions for decades at a time (800-1600)

Deep sea drilling program

1966-1983 1968 Glomar Challenger returned cores indicating the age of Earth's oceanic crust Supported theories of plate tectonics Driven by oil industry 1985-2003: JOIDES Resolution drill ship (to collect important info) Cores used to understand climate change, geology, and earth history Very successful 2003: integrated ocean drilling program

Corals: tipping points

2 important thresholds that we may surpass in the next several decades: Higher than normal temps causing bleaching and death of corals if temps rise more hthan 2oC Ocean acidification reduces capacity of hard corals to make carbonate based skeletons Deep sea rainforests (coral reefs) have been discovered Just as important for biodiversity as coastal reefs

Chapter 2: Sounding the Depths

2 major obstacles to sounding depths early on (both caused overestimation): -Line kept pulling after hitting bottom Drifting ships prevented direct vertical Deep ocean echo sounder improved with Fessenden oscillator

salt % in seawater

3.5%

Global trades vs. sea

90% of trade is carried by ships Half the communications between countries use underwater cables

Doppler effect / current measurement

: shift of waves due to the object's movement, instrument uses sound doppler meter (ambulance approaching)

First ocean explorers

Aboriginals; crossed narrow ocean straits during glaciations at least 40,000 - 50,000 years ago

Aichi target dashboard / biological diversity

Aichi biodiversity targets help aim to improve biodiversity in the face of climate change Trying to reduce current rate of biodiversity loss Failed for most targets

In high pressure zones...

Air sinks, clear skies, dry weather

Sharks

Apex predators with well-developed senses, slow reproduction, small population Eating shark meat can be dangerous bc of biomagnification Spain has the highest shark meat trade Many people justify killing and eating sharks and rays because of negative media portrayals

5 oceans

Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, Southern (recently, 2021, thanks nat geo)

Franklin's Lost Expedition (1845)

Brtish voyage led by John Franklin in 1845 to traverse unnavigated sections of the Northwest Passage in the Canadian Arctic Both ships and the entire crew died

Bycatch

Bycatch: species caught accidentally Often more bycatch than intended catch New regulations for fishing technology to prevent bycatch Fish, mammals, turtles, etc. killed by longlines/trawls

Coriolis effect

Causes moving air and water to turn left (Counterclockwise) in the southern hemisphere and turn right (clockwise) in the northern hemisphere due to Earth's hemisphere

Safe operating space for humanity

Climate change Nitrogen cycle Biodiversity loss Ocean acidification Stratospheric ozone depletion Global freshwater use Change in land use Atmospheric aerosol loading Chemical pollution

Chapter 12: Twilight of the Cod

Cod live in shallow waters eating small fish, then become bottom-dwellers as adults Survived for so long because they are jack of all trades Travel in large groups and lay tons of eggs at once Huge problems assessing stock Newfoundland: DFO overestimated stock for too long, eventually leading to shutdown of fishery New England: warned by scientists, lost as resource too

Global wild fish catch vs. farmed fish trend

Commercial moratorium on Atlantic cod Global fishing catch significantly underreported Major issue of overfishing wild stock 35% of world's seafood consumption comes from aquaculture Aquaculture surpassed capture fisheries gnarly around 2015 Largest mariculture species in the US is oysters 680 million pounds of seafood from aquaculture

Sustainable development goals (SDGs)

Committed to by 190 world leaders in 2015 No poverty, no hunger, good health, quality education, gender equality, clean water and sanitation, renewable energy, good jobs and economic growth, industry innovation and infrastructure, reduced inequalities, sustainable cities and communities

Benjamin Franklin

Crossed Atlantic many times on diplomatic business, but charted the Gulf stream using a thermometer, had info from his cousin (a whaler) about the Gulf stream and its intense biological activity

