Module 2 - Western Civilization
Sphere of Influence
- A foreign region in which a nation has control over trade and other economic activities. - approach to preserve and exploit their acquisitions in new imperialism - a non-European country granted a European state certain exclusive economic privileges in part or all of it's territory - Europeans living or working in that territory were exempted from the jurisdiction of the local legal system and resided in their own autonomous sections of foreign cities and towns
Labour Party
- British working-class political party established in the 1890s and dedicated to reforms and a peaceful transition to socialism, in time providing a viable alternative to the revolutionary emphasis of Marxism - 1901 - Britain's Trades Union Congress founded this to advance the political interests of the working class - in general election of 1906, they won 29 seats in the House of Commons
Iron Law of Wages
- David Ricardo's idea - salary deflation was the only force capable of curbing population growth - the more people working, less wages are
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
- English clergyman - believed that population would always outstrip food supply in a free-market economy - his "Essay on the Principle of Population" (1798) did not advocate state action in the face of the impending crisis - his and Ricardo's theories offered a troubling justification for the ongoing callousness and apathy of the wealthy
State Socialism
- a strategy for development in which the state rather than the market allocates resources - government provision of worker benefits, including accident, sickness, and old age insurance, pioneered in Germany under Otto von Bismarck in an effort to undermine the appeal of Marxism
Louis Kossuth (1802-1894)
- in Hungary, ethnic Magyars began the process of creating an autonomous state under his leadership - him and his allies declared independence for Hungary in the spring of 1848
Evolutionary Socialism (1899)
- this was the work that suggested that socialists should combine with other progressive forces to win gradual evolutionary gains for workers through legislation, unions, and further economic development - thesis - could achieve collective ownership of the means of production in a gradualist, peaceful manner - influential book written by German author Edward Bernstein (1850-1932)' - called into question the need for the sort of revolutionary activity required by orthodox Marxists
New Imperialism
- the late-nineteenth-century drive by European countries to create vast political empires abroad - a phase of modern European imperialism, which occurred in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and extended Western control over almost all of Africa and much of Asia - characterizes a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries - at the time, states focused on building their empires with new technological advances and developments, making their territory bigger through conquest, and exploiting the resources of the subjugated countries - the Western powers (and Japan) individually conquered almost all of Africa and parts of Asia - reflected rivalries among the great powers, the economic desire for new resources and markets, and a "civilizing mission" ethos - three factors: economics, self-imposed competition for international prestige engendered by the rise of nationalism, European attitudes toward non-Western, non-Christian cultures - strategies to preserve and exploit their acquisitions: annexation and direct colonial rule, protectorate arrangement, sphere of influence - cultivation of an indigenous elite - imperialists tried to provide a Western-style education for native leaders
Sepoy Rebellion
- the revolt of Indian soldiers in 1857 against certain practices that violated religious customs; also known as the Sepoy Mutiny. - rebellion by a large private army of native troops (sepoys) against the East India Company, but it was brutally suppressed - aftermath - Parliament put an end to East India Company rule and declared the entire subcontinent to be a part of the British Empire
Paris Commune
- the small government in Paris who wanted to resist the conservative leaders of France and tried to form their own government - new French provisional government that began as a refusal to accept an armistice with the Prussians - included republicans and socialists who fought a bitter defensive campaign against both the Germans (who cut off supplies to the city then bombarded it) and their own countrymen - government that ruled Paris from March 18 to May 28 1871
Zollverin
- was a tariff union that removed tariff barriers between the German states and was the first step toward a new German unity. - customs union that many member states of the Confederation had entered into during the 1830s that abolished all tariff barriers - when the economic benefits of this began to become apparent, the movement for greater political unity under Prussian leadership intensified
Young Turks
