Motivational_ SG

Describe White's concept of Competence motivation. How did DeCharms expand on this idea?

"be effective in producing changes in [their] environment personal causation

According to Maslow, about what percentage of the population in our society reaches self-actualization?

1%

1-1 Describe Deci and Ryan's Self-Determination theory- what 3 basic needs do we all need to satisfy? What is intrinsic motivation? Understand Figure 11.3

According to Deci and Ryan, this occurs because physiological needs such as hunger occur when we experience a deficit that must be satisfied. Once the deficit has been met, the organism can rest intrinsic motivation, or the value or pleasure associated with an activity as opposed to the goal toward which the activity is directed Extrinsic motivation, by contrast, emphasizes the external goals toward which the activity is directed.

1-1 What are the criticisms of Rogers's approach?

First, many of the terms Rogers used are not operationally defined unclear which environmental conditions will enhance growth and which will hinder it. In it implies a "me first" psychology does not emphasize to any great extent the goals toward which an individual may be striving. theory is weak empirically

1-1 Explain the concept of learned helplessness

If we believe that we lack characteristics possessed by others that allow them to control their situations, this attribution of personal helplessness will lead to lowered self-esteem.

1-1 Know the major theories of emotion and be able to compare/contrast them: James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, 2 factor theory (Schacter-Singer)

James in 1884 and Lange in 1885 independently proposed that the feelings of emotion did not occur immediately after the perceptions of some event in the environment but as a result of our bodily responses to the object Cannon argued that the bodily changes supposed to provide feedback to the brain and thus provide emotional quality to experience could be completely eliminated without disturbing the emotions of an organism. Second, Cannon noted that the bodily changes occurring in emotional states are very nearly the same regardless of the emotion shown Third, Cannon claimed that the internal organs (viscera) supposed to provide feedback to the brain for the experience of emotion are not very sensitive structures. Fourth, Cannon felt that the changes occurring in the internal organs are too slow to provide the experience of emotion. Fifth, Cannon noted that artificial induction of an aroused emotional state does not lead to an emotional "feeling. cognitivephysiological theory of emotion both physiological arousal and cognitive attributions are necessary for the full experience of emotion

Strack found that when subjects were forced to adopt a facial posture similar to smiling while rating the humor of cartoons, the cartoons were rated:

NOT as less humorous when the face was held in a "smile" NOT

All of the following would be classified by Maslow as growth needs except:

NOT goodness

Seligman suggests that helplessness that is perceived as the result of _____ factors will greatly extend the time course of the helplessness.

NOT personal

Valins conducted a study of male college students. They viewed slides of seminude females and were provided with false heartbeat feedback information. Which of the following did he find?

NOT slides associated with an increase in heartbeat rate were preferred.NOT

According to Jones and Davis, attributions usually are formed by observing:

NOT the common aspects of behaviors

1-1 What are Darwin's contributions to our understanding of emotion?

Serviceable Associated Habits ways in which organisms express emotion have had survival value in the past. Antithesis the expression of opposite emotions (anger and calm) involves opposite kinds of behavior Direct Action of the Nervous System \some emotional expressions occur simply because of changes in nervous system activity. Recognition of Emotional States "clues" of that individual's emotional state to other members of its species

1-1 Be able to define and identify our biases in Attribution: Self-serving bias, false consensus effect, actor-observer bias, FAE

The Self-Serving Bias or the tendency to take credit for success and to avoid responsibility for failure The False Consensus Effect "What can people possibly like about THAT? The Actor-Observer Bias This tendency to infer dispositional attributions of others' behavior but situational attributions of our own behavior

1-1 What are channel factors?

The larger issue, according to Sabini et al., is why we choose one cause over another. They contend that we do not have a particular bias toward or away from dispositional causes. Rather, we have a tendency to underestimate the power of certain important motives called channel factors. These include a motive to "save face," or to avoid embarrassment of ourselves and others

1-1 Explain attribution theory, its assumptions and situational and dispositional attributions

The study of how we make decisions concerning the events we experience factors—usually either to consistent personality characteristics (termed dispositions) or to aspects of the social situation of the persons involved (1) we do attempt to determine the causes of both our own behavior and that of others. (2) the assignment of causes to behavior is not done randomly; that is, rules exist that can explain how we come to the conclusions we do about the causes of behavior.