Ocean health index

Current rating: 60 Assessment using a number of indicators Its bad

Arctic Ocean Circulation

Driven by the polar easterlies in a clockwise rotation

Logical fallacies

Dunning Kruger effect: Dunning Kruger Effect: difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence leads to inflated self-assessments (know a little bit, think you are an expert, then curve is U shape, until actually an expert and have a ton of confidence again) Logical fallacies: -Fallacy of composition: assuming what true about one person is true about all (ex: one ginger has no soul, they must all have no soul) -fallacy of starting with answer: "have you finally stopped cheating on exams" circular, leading -Fallacy of hasty generalization: claim based on evidence that is too small -fallacy of false choice: only presents a few, creates false choice, like if we don't order pizza we will have to order week old spaghetti -fallacy of an appeal to deference: authority ex: I can because I am the boss -fallacy of ad hominem argument (attacking the person) -fallacy of repetition: using same word, phrase, etc. repeatedly to try to persuade -fallacy of appealing to tradition: it must be what is right because it has always been right -fallacy of appealing to pity: feel bad for me -fallacy of an appeal to popularity: it is what everyone else is doing!!! -fallacy of confusing coincidence with causality: ex ice cream sales and murder rales -fallacy of the right rule: referring to law without real justification -fallacy of irrelevant conclusion: ex hugging grizzly bears must be safe because they are cute

Impacts of Columbian exchange

Ecological contamination of the world

Chapter 6: Kingdom of the Holothurians

Forbes: azoic zone at bottom of ocean where no life exists (proven wrong) Bathybius is not a living white protoplasm but a precipitate from preservation of samples 1960: life discovered at bottom of Mariana Trench Deep sea trenches like islands full of mud-eating holothurians Supply consistent food bc of their proximity to land and nutrient funneling

subpolar gyres

Form in the polar regions of the planet: sit beneath an area of low atmospheric pressure, WIND DRIVEN the currents in subpolar gyres away from coastal areas. These surface currents are replaced by cold, nutrient-rich water in a process called upwelling

Chapter 8: Life on a Volcano

Hot spring/cold seep oases exist bc of sulfur bacteria (use chemosynthesis to turn hydrogen sulfide into food) Animals have these bacteria inside their bodies Just need a reduced chemical and oxygen Vent animals are so unique bc of their long-term isolation Theory: life first began at deep ocean hot springs Primordial soup theory Early Earth was constantly pelted with asteroids (sea as safe haven) Mollusks + vent animals have urgency to grow and reproduce Release large amounts of larvae that spread and colonize new areas

Eating low on the food chain?

Lowers environmental cost of fishing Eating fish lower on food chain has smaller environmental impact than eating top predator

Magellan/Drakes expeditions

Magellan (1519-1522) and Drake (1577-1580) (separately) circumnavigate the globe in the 16th century with the help of new innovations like the compass Sir Francis Drake was stealing gold from Spaniards who had taken it from Native Americans and caused a war between the UK and Spain, which led to the fall of Spain and rise of the UK as a global power

Chapter 3: Rift in the Atlantic

Marie Tharp discovered MAR trench in 1952 (identified mountains and a rift valley in the center of the Atlantic Ocean where the two continents could have been ripped apart, proving wegener right) Rift valley wrapping around globe Seafloor spreading theory hot material from the mantle rises to the rift valley creating new seafloor which then moves away from the ridge and cools, eventually sinking into the mantle, thus renewing the cycle Confirmed by changing magnetism and plate tectonics (geomagnetic reversal once every ~450,000 years)

Chapter 5: Seafloor at Birth

Multibeam sonar made larger scale seafloor mapping possible Seafloor shaped by volcanic pushing and tectonic pulling East Pacific Rise: smaller, less steep, older, warmer, creates new seafloor faster, aggressive deep sea trenches In comparison to MAR

Scientific method

Observation Hypothesis Test hypothesis Suspend judgment

Principles

Precautionary principle: when human activities may lead to morally unacceptable harm that is scientifically plausible but uncertain Morally unacceptable harm; harm to humans or the environment that is serious and irreversible or inequitable to present or future generations Examples: GMOs, systemic insecticides Principle of scientific uncertainty: 95% confidence (5% variance/error)

