NCE
Epictetus said about thinking
"People are disturbed not by things, but by the views they take of them." - very REBT
Albert Ellis believes
"When you change your thinking, you change your life." (Ellis known for REBT and work in sexology.)
Insight
"aha, now I understand!" -equated with gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Kohler
External validity
'External validity' or outside of experiment, refers to whether the experimental research results can be generalized to larger populations, e.g. other people, settings, conditions. If the results of the study only apply to the population in the study then external validity is LOW.
Premack principle
'an efficient reinforcer is what the client himself likes to do.'
Social power is also called
social influence
Technological Advances
These advances shape the development of intellectual functioning
Experimenter effects
Things that can flaw an experiment because the researcher unconsciously communicates intent or expectations to the subjects.
Law of effect (aka 'trial and error')
Thorndike's suggestion that satisfying associations related to a given behavior will cause it to be 'stamped in' while those associated with annoying consequences will be 'stamped out'.
Resentful Demoralization of the Comparison Group (also called compensatory equalization)
Threat to validity in which comparison group lowers their performance or behaves inept in an attempt to make the experimental group look better than they should. (Noted if the comparison group deteriorates throughout the experiment while the experimental group does not.)
How many individual participants do you need to conduct a "true" experiment?
To conduct a "true" experiment you needs 30 individual participants.
Ipsative
implies a within person analysis rather than a normative analysis between individuals.
Reentry Woman - a woman who goes from working within the home to working outside the home
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Research is a necessary factor for professionalism in counseling.
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Roe's theory of career development uses the hierarchy of needs developed by Maslow.
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Bubbles in Research
Bubbles in research are considered flaws in research (i.e., rubbing a sticker on car and getting no bubbles - impossible)
Replication
implies another researcher can repeat the experiment exactly as it was performed before.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
indicates a moderate amount of arousal or anxiety on a test improves performance.
Standard error of measurement (SEM)
indicates what the individual would score if he takes the same test again.
To conduct an experiment with a hypothesis, one needs
To conduct an experiment with a hypothesis, one needs a control group and an experimental group.
How many individual participants do you need to conduct Correlational research?
To conduct correlational research you needs 30 subjects per variable.
Projection
individual attributes his own unacceptable qualities onto others.
Fixed interval scheduling is the most _____ of them all.
ineffective
SECONDARY Tension has to do with the individual differences and similarities that exist between and among the members as they work on issues within the group.
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SELF-CREATION - Included in circumscription process; altering self-concept in light of developmental or environmental factors
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• Big 3: Self-Efficacy; Outcome Expectations; Personal Goals
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• Career choice is influences by environmental factors.
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• Personal Agency - reflects how a person exerts power to achieve a solution;
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Skinner's operant conditioning is also called
instrumental learning (memory: Skinner's last name has an 'i' so it is his term)
Rationalization
intellectual excuse to minimize hurt feelings (tends to interpret thoughts in a positive manner)
conditioned (learned) response
something that a person has learned to do when a certain stimulus is presented.
Another name for N=1
intensive experimental design (pioneered by Freud), also known as a case study (N= the number of people being studied)
Introversion
introverted person is his own primary source of pleasure (term is Jungian)
Jacob Moreno
invented psychodrama first coined the term 'group therapy' in 1931
Deductive research
research that reduces the general to the specific. (contrasts inductive research)
Nonparametric
(i.e., NOT normal distribution) Most popular is the chi-square, used to determine whether an obtained distribution differs significantly from an expected distribution.
Type II error (beta error) occurs when a researcher accepts null even though it is false.
(memory: RA as in 'residence advisor'... R - signifies reject when true A - signifies accept when false
Constructive Play
Define the self regulated creation of a product or problem-solution. Requires combining sensorimotor/practice repetitive activity with symbolic representation of thought
Terms
Delayed Entrants - In relation to the work force homemakers, military personnel, and the paroled are considered delayed entrants due to their absence from the work place for various periods of time.
NCE - Group
Group Dynamics Group Process Group dynamics refers to the interaction and energy exchange between members and leaders. The term is used to describe the forces operating in a group.
Systematic sampling
Sampling every nth person in a population (i.e., every 5th person, 10th person, etc.) - some believe this gives same results as random sampling although it is controversial.
SATISFACTION- an employee' contentment with work environment
Satisfaction: refers to clients who are more self-fulfilled-oriented
SATISFACTORINESS- the employer's satisfaction with an individual's job performance.
Satisfactoriness: refers to clients who are more achievement-oriented
Integration Factor Theory (Bruner)
What theory postulates that cognitive maturation results from the integration of acts and skills termed "blueprints" or plans of higher order combinations?
Easy Temperament
What type of temperament is characterized by a positive mood, quick establishment of routines an easy adaptation to new experiences?
A Type II error is also called a ____ error and means you _____ null when it is _____.
beta, accept, false
Counseling in 1970s
biofeedback, behavior modification, crisis hotlines
Mann-Whitney U-test
determines whether 2 uncorrelated means differe significantly when data are nonparmetric (memory: the 'u' reminds you of 'uncorrelated')
Jospeh Wolpe
developed 'systematic desensitization' to weaken a client's response to anxiety-producing stimuli
Counseling in 1950s
development psychology
Rogerians do not emphasize _____ or giving ____.
diagnosis, advice.
Glasser's position on mental illness is that
diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick
Adlerians are ______ and use homework assignments.
didactic (teaching)
In vivo treatment
direct treatment of an overt behavior.
REBT's ABC theory of personality believes that the intervention that occurs at D, ____ leads to E, ____.
disputing the irrational behavior at B, leads to a new emotional consequence.
Range
distance between the largest and the smallest scores.
(1) Orientation to vocational choice (an attitudinal dimension)
(2) Information and Planning (a competence dimension concerning specificity of information concerning future career decisions) (3) Consistency of Vocational Preferences (4) Crystallization of Traits (progress towards forming self-concept) (5) Vocational Independence (independence of work experience) (6) Wisdom of Vocational Preferences (realistic preferences)
In a graph, the tail indicates whether a distribution of scores is positively or negatively skewed.
(Tail to left - negatively skewed. Tail to right - positively skewed.)
Longitudinal method
(also known as 'diachronic method') The same clients are studied over a period of time.
Cross-sectional method
(also known as 'synchronic method') Clients are assessed at one point in time. (Indicative of measurements or observations at a single point, and thus preferable in terms of time consumption.)
