Module 4: The Neoclassical Period and the Enlightenment

Rationalism

A point of view that emphasizes the role of reason over the senses in gaining knowledge.

Rationalism

A prominent philosophical movement during the Enlightenment was that of rationalism. Rationalists believed that human reason was the key to knowledge and, therefore, social improvement and progress. René Descartes (1596-1650), sometimes called the father of modern philosophy, is considered to have been the first modern rationalist. He devised a methodology of logical thinking built upon intellectual deductive reasoning.

Deism

A religious philosophy that describes God as an architect or cosmic clockmaker who created the world according to scientific laws and principles and does not directly interfere in the functioning of the natural world.

Jacques Louis David is an 18th century French Neoclassical artist who is interesting in one way because he very much changes his political alliance according to the time.

According to Dr. Paula Carabell. We're going to start out with an image called "Oath of the Horatii" which has been associated with the French Revolution, although it was actually painted somewhat before it. The topic comes from an ancient Roman story about three brothers from the Horatii family who take an oath to win or die. What we see here is, this is the father, and he is handing the three swords over to each of the three brothers, who salute him, and we have then in opposition on the far right, the three grieving women, and we'll talk about this in a moment. The reason this is Neoclassical is for one thing, it is set in a kind of stage setting with, as you can see, this Roman architecture with the round arches. Each of the groups is framed by one of these arches and then the image is punctuated by the diagonals of the swords, of the sons' arms, of their legs, and then remains in counterpart to the women who are mourning the fact that they are bound to lose either a husband or a son. This was seen as a kind of pictorial call to arms, saying that ultimately what was of greatest importance was one's allegiance to the State rather than to one's family, and so having the women be hurt and having to undergo loss was something that would naturally happen in this type of situation. Another one of David's revolutionary images is of Marat. Marat was a very active pro-revolutionary journalist, and he's shown here actually sitting in his bathtub, and the reason he's in his bath is he suffered from some kind of skin condition, the only thing that would make him feel better was actually being submerged in water. So he would do all of his work there, and you can see he's got his little desk. One day a woman came knocking at the door saying that she needed to enlist his help and of course Marat said show her in and he's shown here with the letter that she's given him but what happens is that she's not on the side of the Revolution, just the opposite, and she winds up stabbing him in his bathtub. We can see the blood dripping down the towel and sheet and there's a knife down here and there is blood on the letter. But what David has done is he has now cast Marat not only as a kind of saint or savior of the Revolution, but actually as a figure of Christ, because as people would have known during this time, when you have a figure with their head thrown back, obviously deceased, and their arm is kind of hanging over in this position, that it is an implicit reference to the notion of the dead Christ, particularly as seen in Michelangelo's Pieta, which educated people would have known at that time. He's also used the desk as a kind of tombstone. He's written here in French, "A Marat, David" with this blank background. He's really showing Marat as a martyr to the cause. The Revolution did not work out and Napoleon came into power and David undoubtedly thought it wise to change sides, and so he started to become the private painter for Napoleon. What we see here is a large and lavish composition of the coronation of Napoleon the 1st with the empress Josephine, and the way that he constructed this image is he actually had some of the major people, with the exception of Napoleon, come into his studio so he could paint their portraits, and then use the choir from Notre Dame to fill in all of the people in the background. You can see he is showing this with great pomp, riches, and showing what an important and tremendous affair this was for the French people.

Empiricism

Although a Renaissance figure, Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was an important influence in the empiricism of the Age of Enlightenment because of his experimental philosophy. Empiricism may be defined as basing ideas and theories on direct experience through the senses, including experimentation. Bacon is seen as the father of the scientific method based upon observation, experimentation, and induction. The great Enlightenment scientist following the path set by Bacon was, of course, Sir Isaac Newton, who perfected the inductive scientific method and paved the way for modern science.

Angelica Kauffmann

Angelica Kauffmann (1741-1807) was one of the few prominent female Neoclassical artists. Trained and promoted by her father, Joseph Kauffmann, a Swiss painter, Angelica became one of the most popular portraitists of her time. She was accepted into European arts and social circles and displayed her works at the Royal Academy of Arts where she was a founding member. Among her portraits were the prominent figures of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Winckelmann. Angelica Kauffmann blazed the trail for women artists. In the 20th century, she was included in Judy Chicago's The Dinner Party (1974-79), an installation that celebrates over a thousand of the most important women in history. Self-Portrait (1770-1775) by Angelica Kauffmann

Mary Wollstonecraft

Argued that women were capable of rationality and advocated for the advancement and education of women.

Ludwig van Beethoven Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 - 4th movement

Beethoven was completely deaf when he wrote his final, triumphant Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125, which was completed in 1824. The theme from the final movement is one of the most recognized melodies in Western music. With this masterpiece, Beethoven became the first major composer to utilize voices in a symphony. These voices—in the form of four vocal soloists and a chorus—appear during the fourth movement, singing the words from the "Ode to Joy," a poem written by Friedrich Schiller. As mentioned earlier, Beethoven is considered both a Classical Period and a Romantic Period composer. More information on Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 can be found in the Commentary in the next module on the Romantic Period.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Believed that a person is at his or her best in wholly natural environments and is corrupted by the environments of society.

Learning Outcomes After completing this module, you'll be able to:

Identify the major themes of the Enlightenment. Recognize the major creative and philosophic contributions of the Enlightenment. Analyze individual works of visual art, performing art, and literature from the Enlightenment. Explain the impact of discipline-specific advancements and developments of the Enlightenment. Describe the influence of cultural exchange and diversity of the Enlightenment. Explain the ways in which works and themes from the Enlightenment are exemplified in contemporary life.

7. Key Enlightenment Philosophers After the Counter Reformation, the English Civil War, and the uprising of the Commonwealth in England, many were questioning authority and political power. Enlightenment philosophers turned their attention toward human rights, social organization, and political structure. In search of rules that would create order, establish governing bodies, and shed light on human nature, Enlightenment philosophers focused on reason, rationality, and empiricism. Developments in math and science supported these efforts and intensified the emphasis on observation and rational thought. While the goal of the Enlightenment was to establish reason and promote rational thought, the intense focus on reason would eventually inspire a counter-movement—romanticism—which valued emotion and beauty above scientific thought and reason.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the native peoples encountered through trade and colonization were, in some ways, morally superior, arguing that a person is at his or her best in wholly natural environments and is corrupted by the environments of society. Denis Diderot helped create the greatest encyclopedia in the 18th century. He wrote philosophical dialogues that explored the theory and consequence of materialism: the idea that the universe is entirely composed of matter and without a God. The Encyclopédie represented a fundamental principle of the Enlightenment: to accumulate, codify, and preserve human knowledge by providing rational information on important topics to the general public. John Locke was one of the most influential philosophers and political theorists in British history. Many current ideas about selfhood, identity, and the way the mind works come from Locke. Locke also wrote highly influential books on government, providing a basis for the American political experiment. Mary Wollstonecraft was an English writer, philosopher, and feminist who argued for the advancement of women, affirming that women were capable of rationality and that they should be educated. Renaissance innovations such as Francis Bacon's development of the scientific method, empirical process of inductive reasoning, Isaac Newton's laws of motion, and Galileo's revolutionary theories of the structure of the solar system all contributed to the development of Enlightenment philosophy and birthed new schools of thought.

