Module C

How can a cut stump continue to show signs of growth? How can you tell how long it has grown? What tree gives the best evidence of age since injury?

A stump can grow by grafting their roots to other trees. You can see the growth as a little crescent in the wood above the cut mark. The hemlock shows best evidence of age since injury in New England.

How do scientists measure historic atmospheric CO2 concentration? What have these studies revealed?

Air bubbles trappen in icebergs in Geenland, etc. A steady, sharp, then steady increase in atmospheres CO2 (based on CO2 concentration levels).

What was the main conclusion with the graphing activity we did in class involving topics such as sea level, snowfall, temperature, etc.?

All graphs showed a line of best fit sloping upward, showing the result of global warming.

What is an ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a basic unit in ecology, formed by the interaction of plants, animals, microorganisms, and the physical environment.

Why does hemlock bark resist rot?

Because of the large amount of tannin in the bark—acidic compounds produced by plants to protect their tissues from being eaten.

How does the burning of fossil fuels contribute to ocean acidification (include the details of the chemistry)

Burning fossil fuels releases CO2. 1/4 of the gas is absorbed by the ocean. The molecules bond with water molecules to form a weak acid called carbonic acid. This (almost immediately) breaks apart and releases hydrogen ions (hydrogen molecules stripped of their electrons). This increases the oceans' acidity.

How do cultural and economic factors affect our protection of biodiversity?

By undervaluing biodiversity, we overconsume, depleting resources without allowing them to replenish. Large subsidies and weak regulations can encourage environmentally destructive behavior.

How are plants and trees identified?

By viewing leaves, trunks, bark, roots, etc.

What critical elements are leached into streams? How does this relate to logging?

Calcium and magnesium are the critical elements continuously lost as water leaches them into streams. Usually, the weathering of rocks in the soil and deposition of calcium and magnesium from the atmosphere replace the lost nutrients, but they cannot keep up with logging.

Name two groups that fight to conserve biodiversity in the Arctic

Climate Change and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna.

What are major human-caused reasons for the collapse of biodiversity?

Climate Change is the single greatest Pollution Overexploitation (overfishing, deforestation) Habitat Loss Invasive Species

What role does climate change have within an ecosystem?

Climate change is a factor that has the potential to alter ecosystems and the many resources and services they provide to each other and to society.

What is climate forcing? How does it differ from natural variations in the earth's climate? What are some natural variations?

Climate forcing has to do with the amount of energy we receive from the sun, and the amount of energy we radiate back into space. It is dependent on greenhouse gasses, which are most affected by human activities. Natural variations include volcanic eruptions and changes in solar emission, but they occur much slower than the climate forcing caused by humans.

What does climate have to do with ecosystems?

Climate is an integral part of ecosystems and organisms have adapted to their regional climate over time.

Which of the following species is least at risk in the arctic? Polar bear Arctic Fox Muskox Collared Lemming

Collared Lemming

Who eats duckweed?

Ducks

Describe the process of plant/animal respiration and what this does to CO2 in the water.

During the day, underwater photosynthesis usually exceeds respiration, so pH rises as CO2 is extracted from the water. As the sun begins to set in late afternoon, photosynthesis decreases and eventually stops, so pH falls throughout the night as respiring organisms add carbon dioxide to the water.

Describe the greenhouse effect. How does altering it affect the climate?

Greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun and that keeps the earth's surface temperature warm. Increased gasses lead to increased surface temperatures.

How has logging changed species composition of local forests? How has logging affected the heterogeneity of forests around here?

Hardwood trees have been heavily logged while pine trees for example are now numerous due to low market demand. Old trees, downed woody debris (an important component of the ecosystem for many species), and other organisms are now much rarer because of the logging of important trees that are part of the chain that links them all together.

Summarize the Article "How Human" (human activities and greenhouse gasses)

Human activities cause climate change by changing the amount of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere. Most notable are the greenhouse gasses that increase surface temperature: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and halocarbons. Sometimes human activities increase aerosol, a cooling gas, but not enough to offset the others.

Why does the rapid rate of climate/environment change matter?

If climate/environment change doesn't slow down, then nature can't keep up with the evolving it should be doing, so scientists are worried that the rate the climate is currently changing at could lead to mass extinction.

When was there first enough data to produce reliable estimates of global average temperate?

In the 1880's

When was there a key breakthrough in the ability to track global environmental changes? What was it?

In the 1970's. It was satellite remote sensors.

Is Water Vapor a positive or negative feedback loop?

In the lower atmosphere, it has a warming effect as a greenhouse gas. In the upper atmosphere, it forms into clouds and has a cooling effect. It is the most difficult greenhouse gas to measure the effects of, but most likely has a net cooling affect.

Why is agricultural diversity important?

Insects and birds provide pollination services, wetlands and forests sequester carbon, prevent erosion, and protect us from flooding. This biodiversity leads to agricultural diversity, which protects against crop failure, preventing famine.