Threatened Punishment
(firing, demotion, failing the course) If a person is found guilty of sexual coercion, what did his behavior include toward the harassed individual?
Ratio scale
(highest level of measurement) Interval scale with a TRUE ZERO POINT. Add/subtract/multiply/divide all possible. (Most psychological attributes can't be measured by ratio scale.)
- Job satisfaction is a significant indicator of work adjustment.
- Job satisfaction is significant variable in determining productivity, job involvement, and career tenure. - Individual needs and values are significant components of job satisfaction
- Achievement: related to experiences of accomplishments in the work situation
- Social Service: related to the opportunities that a work situation offers for performing tasks that will help people
Consultation theories
-Caplan's psychodynamic mental health consult -Social learning theory assoc. with Bandura -Schein's process consultation model
Rogers' 3 key factors to being an effective counselor
-attitude must be genuine -unconditional positive regard -empathic understanding
Allen Ivey's 3 types of empathy
-basic: counselor's response is on same level as client -subtractive: counselor's behavior doesn't convey understanding -additive: adds to client's understanding and awareness
Daniel Paul Schreber
-ex mental patient who spent 9 years in hospital -wrote Memoirs of a Mental Patient (1903) -'most quoted case in modern Psychiatry'
Four bipolar scales of the MBTI
-extroversion/introversion -perception/intuition -thinking/feeling -judging/perceiving
A life script is actually a life drama or plot:
-never scripts (will never succeed) -always scripts (always be a certain way) -after scripts (will be after an event happens) -open ended scripts (no direction) -desirable scripts (what they want)
3 types of learning
-reinforcement (operant conditioning) -association (classical conditioning) -insight
Cycle of violence (3 phases)
-tension building (walking on eggshells) -acute incident (abuse takes place) -honeymoon phase (romance, making up) (by Dr. Lenore Walker)
**** This theory emphasizes that both ABILITIES (work skills) and VALUES (work needs) are important components of optimal career selection.
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**Career development was viewed as a continuous process that involved multiple life roles.
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**The most important aspect of Holland's theory is the match between personality and work environment in which similar personalities choose certain careers and respond to problems in similar ways.
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- A major criticism of this theory has been a dependence on test results. Another criticism is that it doesn't account for how interests, values, aptitudes, achievements, and personalities grow and change.
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- CONGRUENCE of one's view of self with occupational preference establishes a Modal Personal Style.
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- Individuals are attracted to a particular role demand of an occupational environment that mets their personal needs and provides them with satisfaction.
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- Intelligence is considered less important than personality and interest.
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- KEY ASSUMPTION: Individuals have unique patterns of ability or traits that can be objectively measured and correlated with requirements of occupations (MATCHING). These can be profiled to represent an individual's potential.
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- KEY ASSUMPTION: Individuals seeks to achieve and maintain a positive relationship with their work environments. Individuals bring their own requirements to a work environment, and the work environment makes its requirements of individuals. To survive, individuals and work environments must achieve some degree of CONGRUENCE (CORRESPONDENCE).
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- PERSONALITY Structure: A stable characteristic made up of abilities and values.
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- People are products of their environment.
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- Traits: refers to abilities and interests
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- Used assessment and test results and other data to reveal congruence between the individual and work environment. Individual strengths and weaknesses were evaluated, with the primary purpose of finding a job that matched measured abilities and achievements.
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1) CONSISTENCY - Defined as degree of similarity between the 6 Holland types. The closer the types are to each other, the more consistent they are.
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1- DIFFERENTIATION - expressing one's unique individuality,
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1. Genetic endowment and special abilities - sex, race, physical appearance, intelligence, abilities, and talents
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1. Orientation to size and power (ages 3-5) - Thought process is concrete; children develop some sense through sex roles of what it means to be an adult.
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Wilcoxon
signed rank test used in place of the t test when data are nonparametric and you wish to test whether 2 correlated means differ significantly (memory: 'co' to remind you of correlated)
2) DIFFERENTIATION- Refers to level of distinctiveness between each of the 6 Holland types (RIASEC). Because undifferentiated individuals have many interests and abilities, they often have trouble making a career choice. **A TERM USED TO DEFINE HOW WILL A PERSON'S LIKES AND DISLIKES ARE DECLARED.
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2- INTEGRATION - ability to adjust to others to be part of society, and
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2- SPECIFICATION (18 -21) - narrowing choices to specific preferences
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2. EXPLORATION (15-24) - Crystallizing, Specifying, Implementing - a tentative phase in which choices are narrowed but not finalized; "trying it out" through classes, work experience, hobbies; The crystallization of traits occurs when there is progress toward forming a stable self-concept.
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2. Environmental conditions and events - cultural, social, political, and economic forces beyond our control
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2. Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8) - Self-concept is influenced by gender development. Begin to assign job roles to certain sexes.
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3- EGO IDENTITY (Central to his theory) - personal meanings, values, and relationships that are the foundation for broader integration with society.
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3- IMPLEMENTATION (21 - 24) - completing training and entering career
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3. ESTABLISHMENT (25-44)- Stabilizing, Consolidating, Advancing - characterized by trail and stabilization through work experiences
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3. PERSONAL GOALS- Seen as playing a primary role in behavior. A goal is defined as the decisions to begin a particular activity or future plan. Behavior is organized or sustained based on these previously set goals
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4) CONGRUENCE- Concerned with relationship between an individual's personality type and the work environment. Congruence between the 2 leads to job satisfaction.
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4- STABILIZATION (24 -35) - confirming career choice, feeling of security
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4. MAINTENANCE (45-64)- Holding, Updating, Innovating - characterized by a continual adjustment process to improve working position and situation.
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4. Orientation to the internal unique self (ages 14+) - Introspective thinking promotes greater self-awareness and perceptions of others. Individual achieves greater perception of vocational aspirations in the context of self, sex role, and social class. Until this point circumscription has been mainly an unconscious process.
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4. Task approach skills (e.g., self-observation, goal setting and information seeking).
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5- CONSOLIDATION (35+) - period of establishment, advancement, status, and seniority.
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5. DISENGAGEMENT (65+)- Decelerating, Retirement Planning, Retirement Living - characterized by preretirement considerations, reduced work output, and eventual retirement.
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A MINICYCLE is a process of going through the same stages; however this occurs stage to stage. Therefore, a person would probably conduct a minimum of 6 minicycles during a maxicycle.