John Singleton Copley

John Singleton Copley (1738-1815) was a prominent American Neoclassical painter whose versatility and technical mastery earned him exceptional financial reward and recognition during his lifetime. A Boston native, Copley would eventually take up permanent residence in England where he crafted one of his great history paintings, Watson and the Shark. The painting told the true story of Brook Watson, who at fourteen was swimming in Havana Harbor and was attacked by a shark. Watson survived the attack but lost his leg. Watson and the Shark (1778) by John Singleton Copley

Joseph Haydn Symphony No. 101 ("The Clock Symphony"), 2nd movement (Chamber Arrangement)

Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 101, written in tribute to London, was nicknamed "The Clock Symphony." First performed in London's Hanover Square in 1794, it received instant acclaim. Throughout the piece, but especially in the second movement, the bassoon and pizzicato strings play short oscillating notes spaced evenly in time that create a sound reminiscent of a clock (intended to represent Big Ben). Through a dramatic darkening of the music, and back to a light, cheerful tone again, the "tick-tock" remains constant. This clear sense of rhythm and order to the piece fit well with the Enlightenment views of the period

Joseph Haydn Symphony No. 101 ("The Clock Symphony"), 2nd movement (Chamber Arrangement)

Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 101, written in tribute to London, was nicknamed "The Clock Symphony." First performed in London's Hanover Square in 1794, it received instant acclaim. Throughout the piece, but especially in the second movement, the bassoon and pizzicato strings play short oscillating notes spaced evenly in time that create a sound reminiscent of a clock (intended to represent Big Ben). Through a dramatic darkening of the music, and back to a light, cheerful tone again, the "tick-tock" remains constant. This clear sense of rhythm and order to the piece fit well with the Enlightenment views of the period.

10. Neoclassical Architecture

Like the paintings and sculpture of this era, Neoclassical architecture moved away from the grand and ornate styles popularized during the Baroque Period and reflected the features of classical Greek and Roman architecture. The following slideshow highlights three structures that showcase this return to classical forms.

Ludwig van Beethoven

Ludwig van Beethoven

Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550 - I. Molto Allegro

Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K550 is the focal piece of Mozart's final three symphonic works, entitled "The Final Trilogy." Many critics interpret the tone of No. 40 as grim and distressing, possibly reflecting troubles in Mozart's life (a decline in popularity, his father's death, his wife's ill health). The piece moves between varying keys, tempos, and intensities to create periods of rest followed by frantic energy. Mozart pushes a recurring melodic theme further and further up into the register to build anticipation. "The Final Trilogy" is considered masterful, both for Mozart's clever use of devices such as inversion, and for the intricate psychology that surrounds it.

Voltaire Notable Work: Candide; Zaire (play); Letters on the English

Synopsis: In Candide, Candide grows up in his uncle's castle under the tutelage of Pangloss, who teaches Candide that this is the best of all possible worlds. After being caught kissing his cousin, Cunégonde, Candide is expelled from the castle and is forced to join the Bulgar army. There, he witnesses atrocities, eventually deserts, and makes his way to Holland. In Holland he comes across Pangloss, now a beggar, but still optimistic, and they travel to Portugal. Pangloss is apparently hung as a heretic and Candide reunites with Cunégonde, who has become a sex slave after the Bulgars overran the castle. After killing the men who enslaved her, Candide escapes with Cunégonde to Argentina, where Cunégonde marries the governor because he is wealthy. Candide acquires a valet Cacambo and after another series of adventures, travels to Eldorado, a utopia. Still trying to marry Cunégonde, Candide takes jewels, which the natives don't value, from Eldorado, and sends Cacambo to buy Cunégonde from the governor. Although a number of people steal from Candide, he eventually ends up in Turkey where is once again encounters Pangloss, now a prisoner. He also finds and marries Cunégonde, although she is now ugly. Candide buys a farm where he settles with Cunégonde, Cacambo, and Pangloss, but they are dissatisfied until they live the simple and hard life of a farmer. Themes: Skepticism and Progress Voltaire's novel addresses: The hypocrisy of religious leaders The unrealistic optimism of religious philosophers who believed God had created a perfect world The need for humans to be skeptical of traditional social and political institutions Enlightenment Techniques: Voltaire uses satire in his novel to provide a social critique. Sample Excerpt: From Voltaire's Candide: "At length, while the two kings were causing Te Deum to be sung each in his own camp, Candide resolved to go and reason elsewhere on effects and causes. He passed over heaps of dead and dying, and first reached a neighbouring village; it was in cinders, it was an Abare village which the Bulgarians had burnt according to the laws of war. Here, old men covered with wounds, beheld their wives, hugging their children to their bloody breasts, massacred before their faces; there, their daughters, disembowelled and breathing their last after having satisfied the natural wants of Bulgarian heroes; while others, half burnt in the flames, begged to be despatched. The earth was strewed with brains, arms, and legs." Significance : In this excerpt, Voltaire mocks the religious idea that since God created the world, everything must be for the best. "Te Deum" is a religious service thanking God for blessings. Here, it is held in the midst of terrible carnage. Voltaire wrote his 1759 novel as a satirical indictment of outdated social and political practices.

Jonathan Swift Notable Work: Gulliver's Travels "A Modest Proposal"

Synopsis: In Gulliver's Travels, the narrator Lemuel Gulliver is a ship's doctor who has a series of adventures as he pursues his fortune at sea. In his first trip, Gulliver awakens after a storm to find himself captured by the Lilliputians, people who are 6 inches tall. Gulliver describes his adventures in befriending and helping the Lilliputian emperor in his wars with the neighboring country. In the second part, Gulliver returns to the sea and is abandoned on an island of giant humans, the Brobdingnagians, where he is treated like a pet. In the third part, Gulliver travels to Laputa, a flying island where everyone is hyper-rational, but oblivious to the world around them. In the final part, Gulliver meets the Yahoos and Houyhnhnms, the former are actually humans, but disgusting and cruel, while the latter are horses who are rational and virtuous. Gulliver's conversations with his Houyhnhnm master reveal the extent to which human reason is used to increase humans' ability to do evil. Themes: Skepticism and Classicism Swift's satire addresses: the limitations and dangers of relying solely on abstract human reason the danger of unimportant religious disputes the value of older, Classical thinking compared to modern philosophy Enlightenment Techniques: Swift uses satire in his travel narrative to provide a social critique. Sample Excerpt: From Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels: "It is computed that eleven thousand persons have at several times suffered death, rather than submit to break their eggs at the smaller end. Many hundred large volumes have been published upon this controversy: but the books of the Big-endians have been long forbidden, and the whole party [of Big-endians] rendered incapable by law of holding employments." Significance: In this excerpt, Swift satirizes the religious conflicts between Protestant England and Catholic France. Swift suggests that fighting over the sacrament in Christianity is like fighting over which end to break first when eating an egg. The satire gains force by mimicking the real consequences of being Catholic in Britain, where Catholics could not vote, hold office, or attend university.