1-1 How fundamental is the FAE?

This refers to our tendency to attribute the behavior of others to stable, internal characteristics, and thus to underestimate the influence of situational factors

1-1 What do our cognitions have to do with emotion (e.g. attribution)

Valins's data suggest that, at least for ratings of liking, we form a hypothesis and then attempt to test it by searching for relevant cues in ourselves or our environment. If this attribution process is an active one, as Valins suggested, then the rating may have been arrived at somewhat as follows: "My heart rate changed. Why? Because the person in this photo is attractive."

1-1 In what ways is emotion universal? How are emotions adaptive? What is Zajonc's perspective? Explain Izard's theory

Zajonc argued that affect is basic, that is, that emotion is universal among animal species emotional reactions are difficult to verbalize emotions are inescapable

1-1 Explain Weiner's Attributional Analysis, the four elements essential to interpretation and the 3 causal elements that these are related to

ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. locus, stability, and controllability.

If another student drops his books, we perceive him to be clumsy, but if we drop our books, we perceive something in the environment caused us to do so. This difference in opinion is referred to as:

actor-observer bias

The "Jonah Complex" would cause people to be:

afraid of their own abilities

According to Tomkins, every society puts constraints on the expression of emotions. These voluntarily modified emotions are called:

backed-up emotions

1-1 Describe Heider's Naïve Psychology and the subdivisions of dispositional and situational attributions

balance theory which, as we will see, can help to explain the motivation for attributions to occur. logically one could attribute behaviors either to forces within the individual (dispositions) or to forces external to the individual (situational factors).

The _____ nucleus of the amygdala appears to be important for the association of conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus in conditioned fear situations.

basolateral

1-1 Describe Carl Roger's approach to human behavior. What makes humans tick? What elements are needed to achieve this? What are the elements of the fully functioning individual?

called this striving to become fully functioning the actualizing tendency and argued that it is innate in all living organisms positive regard and a need for positive selfregard. Our feelings of positive regard from others, as well as from the self, come from interactions with our parents in what Rogers called unconditional positive regard. conditional positive regard leads to maladaptive behaviors because it creates anxiety. We feel loved only to the extent that our behavior 1. Openness to experience. Fully functioning individuals do not have to defend themselves against certain experiences; thus their perceptions of events are less distorted. They are aware of their own characteristics and are more flexible about altering them. The fully functioning individual is usually more emotional than others, experiencing a wider range of emotions and experiencing them more intensely. 2. Existential living. The fully functioning individual lives each moment to the fullest and does not concentrate on either the past or the future. The fully functioning person also has a general interest in life, and all aspects of life are experienced as new and rich. Rogers believed existential living to be the very core of the healthy personality. 3. Trust in one's own organism. Rogers described the fully functioning individual as one who often behaves in particular ways because it feels right rather than because it seems intellectually right. Thus, fully functioning individuals are often intuitive because they are open and in touch with their innermost feelings. This trust in one's "gut reactions" may lead to spontaneous and sometimes impulsive behavior, but not at the expense of others. While intellectual decisions may be downgraded in importance, they are not ignored. 4. Sense of freedom. Fully functioning persons experience a sense of personal freedom in choosing what happens to them. They see themselves as having the personal power to determine what their future will be. They regard themselves as in control of their lives rather than at the mercy of chance events. 5. Creativity. As might be expected, fully functioning persons are highly creative. This creativity is also evidenced by their increased ability to adapt to change and to survive even drastic changes in their environment.

1-1 What does Classical Conditioning and Instrumental Conditioning and Modeling have to do with emotion?

conditioned fear. A child frightened by a freely roaming large dog will appear fearful around that dog in the future even when it is on a leash. In operant/instrumental conditioning, the consequences of a response (i.e., reinforcement or punishment) alter the future probability of that response.

According to Ekman, _____ are learned early in life and determine which emotional expressions are appropriate in particular situations.

custom emotions display rules core emotions

A man robbed a liquor store. If we say he did it because he is a bad person or a criminal type person, we are making a _____ attribution.

dispositional

In Kelley's covariation attribution theory, behaviors low in distinctiveness tend more to lead to _____ attribution.

dispositional

Tom had an argument with his instructor. He has had arguments with other instructors in the past. No one else argues with this instructor. And he has argued with this instructor in the past. According to Kelley's attribution theory, this suggests a _____ attribution.

dispositional

Both natural and artificial (drug) reinforcers stimulate the release of _____ in the nucleus accumbens.

dopamine

According to White, the intrinsic need to deal competently with the environment is called _____ motivation:

effectance

According to the James-Lange theory:

emotion is a result of our bodily responses to a stimulus.