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ANALYSIS (problem is reduced into components)- identifying and placing problems in a conceptual framework; Understanding Myself and My Options; what are reasons for my gap?
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ARTISTIC - creative ability; uses intuition and imagination for problem solving; musician, artist, interior decorator, write, industrial designer
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After circumscription has excluded options outside a perceived social and personal space, the next process is one of COMPROMISE. In this stage, individuals may be inclined to sacrifice roles they see as more compatible with their self-concept in favor of those that are perceived to be more easily accessible. Individuals give up interests, prestige, and sex type when forced to compromise.
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Although both may be present in each session, it is likely to encounter a change from primary tension to secondary tension in the Transition Stage.
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Anne Roe postulated that overprotective parents teach children to place emphasis on the speed at which needs are met.
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Based on psychometric methods that could be measured.
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Behavior MODIFICATION strategies are based heavily on INSTRUMENTAL conditioning (i.e., B. F. Skinner with the 'i'), while behavior THERAPY emphasizes CLASSICAL conditioning (Pavlov).
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CAREER COUNSELING - a therapeutic service for adults performed outside an educational setting
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CAREER DEVELOPMENT - Implementation of an integrated series of career decisions over the life span.
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CAREER DEVELOPMENT - the total constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, and chance factors that combine to influence the nature and significance of work in the total life span of any given individual.
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CAREER GUIDANCE - developmental and educational process within a schools system
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CENTRAL TENDENCY BIAS - when a rater rates almost everybody in the average range
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COERCIVE POWER - dispensing punishment or sanction to those who don't comply with the group's norms and standards. Used to bring out in the open a conflict to be resolved.
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COGNITIVE MAPS OF OCCUPATIONS - These constitute how adolescents and adults distinguish occupations into major dimensions, specifically, masculinity/femininity, occupational prestige level, and field of work.
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COMMITMENT - an emotional attachment to the work role
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CONVENTIONAL - systematic and practical worker, good at following plan and attending to detail; banker, secretary, accountant
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Career counselors should use cognitive reconstructuring, reframing, role playing, desensitization with phobias, and paradoxical intention.
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Clients need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume that occupations will remain stable. Clients need to expand their capabilities and interests, not base decisions on existing characteristics only.
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College Entrance Examination Board (also known as Educational Testing Services [ETS]) scores range from 200 to 800 with a mean of 500.
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Concludes with return to Communication phase. Was gap removed successfully? Yes - Move on to successive problems; No - Recycle
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Counselors who work as consultants generally do not adhere to one single theory.
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DECISION MAKING - transform the choice into action
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Dislocated Worker - a person who is unemployed due to downsizing, a company relocation, or the fact that the company closed the business
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Displaced Homemaker - women who enter or reenter the workforce after being at home. This often occurs after a divorce or death of partner.
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During the working stage the group functions very well on its own and the leader becomes less active or directive.
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ENTERPRISING - leadership, speaking and negotiating abilities; likes leading others towards the achievement of a goal; salesperson, tv producer, manager, lawyer
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EXECUTION (problem solutions are accomplished by formulating strategies - taking action to narrow the gap) Implementing My Choice
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EXPECTANCY (what am I capable of doing?)
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EXPERT POWER- member has expertise or ability that group relies on; looked upon as a very trustworthy person
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Early childhood experiences and parental style affect the needs hierarchy and the relationship of those needs to adult lifestyle.
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Frankl felt that suffering would be transformed into achievement and creativity.
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GIS (Guidance Information System) - developed by Tiedeman and is used exclusively today.
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GOE (The Guide of Occupational Exploration) - Published by US Department Of Labor - Helps persons "explore" jobs that are slanted toward a given "interest' area. The 12 interest areas include: Artistic, Scientific, Plants and Animals, Protective, Mechanical, Industrial, Business detail, Selling, Accommodating, Humanitarian, Leading-influencing, and Physical-performing.
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Gelatt's decision-making model is prescriptive (describes ideal approaches to decision making). The model exerts that all decisions have similar qualities in that a choice, which has 2 or more possible courses of action, must be made and an individual must rationally analyze information accurately to predict the outcome of their choice.
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Gestalt can imply that the integrated whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
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Group process is the study of stages in a group. All group go through 3 stages regardless of the type of group or style of leadership. The three stages are: Beginning Stage, Middle or Working Stage, and Ending or Closing Stage.
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HALO EFFECT - a supervisor generalizing about an employee based on a single characteristic
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However, psychotherapy groups in an inpatient setting focus more on individual concerns. The aggressive construction worker and the aforementioned personality types would be good choices for psychotherapy groups.
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However, these are also influenced by contextual factors (e.g. job opportunities, access to training opportunities, financial resources).
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IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT - the status in which the adolescent has gone through an identity crisis and has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e., certain role or value) that he or she has chosen
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IDENTITY FORCLOSURE - the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e. g., allowing a parent to determine a career direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options.
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IDENTITY MORATORIUM- the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not made a commitment to these choices yet.
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IMAGES OF OCCUPATIONS - Refer to occupational stereotypes that include personalities of people in different occupations, the work that is done, and the appropriateness of that work for different types of people.
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INDECISIVE CLIENT - one who has a high level of anxiety accompanied by dysfunctional thinking. They lack self confidence, tolerance for ambiguity, and a sense of identity.
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INFORMATIONAL POWER - member has knowledge to accomplish a goal or task.
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INSTRUMENTALITY (will management come through with promised rewards?)
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INVESTIGATIVE - analytical and precise; good with detail; prefers to work with ideas; enjoys problem solving and research; chemist, geologist, biologist, researcher
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In CIP terms, CAREER IDENTITY is defined as the level of development of self-knowledge memory structures. Career identity is a function of the complexity, integration, and stability of the schemata constituting the self-knowledge domain.
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In CIP terms, CAREER MATURITY is defined as the ability to make independent and responsible career decisions based on the thoughtful integration of the best information available about oneself and the occupational world.
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In PREDICTION, standardized test data are used to predict a client's success in various areas, such as academic and career behaviors. DISCRIMINATION involves using tests and inventories to help the client learn what occupational and/or academic groups he/she resembles in terms of interests, values, personality traits, etc. MONITORING data are used to identify a client's level of career maturity (i.e., readiness to make a career choice). EVALUATION entails using tests to determine the effectiveness of an intervention (e.g., whether and to what extent intervention goals are being achieved).