9. Exemplary Works: Neoclassical Theater Molière Notable Work: Tartuffe

Synopsis: Tartuffe follows a family's attempt to expose the fraud of their houseguest, Tartuffe. Orgon, the head of household, is infatuated with what he perceives as Tartuffe's religious piety. However, Tartuffe's piety is feigned. He attempts to take Orgon's home, seduce his wife, and ruin his daughter's engagement. Ultimately, the imposter's farce is exposed and the family rejoices. Molière's characters are a bit one-dimensional, with the exception of Tartuffe, since with stock or flat characters the emphasis can be on humor rather than empathy. Tartuffe's overdone piety, coupled with the seeming ridiculousness of Orgon's infatuation with that piety, is a commentary on how blind devotion to religion enables hypocrisy within society. Themes: Piety and Reason Molière's work addresses: the doctrine of true religious virtue versus pious behavior. Molière intended not to attack religion but to expose the hypocritical nature of those who falsely tout a pious image. Tartuffe and Madame Pernelle claim themselves to be pious beings, while the other characters, though imperfect, exhibit genuine goodness in their care for one another. the contrast between irrationality and reason. In contrast to Madame Pernelle, Tartuffe, and Orgon, the other characters' rational behavior makes the foolishness exhibited by these three seem that much more exaggerated. Neoclassical Techniques: Molière uses satire to deliver his religious and social critique. Sample Excerpt: DORINE: Madam had fever, and a splitting headache Day before yesterday, all day and evening. ORGON: And how about Tartuffe? DORINE: Tartuffe? He's well; He's mighty well; stout, fat, fair, rosy-lipped. ORGON: Poor man! DORINE: At evening she had nausea And couldn't touch a single thing for supper, Her headache still was so severe. ORGON: And how About Tartuffe? Significance: In this scene, Orgon has just entered after a long journey and inquires about his family; however, he shows no interest in his wife. This passage demonstrates Orgon's clear preoccupation with Tartuffe, despite Dorine's commentary on Tartuffe's good health ("stout, fat, fair, rosy-lipped") in contrast with Orgon's wife. This preoccupation is central in Molière's critique of real versus feigned piety and goodness.

2. After considering new themes in this period, identify one theme that was discussed in a previous module. Why does this theme reappear during the Enlightenment and how is it represented?

The themes of balance, truth, and reason from the Classical Period reappeared during the Enlightenment in many ways, including in the form of a new artistic movement called neoclassicism. Countering the ornate extravagance of Baroque works, neoclassical artists embraced harmony and balance—just as classical artists had. These classical themes were prominent in the visual arts, where classical techniques were also applied.

The Enlightenment's Influences on Contemporary Life

The views of Enlightenment thinkers and writers have impacted our modern philosophy, particularly in the realm of politics. Political satire, which was popularized by Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, has continued to this day in the form of political cartoons and television shows that poke fun at various aspects of government. Not only do we still sing many popular songs such as "Yankee Doodle" that have their origins in the era, but the period saw sweeping changes in thinking that influence the way we think about ourselves today. Political satire * , in which authors and cartoonists made fun of, or even openly denounced, some government practices or figures, became very popular in the period. Jonathan Swift, the author of Gulliver's Travels and a famous satirist, had the ability to both criticize and entertain. This criticism was not without its cost, however, and some would argue that a certain level of respect for authority was irrevocably lost. In our own society, satire functions in much the same way, employing wit and humor to critique U.S. politics. It is commonplace to see the government lampooned in cartoons like "Doonesbury" and on television programs like Saturday Night Live and The Daily Show. First edition of Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift

Order

The worldview that dominated Enlightenment thinking was the belief in a comprehensible world under the direction of an orderly Christian God using natural laws to exert divine will. This natural order was accessible to humankind through observation, study, and logical thinking. One group of Enlightenment thinkers known in France as the Encyclopédistes proposed that there was a moral architecture to knowledge from which sprang belief in the "enlightened" ordering of society.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

There are mysteries surrounding the history of Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik, or A Little Night Music. Originally intended to be five movements, the minuets and the trio that comprised the fifth movement were lost. The opening is vigorous and lively, featuring agile strings and a melody that ascends and descends quickly in fanfare style. The second theme is softer and more civilized. The interplay of the two create auditory interest and keep the mood vibrant. The simplicity of the melody reflects the Enlightenment focus on structural clarity.

Exemplary Works: Baroque Music Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Einekleine Nachtmusik

There are mysteries surrounding the history of Mozart's Einekleine Nachtmusik, or A Little Night Music. Originally intended to be five movements, the minuets and the trio that comprised the fifth movement were lost. It is unclear who commissioned the work or why. Finally, the piece was composed in 1787 but not published until after Mozart's death. Despite the ambiguity surrounding its past, A Little Night Music quickly became popular. The opening is vigorous and lively, featuring agile strings and a melody that ascends and descends quickly in fanfare style. The second theme is softer and more civilized. The interplay of the two create auditory interest and keep the mood vibrant. The simplicity of the melody reflects the Enlightenment focus on structural clarity.

Skepticism

This theme comes from the Greek philosophical school of thought that maintained human knowledge is limited and uncertain.

Classicism

This theme was most evident in art, where aesthetic principles and themes had roots in Greco-Roman styles.

Candide

This work is critical of traditional social and religious institutions. In this work, the main character pursues a woman across the narrative. When he finally wins her, she is no longer his ideal. This work features a philosopher who is too optimistic.

Gulliver's Travels

This work values older, Classical period over modern writing. In this work, various aspects of human nature are explored through beings with a variety of physical attributes This work is critical of meaningless religious controversies.

Order

This worldview of the Enlightenment thinkers was a belief in a comprehensible world under the direction of a Christian God who used natural laws to exert divine will.

3. From the Declaration of Independence:

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.

William Hunter and Jan van Rymsdyk

William Hunter (1718-1783), anatomist and obstetrician, contributed to the study of the female reproductive process. In 1774, Hunter authored The Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus Exhibited in Figures, with copper plates engraved by Jan van Rymsdyk. The illustrations for Hunter's book are ranked among the best medical illustrations of all time. As a drawing model, Hunter suggested Leonardo da Vinci's drawings conserved in the Royal Collection at Windsor. Rymsdyk produced 31 of the 34 drawings in Hunter's book. His process was working with Hunter in the dissecting room, where he made life-sized drawings with red chalk. Later, he transformed these drawings into engravings. Child in Womb, drawing from dissection of a woman who died in the ninth month of pregnancy (1774) by William Hunter

Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K550

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is the focal piece of Mozart's final three symphonic works, entitled "The Final Trilogy." Many critics interpret the tone of No. 40 as grim and distressing, possibly reflecting troubles in Mozart's life (a decline in popularity, his father's death, his wife's ill health). The piece moves between varying keys*, tempos*, and intensities to create periods of rest followed by frantic energy. Mozart pushes a recurring melodic theme further and further up into the register* to build anticipation. "The Final Trilogy" is considered masterful, both for Mozart's clever use of devices, such as inversion, and for the intricate psychology that surrounds

Denis Diderot

Worked with Jean le Rond d'Alembert to create the Encyclopédie.

1. Name the creator of the following Neoclassical work of art: Oath of the Horatii

a. Antonio Canova Incorrect. Try again. b. Jacques-Louis David Correct. This is Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii. c. Henry Fuseli d. Gustave Courbet

1. Name the creator of the following Neoclassical work of art:

a. Antonio Canova b. Jacques-Louis David Correct. This is Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii. c. Henry Fuseli d. Gustave Courbet 4. Which of the following structures is NOT an example of Neoclassical architecture? a. Monticello in Virginia Incorrect. Try again. b. St. Paul's Cathedral in London Correct. St. Paul's Cathedral in London is an example of architecture from the Baroque Period. c. Brandenburg Gate in Berlin Incorrect. Try again. d. The Panthéon in Paris

2. According to Dr. Paula Carabell, the painting The Death of Marat likens Marat to which historical figure?

a. Christ Correct. In the painting, The Death of Marat, David depicts Marat's lifeless body with its head leaned back and his arm forward—a posture that, at the time, was well-known to represent Christ. b. Zeus c. Socrates Incorrect. Try again. d. Caesar

2. Who said, "The age we live in is a busy age, in which knowledge is rapidly advancing towards perfection"?

a. Immanuel Kant b. Jeremy Bentham Correct. The answer is b. It was English philosopher Jeremy Bentham who said, "The age we live in is a busy age, in which knowledge is rapidly advancing towards perfection." c. Benjamin Franklin

1.What is unusual about the work Eine kleine Nachtmusik?

a. It has never been performed. Incorrect. Try again. b. Mozart wrote the piece for his own artistic expression. Incorrect. Try again. c. it is longer than a usual symphony. Incorrect. Try again. d. One of the parts is missing. Correct. One of the mysteries surrounding Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik is the fifth movement is lost.

3. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the Neoclassical play Tartuffe?

a. It was written by Molière b. It celebrates those who falsely convey a sense of religious piety. Correct. The answer is b. Tartuffe is a critique of false religious piety. c. It contains lofty language and calls for elaborate costumes and settings. d. It features the use of satire.

4. Which of the following beliefs would a deist likely hold?

a. Mary was indeed a virgin, and the birth of Christ was a miracle. b. Death occurs when God has decided that it is time to take us. c. Death has a scientific explanation, the laws of which God created. Correct. The answer is c. Deists did believe in God as a creator of the universe and that God created the laws which govern the universe. However, they did not believe that God interfered in the natural world or daily lives of people, nor did they believe in miraculous events. d. God does not exist.

4. Which of the following structures is NOT an example of Neoclassical architecture?

a. Monticello in Virginia Incorrect. Try again. b. St. Paul's Cathedral in London Correct. St. Paul's Cathedral in London is an example of architecture from the Baroque Period. c. Brandenburg Gate in Berlin Incorrect. Try again. d. The Panthéon in Paris

3. What is empiricism?

a. The concept that all knowledge comes from the direct experience of the senses, which formed the foundation of the scientific method Correct. The answer is a. Empiricism, or the theory that all knowledge comes from the direct experience of the senses, is the foundation of the modern scientific method, in which observation and experimentation lead to ideas and theories. b. The concept that an empire's natural progression was expansion throughout the globe, claiming uncharted lands for the mother country c. An ideology that teaches that empirical knowledge is provided by the holy kingdom of heaven, and will be given to the people by the pope d. The principle that empires are holy and that the kingdom has a moral duty to teach and convert the lesser conquered peoples of the world to its culture.

2. How does the novel Candide reflect period themes?

a. The novel celebrates war in a just cause. b. The novel narrates a series of adventures throughout the world, thereby illustrating cultural exchange. c. The novel sends an anti-war message and many people in the Enlightenment questioned the necessity of war. d. The novel indicts outdated social and political practices. Correct. The novel attacks a number of different social and religious actions and institutions. Voltaire's satire is asking readers to look candidly at evil. e. none of the above

1. Why was the novel an appropriate medium for conveying the theme of sympathy?

a. The novel was longer, which allowed for more emotional complexity. Correct. The answer is a. The novel's length allowed for the development of complex characters and plots, evoking sympathy from readers as they became more and more invested. b. Novels were typically aimed at the literate upper-class citizens, who had received ample religious and moral education. c. The novel was NOT a good medium to convey sympathy because prose was less dramatic, and therefore, storytelling was less emotionally engaging. d. The novel was NOT a good medium to convey sympathy because Enlightenment literature was not as popular as the writing that came before or after.

1. What position would an Enlightenment philosopher take on the following quote by Saint Augustine? "Faith is to believe what you do not see; the reward of this faith is to see what you believe."

a. They would probably agree. b. They would probably disagree. Correct. The answer is b. Enlightenment thinkers believed in using reason and logic to deduce truths about the world. Trusting without evidence, as the quote suggests a person do, conflicts with those Enlightenment principles.

3. What was the goal of the Encyclopédie?

a. To record new scientific discoveries b. To publicize the works of aspiring artists c. To collect human knowledge in one place Correct. The answer is c. The Encyclopédie was a project started by French writers and thinkers to collect human knowledge in one place.

1. Enlightenment thinkers were willing to challenge authority in all arenas of life. True or False?

a. True Correct. Challenges to received wisdom resulted in rapid scientific advancement, and skepticism of organized religion allowed for the development of new moral systems. Political reform and revolutions followed the questioning of the monarch's previously established "divine right" to rule. b. False

2. Neoclassical Period art depicted scenes of civic virtue. True or False?

a. True Correct. Neoclassical Period artists celebrated civic virtue and morality. b. False

2. Deists do not believe in divine intervention and therefore do not pray. True or False?

a. True Correct. The deist God is a grand designer and creator, but he or she is not a close personal friend or consoler. Therefore, deists believe that prayer, ritual, and ceremony are not logical and have no value. b. False Incorrect. Try again.

1. Female actors performed in Neoclassical productions. True or False?

a. True Correct. The use of female actors in Neoclassical plays was a new convention in England, while women had acted in other European countries in previous periods. b. False

1. The Age of Enlightenment is also known as the Age of Expansion. True or False?

a. True Incorrect. Try again. b. False Correct. This is a false statement. The Age of Enlightenment is also known as the Age of Reason.

2. Nature was treated with suspicion during the Enlightenment. True or False?

a. True Incorrect. Try again. b. False Correct. This is a false statement. The suspicion of authority and reliance on human reason made nature a newly important realm. Scientists came to believe that they could best study God's work through the observation and analysis of nature.

2. Neoclassical productions featured actors speaking naturally and wearing simple, realistic costumes. True or False?

a. True Incorrect. Try again. b. False Correct. This statement is false. Actors in Neoclassical productions spoke highly stylized language while wearing elaborate costumes.

2. Enlightenment thinkers valued order and therefore believed that a state should strictly control its citizens. True or false?

a. True Incorrect. Try again. b. False Correct. This statement is false. Enligtenment thinkers believed that natural world, despite being created by God, was ordered and therefore could be studied and understood by human beings.

1. Deists embraced religious authority from priests and kings. True or False?

a. True b. False Correct. This statement is false. Deists opposed both religious and political authority, both priests and kings, because they believed that each individual needed to be equally free to work out his or her own destiny.

5. Given the values of the Enlightenment, which description below would you image best matches a "neoclassical" garden?

a. a profusion of wild flowers with vivid colors b. random groupings of flowers and trees in clumps Incorrect. Try again. c. an emphasis on growing traditional flowers d. landscaping that is attractive but made to look natural Correct. The answer is d. Neoclassical aesthetics focused on realism.

3. According to Wollstonecraft, Rousseau's idea that girls naturally prefer dressing, dolls, and talking is...

a. fundamentally correct, though overstated. b. wrong; girls are taught to enjoy these activities. Correct. Wollstonecraft argued that girls learn these behaviors from watching their female relatives in their restricted lives. c. wrong; boys prefer these activities. d. was a deist Incorrect. Try again.

3. What type of painting was Angelica Kauffmann known for?

a. landscape b. watercolors c. portraits Correct. Kauffmann because a famous and popular portrait painter d. anatomical

3. What type of painting was Angelica Kauffmann known for?3. What type of painting was Angelica Kauffmann known for?

a. landscape b. watercolors c. portraits Correct. Kauffmann because a famous and popular portrait painter d. anatomical

2. Which did Rousseau believe was an example of a barbaric practice justified by an over-rationalizing society?

a. over taxation of the poor b. disdainful behavior toward the poor c. slavery Correct. Rousseau believed that the self is corrupted by more developed societies, which have lost the primal touch of prioritizing liberty; thus, they allow slavery. d. oppression of women Incorrect. Try again.

1. For Locke and the empiricists, moral behavior is based on ___________.

a. scientific discoveries Incorrect. Try again. b. religious devotion c. pleasure and pain Correct. For Locke and the empiricists, moral behavior is based on pleasure (good) and pain (evil). We decide morality by our senses. d. rational thought and reason Incorrect. Try again.

