Motor Extended Responses
Research Evidence for Motor Programs 3 Four lines of evidence support the idea that motor programs exist. List two of these lines of evidence and describe one research technique used in each.
1: Studies of reaction time in humans Increasing the complexity of to-be-produced movements through number of elements, number of limbs involved, or the overall duration of the action Including startle trials Reaction time is the interval of time that elapses from the presentation of an unanticipated stimulus to the beginning of a person's response. Reaction time increases when additional elements are added to the movement, more limbs are involved, or the action is more complex; therefore, more time is needed for organizing the system. 2: Experiments on animals and case studies involving animals and humans where feedback has been removed Deafferentation, a surgical procedure in which a bundle of nerves is severed to prevent sensory nerve impulses from reaching the spinal cord. Deafferentation is the severing of nerves so the CNS no longer receives sensory information. Monkeys could still respond to lights and carry out learned motor programs. A motor program is presumed without sensory information or feedback. 3: The impact on performance when movement is unexpectedly blocked Mechanically blocking a movement unexpectedly on some trials Electromyography (EMG) is a device for recording the electrical activity in the muscles. Effects from mechanically blocking a limb using EMG show that activity is nearly the same as in limbs that are not blocked. There is no feedback from the moving limbs because the limbs can't move, but there seems to be a motor program that plans the movement. 4: The analysis of behaviors when humans attempt to stop or change an action Asking participants to stop a movement after it has been initiated Researchers look for a point of no return. Evidence suggests that a motor program is released that is responsible for initiating the action and serves to carry out the entire action unless a second stop signal program is initiated in time to stop the completion of a movement.
Motor Program Theory 7 When is a basic open-loop system effective? When is it problematic?
A basic open-loop system is effective when things go as expected and problematic when unpredicted changes occur.
Application of Speed and Force Principles 2 Give three reasons why professional batters in baseball seem to swing near maximally in order to maximize performance.
A faster swing gives more impact to the ball. When movements are very fast, reducing the movement time tends to increase accuracy and reduced movement time increases movement timing consistency. If the swing of the bat is speeded up, the decision about when to initiate the movement is made later and is more temporally accurate. Additional time before the swing allows more time to view the ball's trajectory and can allow for more accurate anticipation of ball arrival.
Describe the inattention-blindness phenomenon with reference to Simon and Chabris' (1999) study, which involved passing a basketball.
A very simple, goal-directed visual search seems to absorb our attention, making us blind to other things. Participants in Simons and Chabris' (1999) study watched a video of six people who passed basketballs among themselves while all players were constantly in motion. Three players on one team wore black T-shirts, and the other three wore white T-shirts. Each team passed their ball only to players on their own team. Participants were asked to count the number of passes by those wearing white. About half of the participants were so engaged in the goal-directed visual search that they did not see a gorilla walk through the frame during the clip.
Ability vs. Skill 5 Describe three points of contrast between abilities and skills.
Abilities are inherited traits; skills are developed with practice. Abilities are stable and enduring; skills are easily modified with practice. Abilities will number perhaps 50; skills are essentially countless in number. Each ability underlies many different skills, while each skill depends on several abilities.
Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off 3 Explain why an increase in speed while chopping wood with an ax can become dangerous. Give at least three reasons why increased speed can affect accuracy.
An increase in speed contributes to inaccuracy (especially dangerous while swinging an ax) because of the following: The relative contraction forces of the various participating muscles are a major factor in determining the ultimate trajectory of the limb. The inconsistency in these forces increases with increased force. When MT decreases, more force is required. When amplitude increases, more force is required. More force generates more variability, which causes the movement to deviate from the intended trajectory, causing errors.
List two differences between automatic and controlled processing.
Automatic processing is fast, not demanding of attention (not much interference), parallel, and involuntary. Controlled processing is slow, demanding of attention, serial, and volitional.
Motor-Transfer Principles 2 List one possible benefit and one possible detriment to the use of simulators to train motor skills.