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In SCCT, career interests are regulated by self-efficacy and an outcome expectation, which means people, will form lasting interests in activities when they experience personal competency and positive outcomes. On the contrary, a belief of low personal competency will lead people to avoid activities. Perceived barriers such as those related to gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, or family constraints may create negative outcome expectations, even when people have had previous success in the given area.
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In essence, a person inputs (e.g. gender, race) interact with contextual factors (e.g. culture, family geography) and learning experiences to influence self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations.
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In recent revisions of her theory, Gottfredson's (2002, 2005) elaborated on the dynamic interplay between genetic makeup and the environment. Genetic characteristics play a crucial role in shaping the basic characteristics of a person, such as interests, skills, and values, yet their expression is moderated by the environment that one is exposed to. Even though genetic makeup and environment play a crucial role in shaping the person, Gottfredson maintained that the person is still an active agent who could influence or mould their own environment. Hence, career development is viewed as a self-creation process in which individuals looked for avenues or niches to express their genetic proclivities within the boundaries of their own cultural environment.
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Individuals implement their self concepts into career as a means of self-expression. The self concept developmental process is multidimensional. Both internal factors (aptitudes, values, personality) and external situational conditions (contextual interactions) are major determinants or self concept development.
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Know thyself.
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Krumboltz uses Bandura's social learning theory and lists four factors that influence career choice: Genetic endowment and special abilities, Environmental conditions and events, Learning experiences, and Task-approach skills.
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LEGITIMATE POWER- legitimate base of social power; belief that it's ones duty to follow the leader's directions (i.e. teachers, law enforcement, supervisors)
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LIFESTYLE - Integration of decisions in the areas of career, personal, and family relationships, spirituality, and leisure that result in a guiding purpose, meaning, and direction in life
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LIFESTYLE - the overall balance of work, leisure, family, and social activities. AKA avocational.
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Modifying faulty self efficacy and outcome expectations can help individuals acquire new successful experiences and open their eyes to new career occupations
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Most counselors see themselves as practitioners, not researchers.
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NCE - Group
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Noted that job satisfaction is determined by the extent to which a person's perceived needs are meet
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OOH (The Occupational Outlook Handbook) - is also developed by the US Dept. of Labor - it describes 250 occupations, describes the nature of work, conditions, opportunities, education and training requirements, advancement potential, job outlook, salary, and related occupations. Easiest to understand.
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OOH (the Occupational Outlook Handbook) and DOT (the Dictionary of Occupational Titles) provide information about specific occupations and are available in book and computerized form.
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One observes work environments from several perspectives, including work requirements, personal-environment-fit, and potential reinforcers of one's personal needs.
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One should consider a number of occupations rather than just focus on one specific occupation.
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Original theory posits that warm and accepting parents created people who enjoy working with people but has since suggested that more important factors are involved in determine career choice.
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PARTICIPATION - spending time and energy in a work role
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PREDICTION and DISCRIMINATION are relevant to the content of a client's career choice, MONITORING is relevant to the process of a client's career choice.
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PROBLEM SOLVING - choosing how to remove the gap
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Power: Leadership
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RECENCY EFFECT - when a rater's judgment of an employee reflects primarily his or her most recent performance (rather than the entire rating period)
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REWARD POWER- refers to a person's ability to influence another through control of valued rewards and resources.
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SELF-KNOWLEDGE in terms of understanding the level and depth of one's traits and characteristics is an essential element for evaluating career information: Traits of aptitude, interests, and personality types are projected into potential work environments to find CONGRUENCE and fit.
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SIGI (System of Interactive Guidance and Information) - primarily used for college students that helps the user assess interests, values and abilities, and explore occupational alternatives.
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SOCIAL SPACE - The zone of acceptable alternatives in each person's cognitive map of occupations, or each person's view of where they fit or want to fit in society. Career decision should center around "territories" instead of specific jobs.
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SPILLOVER THEORY - by contrast, proposes that what people do at their job "spills over" to their leisure time. For example, a salesperson may choose leisure activities that involve interaction with other people.
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SYNTHESIS (problem is restructured by creating likely alternatives) Expanding and Narrowing My List of Options; formulating courses of action; elaboration (brainstorming); crystallization is used to narrow down to 3-5 options
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Self-concepts contain both objective and subjective elements.
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Self-concepts continue to develop over time, making career choices and adjusting to them lifelong tasks.
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Self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations in turn shape people's interests, goals, actions, and eventually their attainments.
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Service, Business, Contact, Organizations, Technology, Outdoor, Science, General Culture, and Arts & Entertainment
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Stage 2 (1920-1939) - marked by the growth of educational guidance in elementary and secondary schools; Great Depression (1930s)
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Stage 3 (1940-1959) - was a time of significant growth of guidance needs in colleges and universities and in the training of counselors; World War II (1939-1945)
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Stage 5 (1980-1989) - was a period of significant transitions brought on by information technology and the beginning of career counseling private practice and outplacement services.
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Stage 6 (1990-present) - viewed as a time of changing demographics, the beginning of multicultural counseling, continued development of technology, and a focus on school-to-work transitions.
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Step 2: Obtaining Knowledge about the World of Work- occupational requirements, conditions of success, compensations, working conditions
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Step 3: Decision Making - TRUE REASONING of above 2 - Match the person (traits) with the career (factors).
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Structured techniques are less effective than unstructured ones.
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Structured techniques can foster dependency upon the leader.
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Structured techniques can generate early cohesiveness.
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Surveys should include at least 100 people.
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Sympathy often implies pity, while accurate empathy is the ability to experience another person's subjective experience.
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The 8 occupational "fields" include:
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The APA's Journal of Psychology publishes more counseling research articles than any other periodical in the field.
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The Archway Model clarifies how biological, psychological, and sociological determinants influence career development, and, reveals diverse life roles over an individual's life span.
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The avoidant style produces children who do not know how to meet one's own needs. The accepting parent helps a child develop strategies for meeting one's own needs.
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The benefit of standard scores such as percentiles, t-scores, z-scores,stanines, or standard deviations over raw scores, is that a standard score allows you to analyze the data in relation to the properties of the normal bell shaped curve.*
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The goal of career counseling is to provide the conditions of learning that facilitate the growth of memory structures and cognitive skills so as to improve the client's capacity for processing information.