- young rebellious people in the Ottoman Empire who forced the Sultan to reform - military coup led by reformist army officers - 1909 - ousted Abdul Hamid II (leader of Ottoman Empire) - installed a compliant successor named Mohammed V, but their efforts to cultivate a sense of Turkish nationalism failed - in WWI in 1914, this leadership found itself in constant crisis and regional war
Karl Marx
- 1818-1883. 19th century philosopher, political economist, sociologist, humanist, political theorist, and revolutionary. Often recognized as the father of communism. Analysis of history led to his belief that communism would replace capitalism as it replaced feudalism. Believed in a classless society. - had a hard physical environment in mind in the opening quote to this chapter when he stated that men's social being determines their consciousness
Origin of Species
- 1859: Charles Darwin's book explained how various species evolve over time and only those with advantages can survive and reproduce - raised fundamental questions about both the timeframe and the process of creation - introduced a more fluid model in which some creatures came into being and others became extinct - Darwin's theory was the culmination of work carried out by a variety of biologists and geologists for over a century - was significant because it offered an explanation - the principle of natural selection - for the process of evolution - argued for links between extinct and living species
Boxer Rebellion
- 1899 rebellion in Beijing, China started by a secret society of Chinese who opposed the "foreign devils". The rebellion was ended by British troops. - an effort by Chinese nationals to expel Westerners from China in 1900. A combined American, European, and Japanese force defeated the rebels
Realism
- A 19th century artistic movement in which writers and painters sought to show life as it is rather than life as it should be - the philosophical claim that words for categories of things are not arbitrary conventions of speech, but refer to fundamental metaphysical realities
Decembrist Revolt (1825)
- Alexander I died - people wanted a czar who wasn't in line for the throne - people wanted Constantine rather than Nicholas (who are brothers) - in the aftermath, the tsar inaugurated a rigorous program of censorship and control over foreign travel
Sigmund Freud
- Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis. - supporter of the Enlightenment tradition - associated reason and science with the highest achievements of civilization - his research led him to highlight the role of nonrational and destructive forces in people's lives - 1900 - published a controversial book, "The Interpretation of Dreams", in which he argued that dreams were specific expressions of unconscious desires that the rational, waking self struggles to suppress - used the terms, 'id, ego, superego', to explain commonplace behavior - published "Civilization and Its Discontents", a brief but wide-ranging book that placed that horrific experience within the context of his broader psychological theory - interpreted the unprecedented bloodletting of WWI as a civilization wide discharge of aggressive impulses that modern culture had sought to repress - dismissed religion as a neurotic manifestation of the immature mind - placed his trust in a naturalistic explanation of the universe
Kulturkampf
- Bismarck's attack on the Catholic Church - an attack on the power and autonomy of the Roman Catholic Church in Germany during the chancellorship of Otto von Bismarck. The campaign included the expulsion of the Jesuit order from Germany and the advancement of state schools over religious institutions
Francois Guizot (1787-1874)
- Chief minister under Louis Philippe. Guizot's repression led to the revolution of 1848. - French statesman and historian - believed that "the opening of every school closes a jail" - 1833 - introduced legislation that called for an elementary school in every French parish
Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795)
- English potter - earned a fortune selling "Queen's Ware" table settings to middle-class consumers who wished to associate themselves with the trappings of royalty - according to him, "fashion is superior to merit" and his fabulous commercial success appeared to confirm the maxim
Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821)
- Frenchman conservative and French nobility - wrote that the state must play an active and directive role in the life of the nation, supporting religious institutions, encouraging educational initiatives, and inculcating a sense of moral authority through example
Friedrich Nietzsche
- German philosopher who dismissed reason, democracy, and progress as empty ideas - claimed that the dominant middle-class values were decadent and sterile, committed to materialism and mediocrity - convinced that the excessive development of reason had led to the enfeeblement of the human species - discovered meaning in the simple struggle to create new values through the heroic cultivation of long submerged instincts and unconscious striving - was a destroyer of all conventional orthodoxies at the very moment of Europe's material primacy
Albert Einstein
- German physicist who developed the theory of relativity, which states that time, space, and mass are relative to each other and not fixed.