Benefits: cost effective, increased safety for people and equipment Detriments: can require more training time, fidelity
Research Evidence for Motor Programs 4 Explain the major difference between the concept of a motor program and a central pattern generator.
CPG relates more to genetically defined activities such as locomotion, chewing, and breathing, whereas the motor program involves learned activities such as throwing and kicking.
Correlations 2 Why have scientists concluded that a single, general motor ability doesn't exist?
Correlations computed among different skills are generally very low, and even skills that appear to be quite similar usually correlate poorly. The data tell us that there are many abilities, not simply a single general motor ability.
Individual Differences 4 List three characteristics of individual differences in skills.
Difference are stable across attempts, differences endure across time, and one measurement of differences is not enough.
Frequency and Precision of Feedback 3 How does the optimal level of feedback precision change as learning progresses?
Early in practice, errors are very large and do not need precise feedback because the learner does not have the control to make precise corrections. Experienced learners can use much more precise feedback.
List two activities, one where the minimization or conservation of energy is required and one where it is not. Explain why you chose each one.
Examples of activities where minimizing energy is a requirement: running a marathon, swimming in a race, rowing, boxing. These require a minimization or conservation of energy because it will allow for a more sustained or efficient movement, which in turn will aid in achieving the environmental goal Examples of activities where it is not required: javelin throw, using a sledgehammer, a long jump, a spike in volleyball. These do not require a minimization or conservation of energy because maximum or high energy expenditure will aid in achieving the environmental goal.
Describe a population stereotype found in your day-to-day activities.
Examples: stop lights (red means stop, green means go); a lever handle means pull on the door; spacebar is the biggest key on the keyboard
Feedback During the Movement 3 How can the principles of guidance be understood in relation to specificity?
If guided practice changes the task requirements (e.g., the learner is physically prevented from making a mistake), then it becomes a very different task than the one it is meant to train. According to the specificity view, this would not be effective for a retention test on the unguided task.
What happens if the time between a fake and an actual shot is too short? What happens if the time between a fake and an actual shot is too long?
If the time is too short, the fake is ignored. If the time is too long, the actual shot is reacted to with normal RT.
Feedback Schedules 3 Evidence suggests that there is an optimal amount of trials to include in summary feedback. What are the consequences of too many and too few trials being included?
If there are too many trials, the learner benefits less from the informational properties of feedback, which guide the learner to the goal. If there are too few trials, dependency-producing effects are maximized.
Practice Organization 7 Why might a dart player not benefit from practice where the distance to the dart board varies (variable practice)?
In competition, the dart player will always throw from the same distance. This is a case where specificity is more important that adaptability. The learner should practice under the same conditions they will be tested on (in competition, for example).
According to the inverted-U principle, why could a coach's attempts to psych up a gymnastics team for competition be problematic?
Increasing the arousal level of the athletes can enhance performance, but only to a point. Performance quality peaks at some intermediate value of arousal, and performance actually deteriorates as the arousal level rises further.
Feedback Classification and Properties10 How are the effects of feedback direct and indirect in their influence as a motivating tool?
Indirectly, feedback encourages a learner to keep practicing, and that additional practice is beneficial to learning. Directly, feedback on good trials versus poor trials can have an effect on learning.
What does the term inherent feedback mean?
Information is directly available to the performer naturally through the senses.
Feedback Classification and Properties 9 Provide one example of knowledge of results and one example of knowledge of performance that you could give to a diver after a dive in a competition.
Knowledge of results: Your score was 7.8, your score was lower than the previous diver, and you are now in third place. Knowledge of performance: Your arms weren't straight enough, your toes weren't pointed, and you completed both rotations completely and in the correct position.
Explain the two occlusion editing methods for video used to examine advantages in perceptual anticipation. How do they differ?
One method blocks a certain body part from view, while the other stops the video at a certain point in time. These methods are used in discovering what types of information are being used by more highly skilled performers and how much earlier in time this information is useful in making anticipatory judgments.