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The major strategy of career intervention is to provide learning events that will develop the individual's information-processing abilities. The ultimate aim of career counseling is to enhance the client's capabilities as a career problem solver and a decision maker.
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The most important concept in Freud's theory is the unconscious mind.
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This model emphasizes that career information counseling is a learning event. However, CIP theory places the role of cognition as the mediating force that leads individuals to greater power and control in determining their own destinies.
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UNDECIDED CLIENT - have not made a career decision but might not view their current status as a problem. They prefer to delay making a commitment. They are uninformed, immature person who generally lacks self-knowledge, information about occupations, or both.
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VALANCE (rewards such as money, promotion, or satisfaction)
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VALUE EXPECTATION - the satisfaction gained from the vocational decisions and actions one makes throughout the course of one's lifespan.
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Values inventories measure broader aspects of lifestyle.
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Vocational maturity is acquired through successfully accomplishing developmental tasks within a continuous series of life stages.
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WORK - an activity that produces something of value for oneself or others.
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NCE - Group
... Although all groups are unique, certain traits are typical of most groups. In the beginning stages of therapy, group members haven't yet started to relate to one another or to form social relationships and, therefore, they typically communicate only with the therapist, as if other group members aren't present. During this initial stage, the therapist should be prepared to play an active role.
NCE - Group
... It is a dysfunctional group norm to focus on the past or issues not relevant to the group purpose. Immediate events take precedence over the past, although the group doesn't have to focus exclusively on the here-and-now. Some accounts of past incidents are important and relevant.
NCE - Group
... T-groups help people develop human relationship skills in organizational settings by examining group process rather than personal growth.
A study that would best rule out chance factors would have a significance level of P=___.
.001 The smaller the value for P, the more stringent the level of significance.
The most effective time interval (temporal relation) between the CS and the US is ____.
.5 seconds
Carkhuff's 'scale for measurement' levels for counseling skills
1 - not attending 2 - subtracts noticeable affect from communication 3 - feelings expressed are interchangeable with client's meaning 4 - Counselor adds to client's affect 5 - Counselor adds to client's feelings, meanings
Major Points:
1) Career development is a life long process and self-concept is constantly being shaped 2) Career pattern is determined by parent's socioeconomic level, mental ability, personality, and opportunities 3) Work / life satisfaction is depended upon extent of adequate outlets for abilities, interests, personality, and values 4) Super / Kidd suggested that "career adaptability" depends on a person's ability to face, pursue, or accept career change.
Five Critical Client Skills:
1) Curiosity- explore learning opportunities 2) Persistence- way of dealing with obstacles 3) Flexibility- adapting and adjusting to various circumstances 4) Optimism- positive attitude when pursuing new opportunities 5) Risk-taking- necessary during unexpected events
TENTATIVE Period (ages 11-17)
1) Interest Stage - career decisions are based on likes and dislikes 2) Capacity Stage - individuals are able to assess and consider their capabilities in relation to career aspirations 3) Value Stage - personal goals and values are incorporated into the decision-making process 4) Transition Stage - availability, demand, and benefits of certain careers are taken into account
Work adjustments usually follow one of two modes:
1- ACTIVE Mode: attempts to change the work environment 2- REACTIVE Mode: attempts to make changes in themselves
Anticipating a Choice (process of making career choice)
1- EXPLORATION: try out new behaviors and fantsize about careers 2- CRYSTALLIZATION: evaluate advantages and disadvantages about possible alternatives, which leads to vocational clarification 3- CHOICE: a choice is made and they may feel confident or unsure about the decision 4- SPECIFICATION: reassess their decision and clarify options
Asserts that information can be organized into 3 systems:
1- PREDICTIVE SYSTEM- concerned with probable alternatives, actions, and possibilities 2- VALUE SYSTEM - concerned with one's relative preferences, likes, and dislikes regarding the outcomes 3- DECISION SYSTEM - provides rules and criteria for evaluating the outcome
Decision-making process consists of:
1- Recognizing that a decision needs to be made 2- Collecting data and surveying possible courses of action 3- Determining possible outcomes and applying a prediction and value system to analyze possible outcomes 4- Making a choice, which could be terminal (final decision) or investigatory (call for additional information).
Power of a statistical test
1- beta (Power connotes a statistical test's ability to correctly reject a false null hypothesis.)
Developmental Theories
> Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations (1980s) Genetically distinct individuals create different environments and each individual's genetic uniqueness shapes their experiences. She suggests both GENES and ENVIRONMENT drive human experiences which in turn consolidate individual traits.
Abreaction
similar to catharsis in that emotions are purged, but when the emotional outburst is very powerful and/or violent.
Gould's (1978) six stages of adult development?
1. Leaving the Parent's World (16-22) 2. Getting into the adult world (22-28) 3. Questioning and Reexamination (28-34) 4. Midlife Decade (35-45) 5. Reconciliation and Mellowing (43-50) 6.Stability and Acceptance (50 and over)
Developmental Theories
> Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations (1980s) SELF-CONCEPT - One's view of self that has many elements, such as one's appearance, abilities, personality, gender, values, and place in society. If core elements of self-concept conflict with an occupation, the occupation is rejected.
The peak period of competition between therapies was during the late
1960s
Forces of psychology
1st - psychoanalysis 2nd - behaviorism 3rd - humanism 4th - multiculturalism
1) Exploration Stage - individual narrows career choice to 2 or 3 possibilities but is generally in a stage of ambivalence.
2) Crystallization Stage - commitment to a specific career field is made; change of direction in this stage is called pseudocrystallization 3) Specification Stage - individual selects a job or professional training for a career
If a distribution is bimodal, there is a good chance that the researcher is working with ____ distinct ______.
2, populations.
Trait-Oriented Theories
> RIASEC descriptions RIA REALISTIC - has practical abilities and would prefer to work with machine or tools rather than people; mechanic, farmer, builder, pilot
Trait-Oriented Theories
> RIASEC descriptions SEC SOCIAL - good social skills, friendly and enjoys involvement with people and working in teams; nurse, teacher, social worker, counselor
Developmental Theories
> Super's 5 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS 1- CRYSTALLIZATION (14-18) - forming a preferred career plan and how to implement it
Denial (aka suppression)
similar to repression except that it is a conscious act.