Theories which include the idea that emotion is the result of an appraisal of the present condition of stimuli suggest that:

emotions require cognition

Dweck and colleagues (1993) suggest that some people are _____ theorists and view themselves and others as acting on the basis of fixed traits, and other people are _____ theorists and view themselves and others as acting on basis of malleable traits.

entity; incremental

Fixed traits are to _____ theorists as malleable traits are to _____ theorists.

entity; incremental

Ekman and his colleagues conducted research which indicates that:

facial expressions of emotion are universal

According to Rogers, we must have unconditional positive regard to be a _____ individual.

fully functioning

According to Snyder, people who are _____ self-monitors are motivated to change behavior to meet demands of the situation, while _____ self-monitors are motivated to engage in behavior that is consistent with their internal state.

high; low

According to Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, a shortcoming in the field of psychology has been too much emphasis on:

how to treat people who are mentally ill

One concept that is central to the theories of Rogers, Maslow, White, DeCharms, Bandura, and Deci and Ryan, is the focus on:

human growth

1-1 What is the role of facial expressions in emotion (experienced and perceived)

importance of facial changes in both the experience and communication of emotion should be similar across cultures. produce the same facial movements when asked to portray particular emotions. For

1-1 Explain the role of choice, noncommon effects and context in Jones and Harris's theory of attribution

includes not only the choice of engaging in the behavior versus doing nothing but, more importantly, a choice between multiple behaviors that could have been performed. undergraduate research participants read an essay that critiqued the way Fidel Castro another factor we consider when we make decisions about the causes of behavior is what they termed noncommon

According to Schachter, emotion:

involves both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal.

1-1 What role does the brain play in emotion? Know what the different parts do

limbic system. emotion such as the amygdala, cingulate cortex, and orbital frontal cortex orbital frontal cortex (OFC) (a brain region close to the eye sockets—thus the term orbital) provide information to the amygdala that may be important for emotionality produced by social situation profound change in emotionality following frontal lobe damage is that of Phineas Gage.

According to reformulated learned helplessness theory, if we believe we lack characteristics possessed by others that allow them to control their situations, this attribution of personal helplessness will lead to ______________.

lower self-esteem

1-1 How do attributions of mastery and helplessness affect us? What kind of goals are those associated with?

mastery orientation tend to set challenging goals for themselves in order to increase competence. Those with a helpless orientation avoid challenging goals and tend to give up easily.

The process of focusing one's attention on the moment rather than engaging in pleasure-inducing activity automatically is called:

mindfulness

1-1 Be able to define and identify the dimensions of Kelly's covariation theory and be able to figure out which attribution we would make based on given information

or correlation) across time is an important way in which we are able to make a judgment about causality. distinctiveness, which refers to the degree to which the behavior is unique. consensus, which means that we examine other people's behavior in the same situation. consistency, which refers to the frequency with which the actor engages in the specific behavior in question.

For some self-actualized people, called transcenders, _____ may become the most important aspect of their lives.

peak experiences

Prior to William James's 1884 article on emotion, the arousal of behavior was viewed as the last of a three step process as follows:

perception of a stimulus, development of an emotion, arousal of behavior

DeCharms (1968) suggested that _____ was the underlying principle of all motivated behaviors.

personal causation

A new area in psychology that focuses on how people can become happy, fulfilled and psychologically healthy is called:

positive psychology

Wortman and Brehm (1975) proposed that the initial reaction to a loss of control is a resistance to the loss of control with subsequent increased effort, which they called:

reactance

1-1 Describe Bandura's Human Agency theory

reciprocal causation. The essence of reciprocal causation is that our behavior (B), environment (E), and personal (P) factors (such as cognitive, affective and biological events) influence and are influenced human agency has four core features, the first of which is intentionality, or a proactive commitment to bring about a future course of action intentionality is not enough; forethought is needed we have our intention and action plan in place, we still cannot rest. We engage in self-reactiveness, or the motivation and self-regulation necessary to maintain a course of action and to evaluate it with respect to our goals and standards. The final core feature of Bandura's theory is self-reflectiveness, or the ability to evaluate how effective we are at exercising our capacity for human agency.