For each of the following activities, state whether the task is best classified as discrete, serial, or continuous. Explain why you made each choice. Performing a dance routine Throwing a dart at a target Riding a bicycle Washing the dishes Rowing a boat
Performing a dance routine: Serial task because there are many discrete steps linked together Throwing a dart at a target: Discrete task because it is relatively brief and has a distinct beginning and end Riding a bicycle: Continuous task because the beginning and end are not defined Washing the dishes: Serial task because there are several discrete steps to it (washing, rinsing, drying) Rowing a boat: Continuous task because the beginning and end are not defined
Motor-Transfer Principles 3 Contrast physical and psychological fidelity.
Physical fidelity refers to the degree to which the surface, physical features of the simulation and criterion tasks are identical. Psychological fidelity refers to the degree to which behaviors produced in the simulator replicate those required by the criterion task.
Practice Organization 9 According to Guadagnoli and Lee (2004), when might random practice be detrimental to learning?
Random practice might be detrimental to learning if the task is very difficult to begin with.
Abilities in Skill Production 3 List and describe four of the abilities identified by Fleishman.
Reaction time for tasks where there is a single stimulus and response, where speed of reaction is critical Response orientation for tasks involving quick choices among a number of alternative movements Speed of movement for tasks in which the limb must move quickly in order to minimize movement time Finger dexterity for tasks for which small objects are manipulated by the fingers and hands Manual dexterity for tasks in which relatively large objects are manipulated with the hands and arms Response integration for tasks where many sources of sensory information must be integrated to make an effective response Physical-proficiency abilities, such as dynamic strength, explosive strength, gross body coordination, and stamina (cardiorespiratory endurance), have been identified. These are probably many others; this group of tests can be best thought of as being related to what is usually called physical fitness.
Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off 4 When an increase in speed results in a decrease in accuracy (or an increase in instability), what options does the motor system have for dealing with it? (Name three.)
Reduce the speed and maintain accuracy; decrease the inaccuracy and maintain speed; maintain the speed and change the movement pattern in order to re-establish stability.
Practice Distribution 4 Briefly discuss from three perspectives the benefits of mixing physical practice with periods of observation or mental practice.
Regarding practice distribution, the time taken to recover from the negative effects of prolonged physical work can double as time to benefit from the effects of observation and/or mental practice. Regarding self-evaluation, the mixing of physical and mental and/or observational practice encourages the learner to assess and better understand their own performance. Regarding motivation, the periods of time engaged in mental and/or observational practice allow for the learner to reflect on positive things that took place during physical learning and how to improve on negative things that took place, resulting in a motivational effect.
Abilities in Skill Production 4 Given what you know about abilities, what is problematic about the statement "Sally sure is fast"?
Several distinct abilities (e.g., reaction time, response orientation, speed of movement) can all underlie being fast, and it depends on the circumstances in which one is important.
Application of Speed and Force Principles 3 Define spatial accuracy and temporal accuracy, and give an example of each.
Spatial accuracy is the type of accuracy required of aiming movements for which spatial position of the movement's end point is important to the performance. An example is sinking a golf putt. Temporal accuracy, or timing accuracy, is the type of accuracy required of rapid movements in which accuracy of the movement time is important to the performance. An example is a boxer trying to block a punch. Short Answer
Name and define the three stages of information processing between input and output. Give an example of each.
Stage 1, stimulus identification-perceiving important environmental information by using sensory input (e.g., vision, hearing, touch, and kinesthetic awareness) and assembling the information (e.g., perceiving whether something is moving or stationary and its direction, speed, size, and color); stage 2, response selection-deciding what to do based on the information from stage 1 (e.g., in doubles tennis, a player decides whether to go for the ball or let the teammate respond); stage 3, response programming-retrieving the motor programs necessary for the desired output (e.g., organize the plan of action, time the action, and determine the force)
Temporal Accuracy 3 If you were asked to turn on a tap for exactly 7 seconds a total of 10 times (without the use of a clock) and then asked to repeat the task, leaving the tap on for only 3.5 seconds each time, what would you notice about your error between the two versions of the task?