Z-scores (aka standard scores) are the same as standard deviations, thus a Z-score of -2.5 means
2.5 SD below the mean
Developmental Theories
> Super's 5 LIFE STAGES and 3 Substages 1. GROWTH (birth-14) - Curiosity, Fantasy, Interest - development of capacity, attitudes, interests, and needs associated with self concepts.
Developmental Theories
> Super's 6 Dimensions For Adolescents (Career Maturity) Super's (1974) 6 Dimensions For Adolescents (Career Maturity):
Developmental Theories
> Super's Life Rainbow > Super's Archway Model The Life Rainbow is a two dimensional scheme of life stages that includes the Longitudinal: a maxi cycle life span with mini cycle stages and the Latitudinal: life space roles throughout life.
Developmental Theories
> Super's Life Roles People tend to play some or all of nine major roles:
Developmental Theories
> Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations > 4 Stages (3-4) 3. Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13) - Development of concepts of social class contributes to the awareness of self-in-situation. Preferences for level of work develop. They will begin to designate some jobs as unacceptable because they fall below a minimum status level (tolerable level boundary) and some higher status jobs as unacceptable because they represent too much effort or risk of failure (tolerable effort boundary).
Adjusting to the Choice (implementing the decision)
5- INDUCTION: implementation of career choice 6- REFORMATION: adjust to new situations and people 7- INTEGRATION: occurs as individuals become comfortable and familiar with the new environment
Developmental Theories
> Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations (1980s) CIRCUMSCRIPTION - Ruling out unacceptable options based on their perceived fit with ones' developing self-concept. Process by which an individual narrows their territory when making a decision about social space or acceptable alternatives. Ideas about gender and prestige influence and limit career choices.
Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
> 10 Assumptions 1. Career choice results from an interaction of cognitive and affective processes 2. Making career choices is a problem-solving activity 3. The capabilities of career problem solvers depend on the ability of cognitive operations as well as knowledge. 4. Career problem solving is a high-memory-load task 5. Motivation 6. Career development involves continual growth and change in knowledge structures. 7. Career identity depends on self-knowledge. 8. Career maturity depends on one's ability to solve career problems 9. The ultimate goal of career counseling is achieved by facilitating the growth of information-processing skills. 10. The ultimate aim of career counseling is to enhance the client's capabilities as a career problem solver and a decision maker.
Development of Career Counseling
> 6 Stages (1-3) Stage 1 (1890-1919) - began the growth of placement services in urban areas to meet the needs of the growing Industrial organizations; Industrial Revolution, World War I (1914-1918)
Development of Career Counseling
> 6 Stages (4-6) Stage 4 (1960-1979) - highlighted by organizational career development. The nature of work become more appropriately viewed as a very pervasive life role; Vietnam War (1960-1975)
OTHER THEORIES
> Ann Roe's Need Theory / Personality Approach (1956) > Gelatt's Decision-Making Model (1962)
Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
> CASVE Cycle (Decision Skills Domain) COMMUNICATION (identifying a need - problems perceived as a gap) -receiving, encoding, and sending out queries; Knowing I need to make a choice
Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
> CASVE Cycle (Decision Skills Domain) VALUING (problem solutions are evaluated by prioritizing alternatives) judging each action as to its likelihood of success and failure and its impact on the individual, others, and society; Choosing An Occupation, Program, or Job
Computer Programs
> CIDS, SIGI CIDS (The Career Information Delivery System) - developed by the Univ. of Oregon, helps career counselors manage clerical and administrative tasks, exploration, interpretation, awareness of various careers and the decision making process.
Developmental Theories
> Career Pattern CAREER PATTERN is determined by the parent's SES, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics, and career maturity. A career pattern is established when a person combines their life roles which are comprised of a lifestyle, life space, and life cycle.
Effects
> Compensatory Effect, Spillover Theory, Recency Effect COMPENSATORY EFFECT - proposes that in their leisure time people compensate for what they do during their work hours. For example, an accountant would compensate for a conservative, structured work environment by participating in a daring leisure activity like skydiving.
Computer Programs
> DISCOVER II, GIS, OOH DISCOVER II - primarily used for high school and utilizes Super's concepts, Tiedeman's decision model, Holland categories, and DOT information
DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
> Ginzberg & Associates (1951) > Life-Span, Life-Space Theory (1957) > Tiedeman & O'Hara Decision-Making Model (1963) > Theory of Circumscription & Compromise (1980s)
Developmental Theories
> Ginzberg and Associates (1951) FANTASY Period (around age 11) - Play gradually becomes work oriented and reflects initial preferences for certain kinds of activities. Occupational preference reflects identification with role of an adult they know.
Developmental Theories
> Ginzberg and Associates (1951) REALISTIC Period (ages 17 -21)
Developmental Theories
> Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations > 4 Stages (1-2) 4 Stages of Cognitive Development / Stages of Circumscription
Occupation
A group of jobs so similar in nature that a person successful in one could move to another without difficulty
Developmental Theories
> Gottfredson's Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations (1980s) The theory assumes that we build a COGNITIVE MAP of occupations by picking up OCCUPATIONAL STEREOTYPES from those around us. Occupations are placed on this map using only a small number of dimensions: SEX-TYPE, PRESTIGE LEVEL, & FIELD OF WORK. As young people build this map, they begin to decide which occupations are acceptable and which are unacceptable — those which fit with their own developing SELF-CONCEPT and those which do not.
Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC)
> Happenstance Approach (Krumboltz) Clients are to learn to deal with unplanned events, especially in the give-and-take of the life the 21st century workforce.
Trait-Oriented Theories
> John Holland's Typology - Career Choice is an expression of, or an extension of personality into the world of work. Individuals search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. Their are six kinds of occupational environments and six matching personal orientations.
Trait-Oriented Theories
> John Holland's Typology - Holland stressed the importance of SELF-KNOWLEDGE in the search for vocational satisfaction.
Trait-Oriented Theories
> John Holland's Typology 3) IDENTITY - Describes individuals who identify with their work environment and have a clear and stable picture of their goals, interests, and talents. Client who have many occupational goals have low identity.
Trait-Oriented Theories
> John Holland's Typology Holland's hexagonal model has 5 key concepts:
Trait-Oriented Theories
> John Holland's Typology Instruments that use Holland's Classifications include: Kuder Preference Record, Strong Interest Inventory (SII), Self-directed Search (SDS), Career Aptitude Placement Survey (CAPS), and Career Occupational Preference Survey (COPS).
Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC)
> John Krumboltz The 4 main factors that influence career choice:
Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC)
> John Krumboltz (1990) Tenets: Each individual's unique learning experiences over the life span develop primary influences that lead to career choice. Development involves genetic endowments and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task approach skills.
SOCIAL LEARNING & COGNITIVE THEORIES
> Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC) (1990) > Cognitive Information Process (CIP) (1996) > Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (1996)
Effects
> Leniency/Strictness Effect, Central Tendency Bias, Halo Effect LENIENCY/STRICTNESS EFFECT - occurs when a rater tends to give employees very high/lenient or very low/strict rating while avoiding the middle/average range.
Developmental Theories
> Life-Span Life-Space (Super) > CAREER MATURITY Super & Crite's term for successful completion of the appropriate life tasks for the stage that society presents to the person. A person is capable of maturity at each stage of the maxicycle.
Ann Roe (1956)
> Needs Theory A job satisfies an UNCONSCIOUS NEED.
Ann Roe (1956)
> Needs Theory Ann Roe's theory is the most deterministic approach. Roe believed that the type of parenting one receives influences the career choice of child - innate tendencies and expression of needs. Career choices gratify one's needs. Children whose parents provide a warm, accepting, and protected environment choose person-oriented occupations. Children whose parents were cold or rejecting choose technical or scientific careers. "An appropriate and satisfying vocation can be the bulwark against neurotic ills or a refuse from them. An inappropriate vocation can be sharply deleterious."
Ann Roe (1956)
> Needs Theory Anne Roe was the first career specialist to develop a two-dimensional system of occupational classification that utilizes FIELDS and LEVELS.
Trait-and-Factor Theory
> Parsons' True Reasoning 3 Step Model Step 1: Assessment of Self - gaining clear understanding of your aptitudes, abilities, resources, and limitations.
Trait-Oriented Theories
> Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC) - OCCUPATIONAL REINFORCERS (achievement, advancement, authority, coworkers, activity, security, social service) are vital to an individual's work adjustment.
Trait-Oriented Theories
> Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC) - The process of achieving and maintaining correspondence with a work environment is referred to as WORK ADJUSTMENT. The principle indicator of work adjustment is TENURE.
Trait-Oriented Theories
> Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC) - Used to be referred to as Theory of Work Adjustment
Trait-Oriented Theories
> Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC) Environmental Structure: characteristic abilities and values of individuals who inhabit the work environment. Basic assumption is that clients who have abilities and values similar to individuals already on the job will make it less difficult for an individual to adjust to a work environment. This is example of MATCHING.
Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
> Problem, Problem Solving, Decision Making, Career Development, Lifestyle PROBLEM - a gap between the existing and the ideal; gap between indecision and decidedness
Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
> Pyramid of Information-Processing Domains (Base & Middle) (Base) KNOWLEDGE DOMAINS > "Knowing about myself and knowing about my options" > Self-Knowledge (one's interests, abilities, values) > Occupational Knowledge
Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
> Pyramid of Information-Processing Domains (Top) (Top) EXECUTIVE PROCESSING DOMAIN > "Thinking about my decision making." > Meta-Cognitions (skills initiating, coordinating, storing, and retrieving information. Used in problem solving: a) Self-Talk (creates expectations and reinforces behavior; alters task approach skills; positive required for effective problem solving) b) Self-Awareness (balance between individual goals and the goals of important others c) Control (ability to control impulsive actions in the career decision process; know when to move to next phase in CASVE cycle).
Developmental Theories
> Super's Maxicycle & Minicycle The process of change is a MAXICYCLE. Any life-career stage depends on Readiness to cope. A MAXICYCLE is the progression through stages of one's lifetime (birth, growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, decline, and death).
Developmental Theories
> Super's SELF-CONCEPT Career decisions reflect our attempts at translating our self-understanding into career terms.
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (1996)
> The Big 3 (1) The personal determinants (Big 3) of career development have been conceptualized as:
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (1996)
> The Big 3 (2-3) 2. OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS- Imagined consequences of engaging in particular behaviors - Beliefs about: Extrinsic reinforcement (tangible rewards) Intrinsic reinforcement (pride in achievement) Outcomes derived from task process (absorption) Values, defined as preferences for particular reinforcers or work conditions (money, status, autonomy, etc.) are incorporated into outcome expectations. That is, we expect to receive these things when we engage in certain activities.
Developmental Theories
> Tiedeman and O'Hara's Developmental Model Tiedeman and O'Hara's developmental model parallels Erikson's stages. A lifetime of decision-making abilities and self-awareness is of major importance in choosing one's career. Their 3 concepts included:
Trait-Oriented Theories
> Trait-and-Factor Theory Overview - Frank Parsons (1909) & E.G. Williamson (1939)
Trait-Oriented Theories
> Trait-and-Factor Theory Overview - Primary goal of using assessment data was to predict job satisfaction and success.
Trait-and-Factor Theory
> Williamson's 6 Stages of Career Guidance 1. ANALYSIS: data gathering attitudes, interests, ect. 2. SYNTHESIS: strengths & weaknesses 3. DIAGNOSIS: I.D. the problem; discover its causes; 4 categories for diagnosing: No Choice, Uncertain Choice, Discrepancy between interest and aptitudes/abilities and field, Unwise Choice 4. PROGNOSIS: how successful will the client be? 5. COUNSELING: if poor prognosis, client should receive additional counseling, which is likely to involve a recycling through the previous steps 6. FOLLOW-UP: was course of action correct?
(Middle) DECISION SKILLS DOMAIN
>"Knowing how I make decisions" > General information processing skills (CASVE)
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
>>Lent, Brown, & Hackett (1996)
Developmental Theories
>Life-Span Life-Space (Donald Super; 1957) A major point of Super's theory is that work / life satisfaction is depended upon the extent of adequate outlets for abilities, interests, personality, and values.
Developmental Theories
>Life-Span Life-Space (Donald Super; 1957) Tenets: One chooses an occupation that best expresses one's vocational SELF-CONCEPT. Self-knowledge is key to career choice and job satisfaction.
Descriptive Statistics
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ABA model of research (also known as 'withdrawal design')
A - baseline secured B - intervention implemented A - outcome is examined via a new baseline
Kleinfelter's Syndrome
A 16 year old boy, who is a client of yours, shows no masculinity at puberty. What is the name of this syndrome?
Hunch
A Hunch the experimental or alternative hypothesis.