What causes the wiggly line pattern on a water lilie's leaf surface?

Insects that burrow between the top and bottom layer of the leaf pad.

What is the difference between a native and invasive species? Give an example of both.

Invasive species are species not originally from a specific ecosystem, but when they are introduced they compete with the native species (who were originally there) and usually are dominant if they become noticeable. Invasive: Hemlock Wooly Adelgid Native: Hemlock

What is desertification? How does it effect people? How does it effect ecosystem services?

It begins with the loss of terrestrial biodiversity and soil organic matter. This threatens the food safety of many of the world's poorest people.

What does temperature have to do with water chemistry?

It has influence on the growth of aquatic organisms, especially since most aquatic organisms are cold-blooded. As temperatures get too far above or below certain aquatic organisms' preferred range, the number of individuals of the species decreases. Also, the rate of chemical reactions generally increases at higher temperature which in turn affects biological activity.

What is eutrophication and what does it do to the ocean?

It is a condition of high algal and bacterial growth and low oxygen caused by nutrients from land that contains sewage and agricultural runoff. These produce dead zones in the ocean which destroy habitats for marine animals and plants.

Where is this problematic lack of carbonate most urgent? Why?

It is most urgent in coral reefs because the reefs are made up of calcium carbonate. Although they occupy less that 1% of the oceans' floor, they are home to around 1/4 of all marine life.

What does sunlight have to do with water chemistry?

It is the primary energy source for a pond, it drives photosynthesis in plants and affects water temperature. A change in sunlight causes a change in algae. Water clarity affects the absorption of sunlight and is itself affected by turbidity (suspended dirt, algae, etc.).

What is sustained yield forestry?

It is the use of forestry management techniques to produce timber on a continued basis.

At what rate is ocean acidity increasing?

It's become 6x higher and is increasing by 5% every decade.

How do ou test the validity of a climate change model?

Leave data from the recent past out of the model and see if it predicts it correctly.

What is the most common form of forest disturbance in our region?

Logging

What can cause multiple trunked trees? How can you estimate the size of the original stump?

Logging or fires. We can approximate the diameter of the original tree by connecting the centers of each stump-sprout and creating an imaginary circle near ground level.

What will mitigation have to be as well as addressing the issues of climate change?

Mitigation will have to be economically sustainable as well as address the issues of climate change.

Have records shown that the sun's output has increased in the last 30 years? Why is this important?

No, which means global warming is not caused my increased solar energy and therefore supports that humans are the cause.

What more immediate, direct effects does ocean acidification have on larger organisms? What's one detrimental way that manifests itself?

Ocean acidification causes larger organisms such as fish to become less aware of their predators because it harms their sense of smell which is their primary defense. With a deteriorated sense of smell, the organisms are less aware of their surroundings and more vulnerable/likely to be eaten.

What does dissolved oxygen have to do with water chemistry?

Oxygen is the most important gas in the aquatic environment and adequate levels are critical in maintaining a stable ecosystem. Cold water holds more oxygen than warm water.

What does pH stand for?

Potential of hydrogen

What are several solutions to biodiversity loss?

Protecting areas; limiting human interacting in certain areas to prevent deforestation. Preventing species introductions; regulating the importation of foreign plants/organisms. Informing/Educating; spreading the word. Slowing climate change; reducing human-cause global warming to reduce biodiversity loss. Promoting sustainability; promoting agriculture processes that don't rely on techniques that involve deforestation or the ruin of fields.

How do climate change and biodiversity relate?

Rapid climate change affects ecosystems' species ability to adapt and so biodiversity loss is increased.

Why is it especially dangerous that rising oceanic acidity affects delicate, minuscule creatures like pteropods?

Since pteropods' shells are 35% smaller than they used to be a decade ago, scientists worry they may one day no longer be able to make a shell and therefore die. Since they are near the bottom of the food chain, taking away their link would most likely lead to massive amounts of sea creature deaths.

What role does solar radiation have in the greenhouse effect? Are solar radiation levels influenced by changes in climate? Humans?

Solar radiation is energy radiated from the sun in the form of electromagnetic waves, including visible and ultraviolet light and infrared radiation. It does not depend on humans or the earths' climate, but effects the greenhouse effect because if it increases, so does the temperature of the earth and if greenhouse gasses increase, more solar radiation gets trapped.

What is the IPCC? What did they conclude about the animal species they assessed?

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that 20-30% of species assessed may be at risk of extinction from climate change impacts within this century if global mean temperatures exceed 2-3°C (3.6-5.4 °F) relative to pre-industrial levels.

What is climate? How is it commonly recognized?

The average weather conditions at a given location or region at a given time.

What is unique about the series on the winterberry shrub?

The berries don't fall off in the winter with the leaves, they stay a food source for animals.

How does biodiversity help maintain ecosystem services?

The biodiversity in an area supports key ecosystem functions such as growth of living organisms and nutrient cycling.