Which of the following is NOT one of the steps in attribution suggested by Gilbert and Malone (1995)?

retrospective memory

According to Maslow, preferences for familiar surroundings, secure jobs, and insurance illustrate the _____ needs.

safety

Kenrick and colleagues (2010) have proposed a reformulated needs hierarchy. Which one of Maslow's needs did they not include in their theory?

self-actualization

One explanation for the self-serving bias is the motive to maintain a positive self-image, called the motive for:

self-enhancement

Which of the following is NOT one of Bandura's core features of human agency?

self-regard

In one study, teachers whose students performed well attributed the outcome to their teaching ability and teachers whose students performed poorly attributed the outcome to student inability. This represents the:

self-serving bias

According to Darwin, _____ were learned behaviors that became innate because of their usefulness.

serviceable associated habits

A student fails a test. If we say the reason the student failed was that the test was unfair, we are making a _____ attribution.

situational

In Kelley's attribution theory, high distinctiveness, high consensus, and high consistency is likely to result in _____ attribution.

situational

1-1 What is positive psychology> What major concepts do they study in this field? What are the criticisms of positive psychology?

studying healthy development is as important as studying disease for at least two reasons. First, it is important to learn the processes that control positive growth so that it can best be nurtured in all people. A second benefit is that much can be learned about disorders if we understand how they differ from healthy development positive emotions, positive individual traits and virtues, and positive institutions Humanistic psychologists have pointed out that positive psychology has adopted many core principles of their domain such as well-being and optimism without proper recognition practical standpoint, some (e.g., Miller, 2008) have argued that positive psychology is prescriptive rather than descriptive; meaning that, rather than trying to understand optimism and happiness, positive psychology is telling us that we should be optimistic and happy

1-1 Describe Maslow's approach to human behavior. Explain his hierarchy of needs and the concept of deprivation motivation and B-motivation. What dies a self-actualized person look like?

that we must seek to understand the ultimate goals of behavior rather than the superficial or apparent goals, because the apparent goal for any observed behavior may be quite different from the ultimate goal also regarded the striving for perfection or self-actualization as the ultimate purpose of behavior. His observations led him to the conclusion that human needs can be understood in terms of a hierarchy of needs. Physiological Needs The first level of the hierarchy consists of physiological needs. If needs such as hunger or thirst are not adequately being met, the needs above them on the hierarchy are pushed into the background in terms of controlling behavior. Safety Needs These needs represent a need for safety or security in our environment. Like the physiological needs, safety needs are triggered primarily in emergency situations Love or Belongingness Needs When safety needs have been adequately met, they become unimportant in the direction of behavior, and the love or belongingness needs emerge Esteem Needs If the love needs have been adequately met, they too slip into the background in relation to guiding behavior, and the esteem needs become dominant. Deprivation Motivation The first four steps on Maslow's hierarchy constitute the needs that must be satisfied before reaching the final level, the level of self-actualization Self-Actualization When we have satisfied the first four levels of need, the final level of development—which Maslow termed selfactualization— can be reached Failure to Self-Actualize If self-actualization is the ultimate level of being toward which we all strive, then why do most people fall short of this goal?

1-1 Describe the circumplex model of emotion

the commonality necessitates a different methodology— breaking emotions into their component parts (dimensions). consistently related to one another rather than discreet and independent is a circular pattern around a vertical and a horizontal axis in which items that are positively correlated tend to cluster together, items that are unrelated are at 90 degree core affect.

Peak experiences, peak performance and flow are concepts that share some characteristics, although differing in others. Which of the following is the common quality shared by each of these events that is mentioned in the text?

the person focuses attention on the experience or is absorbed by the experience

Cannon believed that emotion was associated with activation of which portion(s) of the nervous system?

the sympathetic nervous system, alone

1-1 Describe Kenrick and colleagues Revised Hierarchy of needs. What changes did they make to Maslow's model?

their revised model includes analyses of each need on three levels: (a) evolutionary significance, (b) developmental trajectory, and (c) the specific environmental stimuli that trigger each need at any given moment two needs could be active at one time.

According to Buck's studies of human facial expressiveness:

women are more facially expressive than men.