Module 74-80 AP Psychology Study Guide
GRIT
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed by social psychologist Charles Osgood to decrease international tensions
1. peripheral route persuasion 2. central route persuasion
Persuasion efforts generally take 2 forms..
true
(true or false) by monitoring our feelings and actions, and by replacing old habits with new ones based on new friendships, we can work to free ourselves from prejudice
true
(true or false) changing our behavior can change how we think about others and how we feel about ourselves
true
(true or false) cruelty doesn't necessarily require "devilish villains" - only needs ordinary people corrupted by an evil situation
false
(true or false) cruelty requires a "devilish villain" to occur
true
(true or false) even babies and blind people prefer attractive faces over unattractive faces
false
(true or false) one spot in the brain fully controls aggression - called the amygdala
false
(true or false) our attitudes affect our actions but our actions don't affect our attitudes
true
(true or false) our present self adopts the observer's perspective and attributes our past behavior mostly to our traits
true
(true or false) physical attractiveness predicts how often people date and how popular they feel
false (the more it endures)
(true or false) the more alike people are, the less their liking endures
true
(true or false) there is no one spot in the brain that controls aggression; aggression is a complex behavior that occurs in a particular context
true
(true or false) those from our group (ingroup), those who look like us, sound like us - with accents like our own - we instantly tend to like, from childhood onward
false (mostly likely to commit when stranger acts badly)
(true or false) we are most likely to commit fundamental attribution error when our friend acts badly
true
(true or false) we define who we are partly in terms of our groups; through our social identities we associate ourselves with certain groups and contrast ourselves with others
true
(true or false) we recognize how we differ from other individuals in our groups (ingroup), but overestimate the homogeneity of other groups (we perceive outgroup homogeneity)
true
(true or false) when we adopt a new role, at first it may feel phony, but eventually it becomes a reality for us
conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Baumeister
Roy ____________ notes "culture is a better way of being social". Human culture supports our species' survival and reproduction by enabling social and economic systems that give us an edge
Asch
Solomon ________ devised a simple conformity study/test (5 people sit at a table, line perception test, own vs group ideals-majority conformed to group influence and gave wrong answer; normative social influence; informational social influence)
Chartrand, Bargh
Tanya __________ and John ________, "captured" the chameleon effect in a study (these researchers had students work in a room alongside another person, who was actually a confederate working for the experimenters. Sometimes the confederates rubbed their own face, sometimes they shook their foot. The students tended to rub their face when with the face-rubbing person and shake their foot when with the foot-shaking person.)
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
delinquency, hard drug use, frustration
among teenage boys and adult men, high testosterone levels correlate with... - _________________ - _______ ______ _____ - aggressive-bullying responses to ______________
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
social-responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those needing their help
reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
norms
an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior (these prescribe "proper" behavior)
prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
Ethnocentrism
assuming the superiority of one's ethnic group (an example of prejudice)
minimal, stable, specific, easily
attitudes are especially likely to affect behavior when external influences are __________, and when attitude is _________, __________ to behavior, and ________ recalled
ease
biological factors influence the _______ with which aggression is triggered (certain psychological and social-cultural factors "pull the trigger")
linking and magnifying
by ____________ and _____________ the inclinations of like-minded people, the internet can be very, very bad, but also very, very good (polarization in virtual groups)
social script
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
division of labor
culture enables ________________
vary, change, shape
cultures _______, cultures _________, and cultures ________ our lives
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable (especially common among men in individualist cultures)
just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness, frustration
high testosterone correlates with ... -_________________ -_____________________ -_____________________ -low tolerance for _________________
mimics
humans are natural ________, unconsciously imitating others' expressions, postures, and voice tones
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others; on tougher tasks people perform worse when observers/others working on the same task are present (ex: learning nonsense syllables; solving complex multiplication problems)
observational, physiological, desnsitization
in 2010, in a statement submitted for a U.S. Supreme Court case, Anderson and 100+ social scientists explained that "the psychological processes underlying such efforts (playing violent video games increasing aggression) are well understood and include... - imitation - ______________ learning - priming of cognitive, emotional, and behavior scripts - ________________ arousal - emotional _________________
normative social influence
influence (to conform) resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval/rejection
informational social influence
influence (to conform) resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined (a flood of passion-facilitating hormones such as testosterone, dopamine, and adrenaline, subsides and another hormone called oxytocin supports feelings of trust, calmness, and bonding with the mate)
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group; beliefs and attitudes we bring to a group grow stronger as we discuss them with like-minded others; discussion among like-minded people tends to strengthen preexisting attitudes (this can have beneficial results or dire consequences)
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition (we see situation in our own behavior and in those who we know well)
outgroup homogeneity
the tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to each other than we see members of ingroups
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
trivialize, devalue
viewing pornography leads viewers to... -___________ rape -___________ their partners -engage in uncommitted sex
hostile, domineering
viewing sexual violence fosters _________, ________________ attitudes and behaviors
testosterone, intelligence, serotonin
violent criminals tend to be muscular young males with... -higher-than-average __________________ levels -lower-than-average ________________ scores -low levels of the neurotransmitter ________________
1. Genetic 2. Neural 3. Biochemical
we can look for biological influences at 3 levels...