The amount of error made for the 3.5-second task will be about half of the error made for the 7-second task because there is a greater amount of noise in the longer-duration task.
List characteristics and limitations associated with the closed-loop control system.
The closed-loop control model explains the process of controlling slow movements in which there is time for correction. It is a type of control that uses feedback and error-detection and -correction processes to maintain a desired goal. When discussing motor performance, examples are driving a car along a highway or swimming laps within a designated lane. A chief limitation of closed-loop control is time. The system does not account for extremely rapid movements.
Stages of Learning 6 What is the so-called degrees of freedom problem, and what did Bernstein propose as a solution to it?
The degrees of freedom problem is how all the degrees of freedom are controlled in a given task during early learning. The proposed solution is to decrease the movement of nonessential or redundant body parts (freezing degrees of freedom.)
Name and discuss the two hypotheses offered to explain the blocked versus random practice effect.
The elaboration hypotheses posits that random practice increases the meaningfulness and distinctiveness of the tasks by relating them to each other, which produces more durable memories of the task. The forgetting hypothesis posits that when a learner shifts to a new task in random practice, the solution generated for the previous task is forgotten and then must be regenerated the next time the first task is presented. In blocked practice, the solution remains in memory and does not need to be regenerated.
Practice Characteristics and Goals 5 What problem does the inclusion of both practice sessions and test sessions by a coach help to overcome?
The inclusion of both overcomes conflicting practice goals of "do your best" and "modify your movements to improve."
Schema Theory 3 How does schema theory allow for novel movements to occur?
The learner can use an estimate of parameter values (based on the experiences they do have) to run off the motor program with the estimated parameter value. The learner can use similar past experiences to estimate the correct movement for a novel task.
Practice Distribution 3 Contrast efficiency and effectiveness as they relate to the distribution of work and rest periods.
The most effective schedule for practice is not necessarily the most efficient schedule. For example, while massed practice, with relatively little rest during practice, can get more practice done in less time, it can be detrimental to learning of continuous tasks.
Storage and Novelty Problems 2 Name and briefly describe two limitations to simple motor-program theory.
The novelty problem: simple motor-program theory does not account for movements that have not been previously made. The storage problem: According to simple motor-program theory, every action must have a program stored in long-term memory.
What is the quiet-eye phenomenon, and how does it relate to novice learners? How does it relate to experts?
The quiet-eye phenomenon refers to the tendency of experts to fixate their eyes for a longer time than nonexperts do just before movement onset. People can improve their performance if they are trained to fixate their gaze for a longer time just before action, just as the experts do.
Anticipatory and Feedback Information 4 What is the reflex-reversal phenomenon?
The reflex-reversal phenomenon has been demonstrated in the gait of cats, for example. The same stimulus (a light touch on the top of the foot) produces different effects when presented at different locations in the step cycle. The alteration in the reflex (depending on the timing of the stimulus) is called the reflex-reversal phenomenon.
Name the three types of memory systems and define their characteristics.
The short-term sensory store (STSS) holds stimuli according to its sensory modality (auditory, visual, kinesthetic) for a very short duration, only a few hundred milliseconds, before being replaced by the next stream and is believed to entail very little attentional processing. Short-term memory (STM) consists of a temporary workspace where relevant information is processed. Information may be retrieved, rehearsed, processed, and transferred. A small amount of information may be held, which uses 7 ± 2 items, or "chunks." Attention is held in STM as long as it is being rehearsed (e.g., looking up a telephone number). If attention is removed, forgetting begins within 30 seconds. Long-term memory (LTM) is considered the storage space for experiences over a lifetime and is characterized as having unlimited capacity and duration. Information reaches LTM through effortful processing of information in STM and transferring it to LTM.
Briefly describe how cruise control in a car acts as a closed-loop system.