Beethoven

was completely deaf when he wrote his final, triumphant Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125, which was completed in 1824. The theme from the final movement is one of the most recognized melodies in Western music. With this masterpiece, Beethoven became the first major composer to utilize voices in a symphony. These voices—in the form of four vocal soloists and a chorus—appear during the fourth movement, singing the words from the "Ode to Joy," a poem written by Friedrich Schiller. As mentioned earlier, Beethoven is considered both a Classical Period and a Romantic Period composer. More information on Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 can be found in the Commentary in the next module on the Romantic Period.

10. Exemplary Works Jacques-Louis David

Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) is considered the preeminent Neoclassical painter. His paintings reflect the move away from the playful and ornate Rococo style toward a more austere and orderly style of art. David was an active supporter of the French Revolution and befriended political activist Maximilien Robespierre until his fall from power, at which point David aligned himself with Napoleon I. Many of his paintings make a political statement and encourage civic virtue and loyalty. In discussing the relationship between his art and his revolutionary political views, David once said: "I will never, for the future, paint the portrait of a tyrant until his head lies before me on the scaffold." David's painting Oath of the Horatii (1784) is perhaps the best-known Neoclassical work, becoming an inspiration for the French revolutionary movement. It shows three brothers from the Roman Horatius family swearing their allegiance to Rome. David emphasizes clear details and idealized forms and balance in his composition.

12, Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Enlightenment

Cultural exchange and diversity were key aspects in the Enlightenment pursuit of reason and scientific thought and the suppression of traditional biases. The rise of capitalism facilitated the exchange of ideas and cultural practices, which intellectuals used in shaping their philosophies. Enlightenment thinking emphasized the role that individualized thought could play in crossing all racial and religious lines. Many Enlightenment thinkers rejected the tradition of slavery, looking to reason and individualized thought. Slave narratives were published during this time, enriching the Enlightenment philosophies with a new viewpoint and experience. The music of the time period was also diversified by the popularization of spirituals, or slave songs, which often featured religious themes and even hidden messages meant only for fellow slaves. hese songs usually contained a Christian message and were originally monophonic * and performed a cappella * . Spirituals were heavily influenced by African music and some of the songs, called "shouts," featured dancing, hand clapping, and foot tapping. Spirituals, like the field holler * , made use of call and response. Spirituals served a variety of purposes, including providing a sense of comfort and hope, expressing one's religious faith, and even relaying covert messages from one slave to another. The spiritual would give rise to many forms of popular American music including blues, jazz and gospel music.

Deism

Deism is a religious philosophy that grew out of the rationalism and empiricism of the Age of Enlightenment. It had famous proponents throughout Europe and the United States, including Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. In brief, deism describes God as an architect or cosmic clockmaker who created the world according to scientific laws and principles and does not directly interfere in the functioning of the natural world. Deists suggested that any understanding of God could come about solely by studying natural principles, and naturally, they were skeptical of miracles and other supernatural manifestations.

Denis Diderot

Denis Diderot (1713-1784) was one of the French philosophes and creators of the greatest encyclopedia in the 18th century. He wrote philosophical dialogues that explored the theory and consequence of materialism, the idea that the universe is entirely composed of matter and without a God. Diderot's Encyclopédie Encyclopédie Title page of the Encyclopédie c. 1751-72 (Public Domain) The crowning achievement of the philosophes was the Encyclopédie, a 35-volume text that took 22 years to create and utilized more than 180 writers. The Encyclopédie represented a fundamental principle of the Enlightenment: to accumulate, codify, and preserve human knowledge. Its intention was to "change the general way of thinking" about life by providing rational information on important topics to the general public. The argument about natural law in the Encyclopédie was especially important, because it asserted that all people were equal and rational, a concept known as "rational humanism," which served as the basis for the many political revolutions in Western culture during the next one hundred years. Title page of the Encyclopédie c. 1751-72

6. Philosophy of the Enlightenmen scientific discoveries of the natural, physical world fueled their theories.

During the Enlightenment, reason, rational thinking, and observation were key to uncovering philosophical truths. Enlightenment philosophers were concerned with abstract concepts pertaining to the social realm, such as justice, morality, law, government, and basic human rights. They developed their theories in conjunction with scientific theories and modes of thinking developed prior to and during this period. Three prominent philosophical movements during the Enlightenment were rationalism, empiricism, and skepticism. Rationalists believed that human reason is the key to knowledge. Empiricists believed that all knowledge is derived through our senses and based on ideas and theories on testing, observation, and experience. Skepticism departed from both rationalism and empiricism in that it criticized our ability to perceive and understand the world around us, acknowledging the limitations of human reasoning.

5. Religion of the Enlightenment

During the Enlightenment, there was a dramatic shift away from traditional Judeo-Christian religious thought. Many intellectual philosophes, inspired by scientific discoveries in physics and biology, preferred deism, a belief system that credits God as the world's creator who established the natural law and order but who otherwise does not interfere with humanity. The philosophes embraced deism largely because it was a concept that appealed to the rational mind. Deism rejected the details of Christianity and believed in a deity who ordained the order in the universe and let that order operate. Deists did not practice worship or ritual, since they did not believe in divine intervention, but instead strove to understand the order that God put into place. Many prominent artists moved away from strictly Christian themes.

11. Exemplary Works: Baroque Music Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Einekleine Nachtmusik There are mysteries surrounding the history of Mozart's Einekleine Nachtmusik, or A Little Night Music. Originally intended to be five movements, the minuets and the trio that comprised the fifth movement were lost. It is unclear who commissioned the work or why. Finally, the piece was composed in 1787 but not published until after Mozart's death. Despite the ambiguity surrounding its past, A Little Night Music quickly became popular. The opening is vigorous and lively, featuring agile strings and a melody that ascends and descends quickly in fanfare style. The second theme is softer and more civilized. The interplay of the two create auditory interest and keep the mood vibrant. The simplicity of the melody reflects the Enlightenment focus on structural clarity.

8. Literature of the Enlightenment Enlightenment literature was not solely about reason, however; it was also the age of "sensibility," an emotional experience of the world. Enlightenment thinkers believed that human sympathy created a natural morality. The importance of cultivating and displaying emotions, particularly sympathy, soon found expression in the new genre of the novel. The novel made representing this kind of emotional complexity possible precisely because it had the room to do so. A longer narrative meant that more character and plot development, more elaborate settings, and more conceptual themes could play out in this longer prose form. In Britain, one of the first novels was Pamela by Samuel Richardson, a novel that uses sympathy to attempt to enact social reform.

Enlightenment literature focused on rational prose and social reform. The Enlightenment cultivated the novel, a longer form of prose that allowed for more complex plot and character development. This genre was a perfect vehicle for the period's theme of sympathy. In novel form, authors had the literal space to develop characters richly and to devise intricate plots. Enlightenment literature often blended real life with philosophical or ethical reflection, making biographies, essays, and travel narratives very popular. In The printing press popularized literature and made it available to people of all social classes. For this reason, much of what was produced was geared toward the newly literate, whose intellectual appetites were fed in public meeting places like the cafe. Popular authors and works of the Enlightenment included: Enlightenment literature—whether fiction or nonfiction, poetry or prose—was in many ways didactic; it sought to teach the reader something valuable and to challenge the social, political, or religious status quo. One popular genre meant to teach the reader and challenge the status quo was satire*Glossary Pronunciation, a depiction of people or situations that mocks what the writer sees as contemporary faults or hypocrisy. Jonathan Swift, whose narrative Gulliver's Travels uses satire to ritique human nature and overreliance on reason and to support Classical knowledge over modern. Enlightenment literature—whether fiction or nonfiction, poetry or prose—was in many ways didactic; it sought to teach the reader something valuable and to challenge the social, political, or religious status quo. One popular genre meant to teach the reader and challenge the status quo was satire*Glossary Pronunciation, a depiction of people or situations that mocks what the writer sees as contemporary faults or hypocrisy. Voltaire, whose novel Candide uses satire to criticize outmoded social and religious institutions Voltaire's Candide mocks religious intolerance, human greed and cruelty, and philosophical optimism. Portrait of Francois-Marie Arouet (Voltaire) by Quentin de la Tour, c. 1736 During this period, the general public became more literate and had more access to books, thanks to the proliferation of printed material made possible by the printing press. Many saw this proliferation of reading material and its ready accessibility as a way of democratizing the act of learning. More access to reading materials changed access to literature; it was no longer just for the elite. Consequently, more literary access made a more informed, opinionated, and engaged public.