reward theory of attraction
we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, and we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs (when people live/work in proximity to/with us, costs less time and effort to develop a friendship and enjoy its benefits; when people are attractive, they are aesthetically pleasing, and associating with them can be socially rewarding; when people share our views, they reward us by valuating our own)
stereotyped, rigid, difficult
when conflicts intensify... -images become more _______________ -judgments become more __________ -communication seems way more _______________ (maybe even impossible)
noncompetitive, status
when contact is _______________ and between parties of equal _______ (ex: fellow store clerks) it typically helps
surrounding culture
when cultures collide, differing norms often befuddle and the answer on how to act depends on the ___________________ _____________
true
(true or false) automatic mimicry helps us empathize (mood linkage)
true
(true or false) Aggression varies too widely form culture to culture, era to era, and person to person to be considered an unlearned instinct - but biology does influence aggression
false
(true or false) We may perceive what we do well as impossible when in front of an audience. We are likely to do better at things that we find difficult when in front of an audience, especially a friendly audience.
true
(true or false) What we do well, we are likely to do even better at when in front of an audience, especially if it is a friendly audience. What we find difficult usually, may seem impossible when in front of an audience.
ingroup
"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.
outgroup
"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
discrimination
(1)in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (2)in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
biological influences on aggressive behavior
(_______________ influences on aggression) - genetic influences - biochemical influences, such as testosterone and alcohol - neural influences, such as a severe head injury
social-cultural influences on aggressive behavior
(_______________ influences on aggression) -deindividuation from being in a crowd -challenging environmental factors, such as crowding, heat, and direct provocations -parental models of aggression -minimal father involvement -being rejected from a group -exposure to violent media
psychological influences on aggressive behavior
(_______________ influences on aggression) -dominating behavior (which boosts testosterone levels in the blood) -believing the alcohol's been drunk (whether it actually has or not) -frustration -aggressive role models -rewards for aggressive behavior -low self-control
other-race effect
(emerges during infancy between 3-9 months of age) the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races (also called the cross-race effect and own-race bias)
Milgram
(hint: person) Stanley ___________ , a student of Solomon Asch; his experiments on obedience were famous, controversial and influential ("teacher" and "student", electric shock with wrong answer)
Leon Festinger
(hint: person) first proposed the cognitive dissonance theory
preservation of innovation
(human) culture's accumulated knowledge made possible by mastery of language
TV shows, films, video games, Youtube
(in the USA and other places) what 5 "things" offer supersized portions of violence? (hint: media?)