Napoleon III (1806-1873)
- Louis Napoleon - nephew of Bonaparte - chosen to lead the nation as president of the Second French Republic - within three years, Louis Napoleon overthrew the republic and declared himself emperor of the French as this name - his actions were approved by a majority of Frenchmen in a national plebiscite
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
- Prussian chancellor who engineered a series of wars to unify Germany under his authoritarian rule - conservative aristocrat who believed that the king of Prussia, William I, ruled by divine right and that society's natural leaders should determine the shape of any future national German state - most influential European statesman during the period 1850 to 1890 - employed military force in order to unify Germany under Prussian leadership, but worked to maintain peace in Europe after 1871
James Watt (1736-1819)
- Scottish engineer; invented the steam engine; "Father of the Industrial Revolution" - pioneered the first efficient steam engine in the 1760s - his machines were used to help pump water out of coal mines
Meiji Restoration
- The political program that followed the destruction of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868, in which a collection of young leaders set Japan on the path of centralization, industrialization, and imperialism - a reorganization of the Japanese government in 1867 that marked the beginning of an intense campaign of Westernization and modernization - included an extensive program of modernization based on a western model - universal military service was adopted, the values of nationalism were inculcated, and a new constitution was approved based on that of imperial Germany
People's Will (Narodnaya Volya)
- a 19th-century terrorist group in Russia. - political organization in the Russian Empire which conducted targeted killing of government officials in attempt to promote reforms in the country - assassinated Alexander II in March 1881
Congress of Vienna
- a conference of the major powers of Europe in 1814 to 1815 to establish a new balance of power at the end of the Napoleonic Wars - one of the main principles was monarchial "legitimacy" - interrupted by Napoleon's 100-day return to power in March 1815 and defeat at Waterloo in June - after setting affairs in France, the victorious powers agreed to meet in the Austrian capital of Vienna in September 1814 in order to make additional adjustments to the political map of the continent - the most pressing problems before them involved the re-establishment of political stability and the creation of a balance of power in Europe
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
- a conservative British politician who was generally sympathetic to the colonists' greivances, and who felt that Britain's colonial policies were misguided. He also opposed the early feminist movements. He once said, "A woman is but an animal, and not an animal of the highest order." - remained faithful to conservative principles - European conservatives followed in his footsteps - not Enlightenment
Modernism
- a cultural movement embracing human empowerment and rejecting traditionalism as outdated. Rationality, industry, and technology were cornerstones of progress and human achievement. - term applied to artistic and literary movement from the late nineteenth century through the 1950s. Modernists sought to create new aesthetic forms and values
Steam Engine
- a machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. Thomas Newcomen built the first crude but workable one in 1712. James Watt vastly improved his device in the 1760s and 1770s. It was then applied to machinery - developed by James Watt in the 1760s, this made nonhuman productive power portable, launching the railroad age and allowing manufacturing to develop in urban areas first in Britain and then across Europe
Berlin Conference
- a meeting from 1884-1885 at which representatives of European nations agreed on rules colonization of Africa - arranged by Otto von Bismarck and Jules Ferry - special conference on African affairs to be held in Berlin - not a single African leader was invited to attend - designed to establish rules for the campaign of empire building - unofficial starting point for territorial "Scramble for Africa" - stipulated that claims to African territory must be based on actual occupation by an imperial power, but there were frequent clashes over territorial proclamations
"White Man's Burden"
- a poem by British poet Rudyard Kipling commenting on American imperialism. It created a phrase used by imperialists to justify the imperialistic actions the U.S. took. - famed 1889 poem by British poet Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) - captured the combination of paternalism and racial disdain, referring to the colonized peoples as "half-devil and half-child" - involved an implicit conviction that non-Western peoples had the potential to be like their imperial mentors and that the entire imperialist project was at it's core a gigantic educational enterprise, a global extension of the European Enlightenment
Zionism
- a policy for establishing and developing a national homeland for Jews in Palestine - movement of the Jewish people that supports the reestablishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the Land of Israel - emerged in the late nineteenth century in Central and Eastern Europe - national revival movement, both in reaction to newer waves of antisemitism and as an imitative response to other nationalist movements
Romanticism