Portugal explorers

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394 -1460) - Established a center for marine science & navigation at Sagres, Portugal. - Established routes around Africa - used the compass, that novel item from the East -ruled sea trade around cape of good hope

Blue acceleration

Rapidly increased ocean exploitation in the last 30 or so years due to technological developments

Salmon life cycle & behavior / osmotic regulation / fisheries / hatcheries / farming / PDO

Salmon are healthiest when they are in the ocean (silver), and exhausted when they make their way upriver to spawn (red) and we eat salmon from the ocean There has been a decrease in killer whale pops due to decrease in salmon Salmon are anadromous, meaning they spawn in freshwater but live in the ocean -Salmon in the ocean drink a lot of seawater and excrete salt to maintain their ion levels, which naturally want to absorb high levels of ions due to the concentration gradient -Salmon in freshwater have high ion concentrations in the body so the concentration gradient wants to excrete salt. To counteract this. Salmon excrete copious amounts of diluted urine. -Salmon are the most highly valued (aquatic) species in the US -Intensely farmed in some parts of the world, farmed salmon became more popular than wild salmon around the late 90s -Hatcheries were created due to a lower wild stock because of dams on rivers preventing migration PDO -Sardine regime is when there is a weaker upwelling in the pacific and there is a deeper thermocline, lower nutrients and lower primary productivity, but high levels of sardines. There are low levels of anchovies, salmon and seabirds. -Anchovy regime is when there is a stronger upwelling and there is a shallower thermocline, higher nutrients, and more primary productivity. There are less sardines, and more anchovies, salmon and seabirds. -Salmon is most valuable from commercial fisheries (2019)

Chapter 7: Islands in the Deep

Seamounts at high altitudes can have lots of life Successful animals typically suspension feeders Xenophyophore: single-celled animal that creates a maze of tubes of sediment surrounding itself forming a colony for bacteria/other organisms Food supply on seafloor is very patchy Main food source is marine snow (tiny dead animals + fecal pellets) Estimated 10 million species in deep sea Deep sea is diverse bc of habitat/food source mosaic and lack of disturbances Life processes (colonization/growth) happen slowly in deep sea

Seaweed farming / sustainability

Seaweed is in countless products in many different industries (huge global demand) Underwater commercial seaweed farming Seaweed farming breathes life back into ocean

Fish catch trend breakdowns

Stock: geographically definable populations consisting of individuals responding to similar environmental factors Size assessed by quality of landings (function of population, spatial variability, fishing effort) Fishing effort: amount of effort per fish caught Must account for all contributions to reproduction, growth, mortality for fisheries model 25-30% of the worlds major fish stocks are overexploited and a larger portion is fully exploited As of early 2000s, no fisheries and undeveloped >70% of fish stocks are overfished Catch most of our fish in Alaska, most value comes from atlantic though Magnuson-Stevens fishery act of 1976 to reduce overfishing and increase longterm economic sustainability in US federal waters

subtropical gyre

Subtropical gyres circle areas beneath regions of high atmospheric pressure. These are placid ocean areas thousands of kilometers in diameter. these central regions are relatively stable. The ocean water generally stays in one place while the currents of the gyre circulate around it.

Antarctic Circumpolar Current

The current driven by powerful westerly winds north of Antarctica. The largest of all ocean currents, it continues permanently eastward without changing direction.

NW passage

The shorter trade route between the Atlantic and Pacific/Indian

Chapter 4: Map of the World

Turbidity currents + falling dead surface organisms form abyssal plains (flattest surfaces on Earth) Abyssal plains are coldest and oldest parts of ocean floor