true
(true of false) for our ancestors, the mere exposure effect may have had survival value... -what was familiar was generally safe and approachable -what was unfamiliar was more often dangerous and threatening
true
(true or false) as we see our loved ones again and again, physical imperfections grow less noticeable and attractiveness grows more apparent
true
(true or false) when we explain our own behavior, we are sensitive to how our behavior changes with the situation; we are also sensitive to situations when we explain the behavior of people we know well and have seen in many different contexts
central route persuasion
(type of persuasion) occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts; occurs mostly when people are naturally analytical or involved in the issue (because it is more thoughtful and less superficial,it is more durable and more likely to influence behavior)
peripheral route persuasion
(type of persuasion) occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness (doesn't engage systematic thinking, but produces fast results)
cognitive roots of prejudice
(what roots of prejudice are these?) grow from our natural ways of processing information: forming categories, remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is just and our own and our culture's ways of doing things are the right ways; mind's natural workings
emotional roots of prejudice
(what roots of prejudice are these?) scapegoat theory
social roots of prejudice
(what roots of prejudice are these?) social inequalities, social/culture divisions, just-world phenomenon
the Y-chromosome
1 genetic marker in those who commit the most violence (just on average, it's not every person with this that commits violence) is what? (researchers are continuing to search for other genetic markers)
-proximity -attractiveness -similarity
3 ingredients of our liking for one another...
accountable, dispensable, slack off, motivated, identified
3 things cause social loafing... -people acting as part of a group feel less _________________, therefore worrying less about what others think -group members may view their individual contributions as _________________ -when group members share equally in benefits, regardless of how much they contribute, some may ___________. Unless highly ______________ and strongly ______________ with the group, people may free ride on others' efforts
contact, cooperation, communication, conciliation
4 C's of peacemaking (research indicates that in some cases these can transform antagonisms fed by prejudice and conflicts into attitudes that promote peace)
notice, interpret, assume responsibility
After staging emergencies under various conditions, Darley and Latane assembled their findings into decision scheme: we (humans) will help only if the situation enables us to first ________ the incident, then to ____________ it as an emergency, and finally to __________ ________________ for helping
Latane
Bibb ________ and colleagues described diminished effort (when thought to be in a group) as social loafing
authority figure, prestigious institution, depersonalized, defiance
In later experiments, Milgram discovered some things that influence people's behavior (not much influence based on era or gender was found). Obedience was highest when... -the person giving orders was close at hand and perceived to be a legitimate ___________ _________ -the authority figure was supported by a _______________ _____________ - the victim was _____________ or at a distance, even in another room -there were no role models for __________
opinions, critiques, problems
Irving Janis believed groupthink is prevented when a leader... -welcomes various ___________ -invites experts' _____________ of the developing plans -assigns people to identify possible _____________
Janis
Irving _________ coined the term groupthink
chameleon effect (automatic mimicry)
Natural tendency to take on the emotional tones of those around us, we are natural mimics, unconsciously imitating others' expressions, postures, and voice tones.
Triplett
Norman ________'s finding of strengthened performance in others' presence is called social facilitation
similar, woman, helpful, guilty, good
Observations of behavior in thousands of "such" situations-relaying an emergency call, aiding a stranded motorist, donating blood, picking up dropped books, contributing money, giving time-show that the best odds of our helping someone occur when... -the person appears to need and deserve help -the person is in some way __________ to us -the person is a _________ -we have just observed someone else being ___________ -we are not in a hurry -we are in a small town or rural area -we are feeling _________ -we are focused on others and not preoccupied -we are in a ________ mood
Zimbardo
Who did the Stanford Prison Experiment?