- an artistic and literary movement of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that involved a protest against classicism, appealed to the passions rather than the intellect and emphasized the beauty and power of nature - from the neoclassical style of the mid-eighteenth century - features under the general heading: concern with the individual creativity anchored in the emotions, a stress on the unique and even spiritual nature of the creative process, and a celebration of spontaneity informed by imagination - led to a renewed and enhanced respect for human creative impulses rooted in the emotions - had an unmistakable impact on political and social developments during the first half of the nineteenth century
Urbanization
- an increase in the percentage and in the number of people living in urban settlements - the social process whereby cities grow and societies become more urban
Henry Ford (1863-1947)
- automobile manufacturer that instituted the assembly-line technique and the use of interchangeable parts - his factories produced vehicles that were within the financial reach of the workers who built them - made enormous profits by extending the products of consumer culture to average working families
Racism
- belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race - the pseudoscientific theory that biological features of race determine human character and worth
The Communist Manifesto
- called upon the worker class to overthrow the capitalist economic system by force - 1848 political pamphlet by the German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
Conservatism (Conservatives)
- commitment to traditional values and ideas with opposition to change or innovation - the holding of political views that favor free enterprise, private ownership, and socially conservative ideas - following footsteps of Edmund Burke, Europeans argued that social order and political stability could best be realized in a climate where tradition is preserved and protected - people like Maistre wrote that the state must play an active role in the life of the nation, supporting religious institutions, encouraging educational initiatives - this group believed that monarchy, aristocracy, and church were the essential anchors of long-term social harmony - early people valued the heavy hand of the state because they rejected the Enlightenment faith in universal truths that were applicable to all people in every circumstance - valued community and duty, by which they meant the obligations that bound individuals to each other and to the state - rejected the Enlightenment's faith in human perfectibility
Louis Philippe (r. 1830-1848)
- cousin of Charles X (the Duke of Orleans) - after Charles X abdicated and left for a life of exile in Britain, the wealthy middle class threw their support behind this person - new monarch recognized that he owed his position to the support of the wealthy bourgeoisie - his government consistently supported the interests of this liberal element until another popular revolution overthrew the monarchy in 1848
'What is to be Done?'
- essay written by Lenin in 1902 that outlined his plan for an elite revolutionary cadre to engineer the communist revolution in agrarian Russia - written by Lenin in 1902 - a call to establish a small, elite party of leaders who could guide an overwhelmingly peasant Russia to a proletarian revolution - Lenin thought it should be a political party of dedicated revolutionaries to spread Marxist political ideas among the workers
Ausgleich (Compromise of 1867)
- established the Dual Monarchy of Austria and Hungary: Separate governments except for a common King. - compromise was reached whereby Austria and Hungary were split into two territories, a dual monarchy, under Francis Joseph, who was named King of Hungary and emperor of Austria
Peterloo Massacre
- government attack on civilian protestors in Manchester, England, in 1819 that came to symbolize opposition to popular calls for change during periods of economic distress - 1819 - workers assembled in St. Peter's fields near the city of Manchester to protest their worsening economic plight and to demand the right to vote - government forces panicked and attacked 50,000 unarmed protestors - hundreds of civilians were injured and 11 killed - in the aftermath, the conservative government passed legislation that placed restrictions on public meetings and called for the rigorous prosecution of political radicals
Fabian Society
- group of English socialists, including George Bernard Shaw, who advocated electoral victories rather than violent revolution to bring about social change. - socialist organization founded in 1884 and led by a number of important non-Marxist intellectuals, such as Sidney and Beatrice Webb, George Bernard Shaw, and H.G. Wells - these individuals sought to convince their countrymen that they could achieve collective ownership of the means of production in a gradualist, peaceful manner
David Ricardo (1772-1823)
- in the "Principles of Political Economy" (1817), he endorsed the gloomy 'Malthusian' prediction, concluding that the wage worker must engage in a constant struggle with his employer for salary increase - Iron Law of Wages
Dreyfus Affair
- incident in France where a Jewish captain was tried for treason because they military was anti-Semitic, and it divided the country - the trials of Captain Alfred Dreyfus on treason charges, which dominated French political life in the decade after 1894 and revealed fundamental divisions in French society - Alfred Dreyfus was tried for treason in a military court, convicted and sentenced to a life of solitary confinement at Devil's Island, an overseas penal colony
Boer War