Empiricism

Francis Bacon, the father of the scientific method, was an important influence on the Enlightenment because he believed, in accordance with this theme, that ideas should be based on testing and experience.

1. Summary of Key Module Concepts: The Neoclassical Period and the Enlightenment Introduction to the Enlightenment

Most historians date the start of the Age of Enlightenment in the West from the end of the 17th century. This "Age of Reason," which lasted through much of the 18th century, saw advances in science, philosophy, government, and the arts. There was optimism about the benefits for humankind from rationalism. There was a new willingness to question authority in all arenas of life. Scientific discoveries increased rapidly, as thinkers moved beyond received wisdom in astronomy, biology, human anatomy, and chemistry.

Mozart: Le Nozze De Figaro Sindhumathi Revuluri

Mozart's Marriage of Figaro is an opera from the Classical period. The full title is The Marriage of Figaro, or The Day of Madness. This opera was the first of three famous collaborations that Mozart did with the librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte. The other operas were Cosi fan tutte and Don Giovanni. The story is based on a controversial play by Pierre Beaumarchais, a French playwright. Da Ponte, however, focused the libretto on the comic potential of the multiple love triangles, both real and imagined, and he let the political message about the rally against the nobility be implied in the story rather than explicit. The overture to the Marriage of Figaro is often played as a standalone concert piece. It's exuberant and fast-paced, witty; it sets up the mood of the opera without quoting any of its later musical themes. This is unlike a lot of overtures from earlier opera. In general, the overture was a kind of introduction to a paper that you might write. It includes themes that might come up later, and it's a kind of taste of the work to come. In this case, however, the overture has the character of the opera in its comic qualities, but it does not actually include any of the musical themes, making it a perfect choice to excerpt for a standalone concert. The aria "Contessa Perdono" is part of the opera's fourth and final act. By now, many different schemes are in place. People have hidden in closets, dressed up as other characters, and they've tried to catch different characters in various, compromising acts. By this point in the opera, the Count has been drawn into a plot of trying to seduce a woman who is not his wife. When all is revealed in front of the opera's full cast of characters, he sings this aria, begging forgiveness from his wife, the Countess. This aria is part of the finale of Act Four. The Act Two and Act Four finales of this opera are both noted for their musical and dramatic complexity and for the number of characters involved, often seven or eight singing at a time. Characters come on and off stage, and there are continuously voices added and taken away from these ensembles. In addition, many characters are dressed as other characters, adding to the musical and dramatic complexity.

11. Exemplary Works The most prominent and prolific composers of classical music were Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

Mozart, who ranked below Salieri in the eyes of his contemporaries, is now considered one of the greatest composers of Western music. In his relatively short life, he composed hundreds of works that included sonatas, symphonies, masses, concertos, and operas. When Mozart died in 1791, Haydn argued that the world would not witness such a musical talent again in a hundred years.

9. Neoclassical Theater

Neoclassical playwrights turned to subjects based on classical myths. Inspiration from the ancient Greeks and Romans of the Classical Period. Neoclassical playwrights saw certain aspects of classical drama as models for creating dramatic works that reflected order and clarity (important values in the Neoclassical Period). Renaissance playwrights had also used classical drama as inspiration, but they often freely reinterpreted classical myths and genres. Neoclassical theater featured "the comedy of manners." The use of female actors in Neoclassical plays was a new convention in England that allowed playwrights to focus on the tragic interplay between men and women. Jean Batiste Poquelin, stage name Molière, was a leading French playwright. In his comedy Tartuffe, Molière uses satire to critique false religious piety and to highlight the contrasts between irrationality and reason. Comedy was "comedy of manners" that satirized the behavior of the upper classes, often focused on relationships between men and women. The Neoclassical Period also saw innovations in the staging of plays. Productions featured intricate and elaborate costumes and scenery and were staged indoors. Actors used highly stylized and elevated language and displayed large gestures while on stage. In England, women were able to act on stage for the first time in the Neoclassical Period (although women had acted earlier in other countries in Europe). The use of female actors in Neoclassical plays allowed playwrights to focus on the tragic interplay between men and women in an increasingly complex way. Clip from a production of Tartuffe by Jean Batiste Poquelin (stage name Molière), note the elaborate costumes and setting, lofty language, and religious iconography. All of these elements come together to form the backbone of the critique in this play. Opulence and grandiosity served a critical function in Neoclassical theater. Scene from Molière's Tartuffe by Jacobus Buys, c. 1795

10. Neoclassical Art and Architecture

Neoclassicism was an 18th century art and architecture movement that looked to Greek and Roman art for models of harmony, idealized realism, and reason. It shunned the ostentatious elements of the Baroque and Rococo styles and promoted the themes of order, progress, and civic virtue. Neoclassical painters used sharp colors and chiaroscuro*Glossary Pronunciation (contrast of light and dark to achieve the illusion of depth), and they made the human figures in their paintings appear to be almost sculptural in nature. Embracing harmony, clarity*, and balance over the more ostentatious characteristics of the Baroque Period, Neoclassical artists also adopted the Enlightenment philosophical themes of order* and progress*, depicting scenes that emphasized civic virtue and civic morality. Some of the key figures of the Neoclassical movement were: Jacques-Louis David, who painted scenes that emphasized civic virtue and civic morality; political themes in his paintings. For example, David memorialized the assassination of his friend and French revolutionary leader Jean-Paul Marat and explored the classical example of the Horatii brothers, who swore to defend Rome to the death, as a way of inspiring civic loyalty and self-sacrifice. Angelica Kauffmann, who was one of the most popular portraitists of her time; John Singleton Copley, who created portraits and history paintings; William Hunter and Jan van Rymsdyk, whose drawings contributed to the study of the female reproduction process. Examples of Neoclassical architecture include the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, the Panthéon in Paris, and Monticello, Thomas Jefferson's home in Virginia. Oath of the Horatii (1784) by Jacques-Louis David

1. Compare the themes of the Enlightenment to those we explored in the previous module. How are the themes seen here different from those of the Baroque Period? Choose one new theme and provide evidence to support its significance.

One new theme that emerges in the Enlightenment is deism. This religious philosophy grew out of rationalism and empiricism and aimed to explain the existence of God in a way that would support rational thought and science. A distinct characteristic of deism is the belief that God does not directly interfere in the functioning of the natural world. These changing religious views reflect the growing significance of logic, order, and reason within society at this time.

Ludwig van Beethoven Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67 - I. Allegro con brio

One of the most popular and recognizable symphonies in the world, Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 was written between 1804-1808. The four well-known dramatic notes of the opening motif unify the symphony as a whole. Beethoven wrote No. 5, despite grappling with rapidly increasing hearing loss during this time.