Use an example of a past mass extinction to apply it to why Christian should be concerned with a future one.

The end Cretaceous mass extinction 65 million years ago is famously associated with the demise of the dinosaurs. Virtually no large land animals survived. A study called Vernon 2007 discovered that each mass extinction event corresponded to periods of quickly changing atmospheric CO2. The extinction of even other organisms should now be an alarm (especially to Christians) because this time we have proof that humans are causing it.

What invasive insect is threatening hemlocks?

The hemlock wooly adelgid, which eats holes through the bark.

How can you tell the difference between red and white oak?

The leaves have slightly different shape and color. The red's bark is darker than the white.

What do the majority of scientists believe causes global warming?

The majority of scientists agree that human activities is the cause of most global warming that occurs (esp. through the burning of fossil fuels).

How do you identify a hemlock?

The pine needles are short and they're the only trees with pine needles in the Gordon woods. The needles have silver stripes.

Describe the forest trees of 350 years ago in central New England. What species were here, how large were they? What was different about their distribution than today?

The trees that existed in New England included oak, hickory, and cherry trees. They were very large and were heavily logged because they were all highly valuable hardwood trees. It is very hard to find old hardwood trees today, or any old trees in general.

How can you recognize the trunk of an American Chestnut?

The trunk of American Chestnut has long, vertical check lines and weathered, light brown wood that distinguish them and it decays from the inside out, though they are very rot-resistant.

What parts of the cattail plant are edible?

The tuber (roots)

What are the four main habitats in a pond ecosystem?

There are mainly four habitats in a pond ecosystem: Shore Habitat, Surface Film Habitat, Open Water Habitat, and Bottom Water Habitat

What are some concerns involving international taxes and/or price controls?

There are suspicions about the motives of those who propose solutions, and concerns about unintended consequences if we adopt the recommended remedies. Another fear of using market mechanisms and price increases to reduce fossil fuel usage is that it could have a disproportionate impact on the poor by denying them access to the energy they need.

Why does it seem that some years there are more acorns than other years?

There is a "bumper crop" every few years to allow some of the crop (acorn) not to be eaten and therefore allow some to take root.

What do nutrient levels have to do with water chemistry?

There is a direct correlation between amount of available nutrients and the population of algae and aquatic plants.

When do sweet pepper bush flowers bloom? What importance do they have to pollinators?

They bloom in the summer and provide pollen for bees to redistribute.

What was the main use of large white pines in colonial NE? Why did white pine forestry decline? Where is the tallest white pine east of the Mississippi?

They were primarily used as masts for ships of the British navy. White pine forestry has declined with the lack of white pines due to over-logging. The tallest pine now is found in the Great Smoky Mountains.

How do the chances that coral may be able to adapt to rising pH levels look?

Very slim, which means at this rate there will probably be a widespread death of most ocean life.

Why are we called to care about climate change?

We are called to care about the mitigation of climate change because we worship God by caring for creation and our poor, vulnerable neighbors suffering from the effects of climate change. Reducing our consumption can save us money in our personal budgets, which we can use to further the work of God's kingdom.

How does this reaction specifically affect any marine life that produces a shell?

While forming their shell, shellfish use molecules such as calcium and carbonate to make calcium carbonate, a tough matrix. Too much CO2 changes the crucial ingredient carbonate.

What re the two main conclusions from the article "A Call to Action?"

1. "Creation Care is indeed a 'gospel issue within the lordship of Christ.'" 2. "We are faced with a crisis that is pressing, urgent, and that must be resolved in our generation."

List 3 examples of positive feedback loops

1. Arctic Ice Caps 2. Arctic Methane 3. Ocean Acidification

What are 5 observed indicators of global warming?

1. Heat waves 2. Short cold snaps 3. Decreased snow/ice 4. Melted glaciers 5. Animal migration

What are the 4 main greenhouse gasses?

1. Water vapor 2. CO2 3. Methane 4. Nitrous Oxide

How much energy, on average, is being added to Earth's climate system?

1.6 watts per sq. meter, or 800 trillion watts of energy per second.

How much of the trash in the ocean comes from land?

80%

What percentage of the ocean is affected by global warming?

93.4

What is required of the Western world before they attempt to fix impoverished nations' issues?

A development plan for poor countries that relies on cheap fossil fuels (designed after Western structures) seems doomed to failure. Instead, all countries, whether rich or poor, will need to work toward more sustainable methods.

What is a forcing agent?

A forcing agent can push the earth's temperature up and down (i.e. greenhouse gasses).

What is a positive feedback loop? Negative feedback loop?

A positive feedback loop is a process where the result strengthens the cause and on and on. A negative feedback loop is one where the result negates the cause.

What could cause a shift in the species of the Amazon?

A shift can be caused by human interaction, which can either add invasive species or remove native species in a way that would shift the dynamic of the Amazon's ecosystem.