- lasting from 1899 to 1902, Dutch colonists and the British competed for control of territory in South Africa. - war between the British Empire and two Boer states, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, over the Empire's influence in South Africa - both republics were incorporated in to South Africa as part of the British Empire
Clemens von Metternich (1773-1859)
- leading figure at the Congress of Vienna - Austria's chancellor - would remain an important spokesperson for nineteenth-century conservatism until he fled from Vienna during the Revolution of 1848 - British were unenthusiastic about his brand of repression - recognized that the forces of liberalism and nationalism threatened the integrity of the empire - by March, he had resigned and fled, a constitutional assembly was established, and serfdom was outlawed in Austria
Charles Maurice Prince de Talleyrand (1754-1838)
- leading figure at the Congress of Vienna - France's minister for foreign affairs
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)
- led a strong nationalist movement where the Habsburgs had exercised significant political control since 1815 - inspired liberal revolutions in Naples, the Papal States, Piedmont-Sardinia, Lombardy, and Venetia - a forceful and spiritual leader of the movement for Italian unification
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)
- led a strong nationalist movement where the Habsburgs had exercised significant political control since 1815 - inspired liberal revolutions in Naples, the Papal States, Piedmont-Sardinia, Lombardy, and Venetia - one of the principle leaders of the Italian nationalist movement - his dream of a liberal Italian republic designed by idealistic and romantic student revolutionaries was swiftly and decisively rejected by superior military force
Revolution of 1830
- led to the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis Philippe - marked the shift from one constitutional monarchy, under the restored House of Bourbon, to another, the July Monarchy - supporters of the Bourbon would be called legitimists and supporters of Louis Philippe Orleanists
"Rotten Boroughs"
- liberal reformers wished to put an end to these - seats in the House of Commons that had few electors or were owned outright by a single wealthy individual
George Stephenson (1781-1848)
- mining engineer - developed a locomotive, called "The Rocket", that could haul a load three times its own weight on iron rails at the extraordinary speed of almost 30 mph
Henri Count de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)
- one of the two leading socialist thinkers in France - was a member of the aristocracy, but he renounced his title and privileges and called for a new social order led by scientists, industrialists, and other professionals - theorist of socialist theory
Charles Fourier (1772-1837)
- one of the two leading socialist thinkers in France - was uncomfortable with the type of large collectives supported by disciples of Saint-Simon - believed that human happiness could best be promoted in small communities of about 1,500 citizens - theorist of socialist society
Trade Unions (labor union)
- organization of workers who have come together to achieve many common goals - the most common purpose is "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment"
Realpolitik
- political realism or practical politics, especially policy based on power rather than on ideals - the "power politics" approach to international relations pioneered by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck during the third quarter of the nineteenth century
Convertible Husbandry
- practice of enclosing common land with fences and hedges to create larger farms dedicated to a single crop - practiced by innovative land owners - involved plowing the soil and growing crops when gran prices were too high and shifting to pasture, sheep, or cattle when the market price of wool or meat increased - a higher proportion of land was used to support increasing numbers of livestock in many parts of England
Anti-Semitism
- prejudice, hostility, or legal discrimination against Jews. - swept across the country in the midst of the Dreyfus trials
Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861)
- prime minister of Piedmont, the most independent state on the Italian peninsula. He achieved the unification of Italy. He did this by recognizing the need to capture the loyalties of those Italians who believed in other varieties of nationalism, and by seeking the aid of France. - forged the path to political union and constitutional government - was a strong monarchist and a political realist who recognized that professional armies would always defeat a mass uprising by untrained revolutionaries - his strategy to achieve Italian unification involved building the power of Piedmont by modernizing its economy - believed creating a modern state was an essential precondition to removing the Austrians from northern Italy - believed that Piedmont's participation on the side of the two major Western powers would win their supports for Italian unification - 1858 - him and Napoleon III reached a secret agreement whereby France would come to the aid of Piedmont if Austria attacked - April 1859 - provoked the Austrians into declaring war - disliked Garibaldi's republicanism, his commitment to gender and racial inequality, and his defense of the right of workers to organize
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
- rejected the natural rights philosophy of the Enlightenment and instead maintained that the purpose of all formal institutions was to promote the greatest happiness for the greater number of people - him and his followers argued that the fundamental measure of good laws, good economic systems, good judicial decisions, and good educational endeavors was the extent to which they afforded the greatest happiness to the inhabitants of a particular state