Ludwig van Beethoven Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67 - I. Allegro con brio

One of the most popular and recognizable symphonies in the world, Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 was written between 1804-1808. The four well-known dramatic notes of the opening motif unify the symphony as a whole. Beethoven wrote No. 5, despite grappling with rapidly increasing hearing loss during this time.

2. Skepticism

Philosophically, Enlightenment thinkers believed in the power of the human mind to find answers pertaining to science, behavior, and nature. Key philosophers of the time, such as René Descartes and David Hume, used "rational skepticism" to ensure that their thinking was based on logic and not on prejudice. This critical attitude helped to define the age. In the words of David Hume: All that belongs to human understanding, in this deep ignorance and obscurity, is to be skeptical, or at least cautious, and not to admit of any hypothesis whatever, much less of any which is supported by no appearance of probability.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550 - I. Molto Allegro Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K550 is the focal piece of Mozart's final three symphonic works, entitled "The Final Trilogy." Many critics interpret the tone of No. 40 as grim and distressing, possibly reflecting troubles in Mozart's life (a decline in popularity, his father's death, his wife's ill health). The piece moves between varying keys, tempos, and intensities to create periods of rest followed by frantic energy. Mozart pushes a recurring melodic theme further and further up into the register to build anticipation. "The Final Trilogy" is considered masterful, both for Mozart's clever use of devices such as inversion, and for the intricate psychology that surrounds it.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Portrait of Mary Wollstonecraft, 1797 by John Opie (Public Domain). An early feminist, Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 - 1797) argued for the advancement of women in an age when women were believed to be naturally inferior to men. Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) argued that women were capable of rationality and that they should be educated, if only because they needed an education in order to raise the nation's children and to be proper companions to men. From Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Chapter 3: To preserve personal beauty, woman's glory! the limbs and faculties are cramped with worse than Chinese bands, and the sedentary life which they are condemned to live, whilst boys frolic in the open air, weakens the muscles and relaxes the nerves.—As for Rousseau's remarks, which have since been echoed by several writers, that they have naturally, that is from their birth, independent of education, a fondness for dolls, dressing, and talking—they are so puerile as not to merit a serious refutation. That a girl, condemned to sit for hours together listening to the idle chat of weak nurses, or to attend at her mother's toilet, will endeavour to join the conversation, is, indeed, very natural; and that she will imitate her mother or aunts, and amuse herself by adorning her lifeless doll, as they do in dressing her, poor innocent babe! is undoubtedly a most natural consequence. For men of the greatest abilities have seldom had sufficient strength to rise above the surrounding atmosphere; and, if the page of genius has always been blurred by the prejudices of the age, some allowance should be made for a sex, who like kings, always see things through a false medium. Portrait of Mary Wollstonecraft, 1797 by John Opie

John Locke

Published Two Treatises of Government, which paved the way for modern forms of democracy.

2, Major Themes of the Neoclassical Period and the Enlightenment SORED C

Skepticism: The school of "rational skepticism" was prominent during the Enlightenment to ensure that philosophers reached conclusions based on reason, not prejudice. Rationalism: The philosophy of rationalism also put an emphasis on the role of reason as the key to knowledge. philosophers of the Enlightenment turned away from the influence of devout faith, which they believed clouded human judgment with emotional bias. Instead, they elevated the role of reason in finding more answers about the world, which led to the rise of such schools of thought as skepticism*, rationalism*, and empiricism*Glossary Pronunciation. Enlightenment thinkers further developed the nuances of these philosophical approaches, debating and criticizing previous ideals. Though these philosophies differed slightly in their approach, they were all adopted for the sake of scientific, philosophical, and social progress*. In this way, the Enlightenment moved away from the Baroque Period's emphasis on establishing and showing absolute political power and more toward making advances in various intellectual fields, pursuing knowledge for knowledge's sake. Due to the progression of science and rational thinking, questions of political order came into play heavily throughout Europe. Western rulers adopted the rational thinking of the Enlightenment and incorporated its philosophies into their governments. Empiricism: First developed in the Renaissance by scientists such as Francis Bacon, empiricism may be defined as basing ideas and theories on the direct experience of the senses, including experimentation, as opposed to knowledge gained from books. Order: Enlightenment thinkers and leaders sought to design political and social order that reflected natural laws and God's will. Deism: A shift in religious thinking also took place with the growth of deism, a belief system that credits God as the original architect of the universe's natural laws but who does not currently oversee the events of the world. Following along with a focus on scientific rather than faith-based ways of thinking, a religious philosophy known as deism* was born. Deists of the Enlightenment were typically Christians who still believed in God as a higher power but only as the original creator of the world—not an entity who directly interferes with events of human history. Classicism: In the arts, a resurgence of classical ideals like harmony, realism, and reason inspired the Neoclassical movement. Neoclassicism* (essentially, "new classicism") shunned the excess of Baroque works and embraced harmony and balance. Ultimately, reason and realism united both the Enlightenment and Neoclassical artistic endeavors, distinguishing this period from the more religious and ornate Baroque. Following along with a focus on scientific rather than faith-based ways of thinking, a religious philosophy known as deism* was born. Deists of the Enlightenment were typically Christians who still believed in God as a higher power but only as the original creator of the world—not an entity who directly interferes with events of human history. While the Enlightenment had a tremendous impact on the areas of science, philosophy, society, and politics, the coinciding Neoclassical movement in theater and visual art and the classical movement in music, incorporated some similar ideals into the creation of the arts. Neoclassicists hearkened back to ancient classical* themes of balance and reason to render visual arts, architecture, theater, and music in realistic ways. In this way, neoclassicism was a departure from the Baroque focus on ornate, immense displays of wealth and power. Louis XIV Visiting the Royal Academy of Sciences by Sébastien Leclerc (1671)

7. Exemplary Philosophers Jean-Jacques Rousseau by Maurice Quentin de La Tour, 1753 (Public Domain).

Some Europeans believed that the native peoples they encountered through trade and colonization were, in some ways, morally superior to "civilized" societies. Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau held this view, unlike many of his contemporaries who were more interested in colonizing and controlling people of the "New World." More often, however, Europeans rationalized doing what they needed to do to control native populations. Rousseau developed what came to be known as a "noble savage" theory—that a person is at his or her best in wholly natural environments uncorrupted by society. This theory led to debate over whether private property and social stratification were morally degenerate or absolutely necessary for a complex society. Rousseau had written in the Encyclopédie (see the tab on Denis Diderot) that the self is corrupted by more developed societies, which have lost the primal touch of prioritizing liberty, and have instead embraced so much rationality that they have justified such barbaric practices as slavery. In all truth, forcing European rationality and culture on a "noble savage" ultimately binds him, in Rousseau's theory, with the same shackles of slavery worn by Europeans, who are too blinded by society to see their own chains imposed by "refined" rational and social compliancy. His emphasis on the natural state of man and natural order inspired a new philosophical movement that eventually evolved into romanticism. Jean-Jacques Rousseau by Maurice Quentin de La Tour, 1753

Joseph Haydn Symphony No. 101 ("The Clock Symphony"), 2nd movement (Chamber Arrangement)

Symphony No. 101 ("The Clock Symphony"), 2nd movement (Chamber Arrangement) Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 101, written in tribute to London, was nicknamed "The Clock Symphony." First performed in London's Hanover Square in 1794, it received instant acclaim. Throughout the piece, but especially in the second movement, the bassoon and pizzicato* strings play short oscillating notes spaced evenly in time that create a sound reminiscent of a clock (intended to represent Big Ben). Through a dramatic darkening of the music, and back to a light, cheerful tone again, the "tick-tock" remains constant. This clear sense of rhythm and order to the piece fit well with the Enlightenment views of the period. Joseph Haydn

4. Religion of the Enlightenment During the Age of Enlightenment, many thinkers became disillusioned with the intense devotion to Christianity that defined much of the Baroque Period. Philosophes were philosophical intellectuals, who believed in the power of "natural law"—a concept that affirms that all of life is governed by orderly, rational processes. They opposed both religious and political authority, both priests and kings, because they believed that each individual needed to be equally free to use reason to determine his or her own destiny.