overt, subtle/implicit
________ prejudice wanes, but ________/implicit prejudice lingers
self-disclosing intimacy + mutually supportive equity
_______________________ + _________________________= enduring companionate love
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
stereotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
social traps
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
Heider
after studying how people explained others' behavior, Fritz ________ proposed attribution theory
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
attitudes
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
electrochemically
genes engineer our individual nervous systems which operate _________________
proximity
geographic nearness; friendship's most powerful predictor; this breeds liking partly because of the mere exposure effect
incompetent, insecure, 3+, status, attractiveness, social standards
later experiments have didn't always find as much conformity as Asch did, but have revealed that we are most likely to conform when we... -are made to feel ______________ or _________________ -are in a group with _____+ people -are in a group in which everyone else agrees (if just one other person disagrees, the odds of our disagreeing greatly increase) -admire the groups' _________ and ________________ -have not made a prior commitment to any response -know that others in the group will observe our behavior -are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for __________ ____________
1. beliefs (in this case called stereotypes) 2. emotions (ex: hostility, fear) 3. predispositions to action (to discriminate)
like all attitudes, prejudice is a 3 part mixture of... 1. _________ (in this case called stereotypes) 2. ______________ (ex: hostility, fear) 3. ______________________ to action (to discriminate)
persons and situations
like all behavior, aggression arises from the interaction of ____________ and _________________
disinhibit and desensitize
media depictions of violence can _____________ and ________________
mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
lust, romantic love
notice the difference between... - ______ (immediate desire) - __________ ______ (desire+attachment)
similarity
once proximity has offered contact, and appearance has made an acceptable first impression, ____________ influences whether people will become friends or not
physical appearance
once proximity offers contact, _________ _______________ has the most effect on first impressions
violence, desirable, positively
parent-training programs often advise parents to... -avoid modeling ___________ by screaming and hitting -reinforce ____________ behaviors -frame statements _______________ (rather than negatively)
averaged
people everywhere seem to prefer physical features that are neither unusually large nor small - therefore an __________ face is often seen as attractive
partisanship
prejudice in favor of a particular cause (ingroup bias explains the cognitive power of this)
attitude (cognition), behavior
prejudice is a negative ___________ (cognition) discrimination is a negative _____________
regulations, communications, awareness
psychologists explored ways to convince people to cooperate for their mutual betterment through... -agreed-upon ____________ -better ________________ -promoting ____________ of our responsibilities toward the community, nation and the whole of humanity
self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
blame-the-victim dynamic
self-blame or anger created out of discrimination creates new grounds for prejudice (hint: __________________ dynamic)
media, dominance, alcohol
several factors can create a predisposition to sexual violence... - _________ influences (a major issue) - ______________ motives - disinhibition by ____________ -history of child abuse
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
mood linkage
sharing up and down moods with the type of people around them
social cognition
social behavior arises from social ____________
situation, individual
social control (the power of the ________________) and personal control (the power of the _______________) interact - when we feel coerced, we may react by doing the opposite of what is expected thus reasserting our sense of freedom
situation
social psychologists focus on the ________________; study social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in different situations
about, influence, relate
social psychology's 3 focuses... 1. how we think _________ one another 2. how we _____________ one another 3. how we _________ to one another
youthful, fertile, mature, affluent
some aspects of attractiveness do cross place and time (the following is considering they are heterosexual)... -men in many cultures judge women as more attractive if they have a ________, _______, appearance -women feel attracted to healthy looking men, but especially those who seem _________, dominant?, masculine, and __________
men, superficial
speed dating offers an opportunity to study influences on 1st impressions of potential romantic partners; among recent findings are... -_______ are more transparent. Observers (whether male or female) watching videos of speed-dating encounters can read _______'s level of romantic interest more accurately than the other gender's -given more options, people's choices become more _____________ -men wish for future contact with more of their speed dates while women tend to be more choosey (thought this gender difference disappears if conventional roles are switched)
inequalities
stereotypes rationalize what?
door-in-the-face phenomenon
tendency for people who won't agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made
outgroup bias
tendency to focus on negative aspects of other people's groups (suspiciousness of other groups)
correlational, experimental, and longitudinal
the finding found by Craig Anderson and colleagues found that playing violent video games increased aggression, held for youth and for young adults; in North America, Japan, and Western Europe; and with each of the 3 major research designs (_______________, __________________, and ___________________)
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (when the presence of others around us arouses us and makes us feel anonymous, we may experience this)
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them (with certain limits, familiarity breeds fondness)
minority influence
the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities; committed individuals can sway the majority and make social history (the powers of social influence are enormous but so are the powers of a committed individual)
frustration-aggression principle
the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression
homogeneity
the quality of being similar or comparable in kind or nature; the quality or state of being all the same or all of the same kind
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent (ex: when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes)
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting/attributing the person's stable, enduring traits (dispositional attribution) or by crediting/attributing the situation (situational attribution)
absorption, thrill, giddy
though desire and attachment of romantic love often endure, the... -intense ______________ in the other -the _______ of the romance -the ________ "floating on a cloud" feelings typically fade
sensitivity, cooperation
to foster a kinder, gentler world, we should model and reward _________________ and ____________________ from an early age (perhaps by training parents to discipline children without modeling violence)
healthier, happier, sensitive, successful, socially
while most don't assume attractive people are more compassionate, they do perceive them as... - ____________ - __________ - more _____________ - more ________________ - more _____________ skilled