Utopian Socialism
- socialism achieved by the moral persuasion of capitalists to surrender the means of production peacefully to the people. - these socialists believed that a society based on cooperation instead of competition could be secured in a peaceful manner with the assistance and goodwill of scientists, skilled administrators, and economic managers - this thought minimized the prospect of inevitable violent conflict between economic classes while placing great faith in the willingness of the owners of property to address problems of inequality after a rational assessment of its causes
Scramble for Africa
- sudden wave of conquests in Africa by European powers in the 1880s and 1890s. Britain obtained most of eastern Africa, France most of northwestern Africa. Other countries (Germany, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain) acquired lesser amounts. - the Berlin Conference became the unofficial starting point for this that continued until the entire continent was under European political control - the occupation, division, and colonisation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism
"Putting Out" or Cottage Industry
- system of commercial manufacture - responding to greater demand for clothing by a growing population, merchants turned to the countryside to increase textile production by stimulating this - with commercial farming, these introduced a money economy to the rural sector and integrated the peasant into a broader national and international economy - work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who complete the work in off-site facilities
Social Darwinism
- the application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion. - the theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals - advocated by Herbert Spencer - used to justify political conservatism, imperialism, and racism and to discourage intervention and reform
Nationalism
- the belief that the people form a nation should have their own political institutions and that the interests of the nation should be defended and promoted at all costs - loyalty to the state and its abstract ideals
Utilitarianism
- the doctrine that actions are right of they are useful or for the benefit of a majority - purpose of all formal institutions, including institutions of government, was to promote the greatest happiness for the greater number of people - principle of utility assumed that all humans seek happiness and prefer pleasure to pain - called for reform based on the immediate needs of the majority - a creed of self-interest - not the abstract principles formulated by an "enlightened" intellectual elite
Liberalism (Liberals)
- the holding of liberal views - believed in the greater goal of the Enlightenment - believed that human beings were individuals who possessed inherent rights - called for political reform, equality before the law, and economic freedom - espoused the sanity of private property and supported written constitutions that restrained the power of the state - appealed most directly to the aspiring middle class (men who had acquired significant economic power but who lacked political rights and social status) - most were not democrats; pushed for a moderate extension of the franchise
Special Theory of Relativity
Einstein's theory that no particle of matter can move faster than the speed of light and that motion can be measured only relative to a particular observer
Internal Combustion Engine
lighter and more portable than the steam engine, the new technology was powered by liquid petroleum and led to the advent of the automobile age by the end of the nineteenth century
Great Reform Bill
-parliamentary legislation in 1932 that opened up voting rights to middle-class males in Britain. The bill was the first in a series of reforms that would extend the franchise to the working class by the end of the nineteenth century - sponsored by the moderate Whig party and reluctantly supported by King William IV (r 1830-1837) - acknowledged the changing structure of economic power in the country - under terms of this, the right to vote in parliamentary elections were extended to the property-owning middle class - with this established, future Parliaments, in 1867 and again in 1872, would extend the right to vote even further
Industrial Revolution
a sustained period of economic growth and change brought on by technological innovations in the process of manufacturing; began in Britain in the mid-eighteenth century
Survival of the Fittest
a term coined by Herbert Spencer who applied evolutionary theory to social and economic change to argue against state assistance to the poor and disadvantaged
Proletariat
an unskilled industrial worker who was entirely dependent on wage labor for his/her survival. According to many nineteenth-century social theorists, including Karl Marx, this group faced constant exploitation by the owners of the means of production
Working Class
people who work for wages, especially low wages, including unskilled and semi-skilled laborers and their families
Louis Blanc (1811-1882)
socialist that was appointed to establish a series of "national workshops" to address the problem of massive unemployment in Paris
Marxism
theory of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) that stated history is the result of class conflict, which will end in the inevitable triumph of the industrial proletariat over the bourgeoisie and the abolition of private property and social class