The system may be started by selecting the speed you wish to maintain by switching on cruise control at the appropriate time. Once the system is on, information about the actual speed of the car (the system's output) is measured and compared to the desired speed. Any difference in speed is identified as an error, which is sent to an executive to decide how to eliminate or reduce the error. An error signal is sent to an executive, who passes the decision to an effector to accelerate or decelerate, which adjusts the speed.
Before producing a movement, what two things must the system do in the movement-programming stage of information processing?
The system must ready lower-level mechanisms in the brain stem and spinal cord for action and retrieve and organize a motor program.
Prediction Discuss two difficulties in predicting success in motor skills.
The underlying abilities in motor performances have not been studied systematically and are not well understood. The number of such underlying abilities is probably large, requiring that many abilities be measured. The pattern of relevant abilities shifts with practice and experience, making prediction of expert performances difficult.
Feedback Schedules 4 Why might allowing a learner to choose when to receive feedback be more beneficial for performance and learning than an experimenter-determined feedback schedule?
There is a motivational component to the learner-determined schedule because learners tend to request feedback after trials in which they perceive they performed well. Also, learners may request feedback less often than instructors would otherwise provide it.
Motor-Transfer Principles Attempts to train fundamental abilities through drills usually do not work. Explain why not and suggest an alternative route for training a specific skill.
There is no general ability for most of the things drills are designed to train (e.g., quickness or reaction time). Even if there were, abilities are genetically determined, not trained. An alternative route is to train using the specific desired skill.
Anticipatory and Feedback Information 3 What happens to preparatory postural adjustments seen during a throwing task, when, instead of standing, the performer leans on a wall?
They disappear.
Emerson just got a strike in the first frame of his game of bowling. Does this make Emerson a skilled bowler? Why or why not?
This does not make Emerson a skilled bowler because the strike might be attributed to luck. For Emerson to be considered a skilled bowler, he would have to reliably be able to produce a strike (almost) every frame, without luck playing much of a role.
Explain the difference between the two visual systems: ventral vision and dorsal vision.
Ventral vision identifies objects in the center of the visual field. It is conscious, leads to identification, and is affected by lighting. Dorsal vision detects the orientation of the body in the environment. It is nonconscious, detects movement and peripheral vision, and is used for action and movement control. It is not affected by lighting.
Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off 5 Describe the circumstances in which the speed-accuracy trade-off does not hold true.
When people are asked to produce different actions at different times, speeding up the movement results in a decrease in timing error. For skills in which the goal is to minimize timing error, the main factor seems to be movement time: Performers are able to produce shorter movement times more accurately than longer movement times. Distance has little influence. Producing very rapid or forceful movements in some instances reveals that faster movements are spatially more accurate than slower movements.
Bimanual Tasks 5 In what type of bimanual-movement task is the explanatory power of Fitts' Law reduced?
When separate, incongruent task demands are required of two limbs, the explanatory power of Fitts' law is reduced.
Frequency and Precision of Feedback 4 Are no-feedback trials during practice useful for learning? How do you know if they are or are not?
Yes, no-feedback trials are useful for learning. We know this because studies have shown that those who received feedback on fewer than 100% of trials have performed better in retention tests than those who received feedback on 100% of the trials during practice.
List three factors that would affect a mall security guard's ability to maintain attention throughout a shift while monitoring security cameras.
motivation, arousal, fatigue, temperature, noise, number and similarity of distracting objects
Transfer of Learning and Similarity 2 List three classes of parameters for changing the surface features in skills.
movement-speed parameter for changing MT, overall force parameter to adjust for different loads, and a parameter that chooses the particular limb to be used.
Motor Program Theory 8 List three of the things that must be specified in the programming process using open-loop control in order to generate skilled movements.
particular muscles to participate in the action, the order in which muscles are to be activated, forces of the muscle contractions, relative timing and sequencing among contractions, duration of each contraction
Error Measurement 2 What advantage does |CE| have over CE in presenting data from an experiment with two experimental groups?
|CE| prevents two scores (e.g., 5 and -5) from "evening out" when subjects are averaged together to present a group score.