The Enlightenment heralded a new willingness to question authority in all areas of life. Scientific discoveries increased rapidly, and the questioning of the monarchy led to political reform and revolution. In religion, skeptics increasingly challenged the authority of organized religion and attempted to find a basis for morality outside religion altogether. The Enlightenment also saw the rise of deism, the belief that a God had created and designed the world but did not directly intervene in its affairs. This deist belief was also called the "watchmaker God," a reference to a watchmaker's role in creating a watch but relative neglect once completed and events set into action. Disciplines such as natural history, modern science, and natural law were all born out of the Enlightenment. Such ideas as the separation of church and state, religious tolerance, and free speech were also fruits of the Enlightenment. Thomas Jefferson drafted The Declaration of Independence. He served as the third President of the United States and founded the University of Virginia. The Declaration of Independence captures in a succinct and powerful way the relationship among humanism, Enlightenment philosophy, and political governance. It established the idea of a new nation that was a product of the philosophies of the era. The Salon of Madame Geoffrin by Anicet-Charles-Gabriel Lemonnier, 1812

3. Contexts: The Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment, or the "Age of Reason," was a cultural movement throughout Europe and America that celebrated and invested in human intelligence. It occurred roughly from the 1670s until the late 1700s. Its hallmark invention was the French Encyclopédie, written by experts in many different fields. The Encyclopédie represented essential Enlightenment goals: acquiring and disseminating new knowledge to an international reading public whose lives it aimed to improve.

The Enlightenment heralded a new willingness to question authority in all areas of life. Scientific discoveries increased rapidly, and the questioning of the monarchy led to political reform and revolution. In religion, skeptics increasingly challenged the authority of organized religion and attempted to find a basis for morality outside religion altogether. The suspicion of authority and reliance on human reason, or rationalism*, made nature a newly important realm. Rather than relying on religious doctrine*, scientists could study God's work directly in the natural world. The Enlightenment also saw the rise of deism, the belief that a God had created and designed the world but did not directly intervene in its affairs. This deist belief was also called the "watchmaker God," a reference to a watchmaker's role in creating a watch but relative neglect once completed and events set into action. A theory of universal morality also informed deism*, a kind of Christianity that accepted God but rejected divinely revealed doctrine. Moral tenets were no longer simply given but rather had to be justified by their effects on humans. In America, the deist Thomas Jefferson created his own Bible by cutting and pasting together the parts he thought were good. As religious authority waned, toleration of someone else's political or religious beliefs became a new value. Disciplines such as natural history, modern science, and natural law were all born out of the Enlightenment. Such ideas as the separation of church and state, religious tolerance, and free speech were also fruits of the Enlightenment. Thomas Jefferson drafted The Declaration of Independence. He served as the third President of the United States and founded the University of Virginia. The Declaration of Independence captures in a succinct and powerful way the relationship among humanism, Enlightenment philosophy, and political governance. It established the idea of a new nation that was a product of the philosophies of the era. Human nature was the basis for "natural" law, and in contrast to man-made law, carried the authority of God. When the Declaration of Independence stated that the "Laws of Nature and of Nature's God" allow the colonies to separate themselves from Britain, it appealed to this Enlightenment conception of an authority that can be verified by observation and understanding. One area where we see the main themes of the Enlightenment converge is in the Declaration of Independence. The importance of the Declaration of Independence to the history of the United States goes without saying. However, it is more than simply a political declaration of separation from England. The Declaration, penned primarily by Thomas Jefferson in 1776, captures in a succinct and powerful way the relationship between humanism, Enlightenment philosophy, and political governance. It established the idea of a new nation that was a product of the philosophies of the era, and it influenced more than just a collection of British colonies. Ideas that are commonplace in our day—such as the separation of church and state, religious toleration, and free speech—were controversial in the 18th century, and radical writers often risked their freedom. A group of French public intellectuals called the philosophes* (the French word for philosopher), who spearheaded the Enlightenment, often faced imprisonment or exile for writing against political and religious authorities.

11. Classical Music

The classical music genre refers to European music that was composed from approximately 1730 to 1820. The music of this period embraced the Enlightenment focus on balance, order, and structural clarity. Composers heightened the contrast between musical lines and enjoyed a greater depth and variety in orchestral texture. fortepiano* he families of instruments used in the Baroque Period—including woodwinds, strings, brass, and keyboard instruments The period produced several of the most well-known composers in history. The most celebrated composer of this era was Wolfgang (focused on the opera*Glossary Pronunciation in addition to instrumental compositions) Amadeus Mozart, who composed sonatas, symphonies, masses, concertos, and operas. Some of his most well-known works are Eine kleine Nachtmusik, Symphony No. 40 in G minor, and the opera Le Nozze De Figaro ("The Marriage of Figaro"). Joseph Haydn was another prominent classical composer with such works as Symphony No. 101 ("The Clock Symphony").

1. According to Dr. Paula Carabell, what elements found in the painting Oath of the Horatii indicate that it is representative of the Neoclassical Period? a. the backdrop of Roman arches b. the figures' draped robes and the warriors' helmets c. the postures of each figure, (the proud upright shape of the men and the despondent, grieving figures of the women) d. both a and c Correct. Neoclassicism pulled from Roman art and architecture, which, Dr. Carabell explains, is represented in the Roman arches of the painting. In addition, the anguished figures of the women reflect the notion that they are destined to lose their husbands, brothers, or sons to battle, as there was a prevailing notion that allegiance to country was more important than allegiance to family.

a. the backdrop of Roman arches b. the figures' draped robes and the warriors' helmets c. the postures of each figure, (the proud upright shape of the men and the despondent, grieving figures of the women) d. both a and c Correct. Neoclassicism pulled from Roman art and architecture, which, Dr. Carabell explains, is represented in the Roman arches of the painting. In addition, the anguished figures of the women reflect the notion that they are destined to lose their husbands, brothers, or sons to battle, as there was a prevailing notion that allegiance to country was more important than allegiance to family.

Timeline of the Neoclassical Period and the Enlightenment

art=green, music=purple ,history=peach, literature=blue, architecture=yellow

John Locke (1632-1704)

as one of the most influential philosophers and political theorists in British history. Many current ideas about selfhood, identity, and the way the mind works come from Locke. Locke also wrote highly influential books on government, providing a basis for the American political experiment. In 1689, Locke anonymously published Two Treatises of Government in which he argued against absolute sovereignty and advocated for a more representative form of government, paving the way for modern forms of democracy and greatly influencing the Constitution of the United States. A portrait of John Locke. John Locke after a portrait by Godfrey Kneller, 1697 (Public Domain) In support of the thoughts and beliefs of Enlightenment empiricists, Locke believed that we decide morality by our senses; moral behavior is based on pleasure (good) and pain (evil). With his beliefs in moral behavior in mind, Locke proposed that morals, like mathematical problems, could be proved. However, he acknowledged that our senses carry some limitations. At its core, empiricism denied that any knowledge we have is innate to being human. According to this philosophy, we are blank slates who only get knowledge through our senses of the world. Empiricists believed that knowledge of the world is limited because our senses and reason are limited. John Locke after a portrait by Godfrey Kneller, 1697