Challenger Expedition

When The first wholly scientific oceanographic expedition, 1872-76; Who: by the Royal Society of London, led by Thomas Henry Huxley 'Darwin's Bulldog' What Debunked azoic theory with life in deep dredges, bathybius (precipitate of calcium sulfate from preserving disc by John Buchanan), and 'missing links' hypothesis: (deep -sea animals which more closely resembled fossils than living animals , not true) Goals -Investigate physical conditions of the deep sea in the great ocean basins (depth, temp, circulation, specific gravity, light penetration) -Determine the chemical composition and organic matter content of sea water at various depths -Ascertain chemical and physical character of deep sea deposits and their sources -Investigate the distribution of organic life at different depths and on the seafloor Summary 500 deep ocean soundings, 8180 m in the Marianas Trench, the challenger deep -133 dredge samples, conducted biological and water sampling at 361 stations (more biological focus than chemical and physical oceanography) -Major elements & their constant ratios in the sea -Produced 50 volumes of data -prestigious for britain, like apollo

Matthew Maury

Who? (American)Father of modern oceanography, pathfinder of the sea What? -Mapped north atlantic currents in 1855 -Wind and current charts: 1847 -Whale chart: 1851 -First textbook for oceanography in 1855 -Drew midatlantic ridge w/out knowing what it was in a bathymetric map of the north atlantic -Cut down sailing times between the british isles and california by 30 days, trip to australia by 20 days, 20 days off RIO

James Cook's Expeditions

Who? British explorer/cartographer/navy captain Where? Made 3 voyages to chart Pacific from 1768-1779 What? -Made soundings to depths of 400 meters using ropes measured in 6 foot increments (fathroms) -One of the founders of Oceanography -Prevented vitamin C deficiency/scurvy by controlling diets with orange extract -Used Local Time and GMT to find position (compare a pocket watch at GMT time to Local noon time, each hour difference is 15o change in longitude)

US exploration 1838-42

Who? Commanded by charles wilkes -What: vessels, kind of tyrannical 11/20 science positions filled by navy men, civilians censored -Why?: conduct broad and comprehensive scientific studies in geology, mineralogy, botany, vegetative chemistry, zoology, meteorology, etc wanted to enhance commercial prospects, Better routes for New England whalers, New islands for fur sealers -Where? Crisscrossed Atlantic,Crossed into Pacific, Split up with ships, 2 went south into the Antarctic waters, Claimed discovery of Antarctica (contested by british), CIRCUMNAVIGATION!!! -collections mishandled :( -most written up by naturalists + -federal funding for science :) -maps -paved way for more (-) -administrative failure, confusing, $ -civilians vs naval scientists -took forever to publish (32 years)

Charles Darwin

Who? Naturalist on the Beagle Expedition What? - species: described, collected, and classified organisms from land and sea -reefs: Understood that different reef types represent where the reef is at in its geologic history and described atoll formation -tectonic plates ish: Assumed great portions of the earths crust were slowly sinking and reef building corals grew only in warm, shallow waters -Supposed that over thousands of years, the island disappeared beneath the surface and all that was left was a rough coral outline of the earlier dimensions, the atoll -books: Origin of species (1959): natural forces drive evolution and organisms must adapt to keep up with an everchanging environment -conclusions: Ocean environments change more slowly than land environments, explains why marine organisms change more slowly than land organisms Abyssal regions should change the least

In low pressure zones...

air rises, cloudy, high precipitation

Phoenicians

ca. 1,000 - 600 B.C. -explored Mediterranean into Atlantic --> England (tinland) -possibly circumnavigated Africa? -Navigated by coastal landmarks -used stars: "direction and a quarter" ocean commerce impact: -revolutionized written language -Spread rapidly and formed the basis of Greek, Hebrew and other modern languages -Still exists in a form in Ethiopia

terra nova expedition (1910-1912) captain robert scott

expedition to Antarctica where scott wanted to be the first to reach the geographic south pole - was beaten by amundsen in a rush to discover Antarctica. -whole team died -Scott spent years studying weather patterns, but got caught in unusual weather -provisions for 4 people, brought a 5th -used horses out of arrogance "a mans transportation," dogs not cool enough.. horses died and so did they

Amundsen

first to reach the South Pole, 1911 used dog sled team

Marine sediment sampling

seismic imagine, dredging, cores, grab samplers,