Quasi-experiment
A Quasi-experiment uses PRE-EXISTING groups, so the independent variable (IV) cannot be altered (i.e. gender or ethnicity), & cannot state with any statistical confidence that the IV caused the dependent variable (DV).
NCE - Group
A client receiving verbal feedback from her peers in a Gestalt therapy group is generally said to be experiencing: The Hot Seat
Histogram
A distribution with class intervals graphically displayed on a bar graph.
Physical Addiction
A drug produced condition characterized by both tolerance and dependence
Turner's Syndrome
A female client of yours has no gonads or sex hormones. What do you think is the problem with her?
Mesomorphy
A friend of yours has a good, developed, stocky, muscular body. How would you describe this body type?
Ectomorphy
A friend of yours has a long, stringy, skinny body. How would you categorize this body type?
Endomorphy
A friend of yours has a round, plump, soft, heavy body having a heavy trunk. How would you describe this body type?
Alogia
A friend of yours, who is suffering from some mental disorder, has diminished thinking ability. What is he suffering from?
Incorporating a biosocial developmental approach, her theory describes how people become attracted to certain occupations. Self-concept in vocational development is a key factor to career selection because people want jobs that are compatible with their self-images.
A key factor in career decision is self-concept that is determined by one's social class, level of intelligence, and experiences with sex-typing. Individual development progresses through 4 stages.
Variance
A measure of dispersion of scores around some measure of central tendency; it is also the standard deviation squared.
Counter-Conditioning
A negative conditioned stimulus is paired with a pleasant stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with the unwanted conditioned response
Correlations range from 0.00 (no relationship) to 1.0 or -1.0 (perfect relationship).
A positive relationship is not stronger than a negative relationship of the same numerical value. (i.e., .70 and -.70 are the same significance)
Correlation coefficient
A statistic that indicates the degree or magnitude of relationship between two variables, often abbreviated using the lower-case 'r'. (Makes a statement regarding the association of two variables and how a change in one is related to the change in the other.)
Proxemics
A student of yours asks about the research of territorial or personal space. How do you name that research for her?
t test
A t-test is used to determine whether two sample groups are significantly different, simple form of the ANOVA, for comparing 2 sample groups (for "two-groups" or "two-randomized groups" research design)
Nondirectional experimental hypothesis
A two-tailed test (i.e., 'The average patient who has completed psychoanalysis will have a statistically different IQ from the average patient who has not received analysis.')
A 1-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used for testing ONE IV.
A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to test TWO IVs. (Two IVs requires a two-way ANOVA, 3 IVs requires a 3-way ANOVA, etc.)
If t value is less than the t value in a statistical table
ACCEPT the null hypothesis (computations must exceed the number cited in the table in order to reject null)
One's life is accepted and one realizes that some things can't be changed
According to Gould, what are the characteristics of life development at 43-53 years of age?
Resolution phase
According to Master's and Johnson, what is the stage of sexual response where there is a decrease of sexual tension as the person returns to the unstimulated state?
The adjustment to pregnancy and new responsibilities
According to Rossi, there are 4 stages of parental development. What is the anticipatory stage?
The child leaving home
According to Rossi, there are 4 stages of parental development. What is the disengagement stage?
State of Mind
According to cognitive theorists, what is the process which involves an element of self-consciousness that develops when new or next stage tasks are attempted?
NCE - Group
According to research on organizational behavior, which of the following is the best method for lessening the tendency for group members to think alike: A- assign a clear decisive leader B- suggest that group members write down anonymous suggestions rather than discuss them out loud C- separate the group into two or three smaller groups D- ensure that the most vocal group members delay their decisions until later in the decision making process - RATIONALE - D. The question describes the phenomenon of groupthink in which group members think alike. The most vocal group members tend to be leaders and their opinions are often mirrored by the followers. By delaying their decisions, they allow different opinions to emerge. The assignment of a leader (A) is not necessary - usually, leaders will emerge.
Stroking
According to the principles of TA, what is defined as any recognition, whether positive, negative, conditional or unconditional
Maintenance Structure Technique
Act of the therapist focusing or highlighting certain behaviors in order to increase the functional aspects of the family structure
Social connectedness
Adler's term for a belief that people wish to 'belong'. (suggests we need one another)
Lifestyle, birth order, and family constellation are emphasized by _____.
Alfred Adler (Adlerians believe lifestyle is predictable self-fulfilling prophecy based on psychological feelings about self)
Another name for 'Type I error'
Alpha error
Confederate (also known as 'stooge')
An accomplice who poses as a client being studied. (Frequently used in social psychology studies.)
Values Inventory
An assessment of the person's work ethics.
unconditioned (unlearned) response
An association that naturally exists 9 (i.e., salivating when food is around)
An experiment is confounded when
An experiment is confounded when undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.
Columbia Mental Maturity Scale
An individually administered mental ability test for children that requires minimal verbal response
Major goals:
Find methods of defining specific mediators from which learning experiences shape and influence career behavior. Explain how variables (interest, abilities, values) interrelate and influence career outcomes
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
Bandura's Triadic Reciprocal Model of Causality - these factors are all affecting each other simultaneously: • personal attributes • external environmental factors • overt behavior
Basic Research
Basic Research is conducted to advance our understanding of theory.
Platykurtic distribution
Flatter and more spread out than a normal curve. (Memory: 'Plat' sounds like 'flat')
Ahistoric therapy
Any psychotherapeutic model that focuses on the here-and-now rather than the past.
Applied Research
Applied Research, (aka 'action research' or experience-near research) is conducted to advance our knowledge of how theories, skills, and techniques can be used in terms of practical application.
Reasoning and Physical World
Assuming that Brain Lateralization Theory is correct, what function does the left hemisphere play?
Stage 3: Orientation to social valuation
Assuming there are 4 major developmental stages that have effects on occupational aspirations, how can the stage between the ages of 9-13 be defined?
Tiedeman & O'Hara: Theory of Career Decision Making (1963)
Assumption that one is responsible for one's own behavior because one has the capacity for choice and lives in a world which is not deterministic.
Iconic Mode
At what stage of cognitive development is a child If her knowledge is based heavily on images which stand for perceptual events (pictures stand for events).
Arnold Lazarus's concept of BASIC ID (multimodal approach)
B - behavior including acts, habits, reactions A - affective responses like emotions, mood S - sensations, hearing, touch I - images, the way we perceive C - cognitions, thoughts, insights I - interpersonal relationships D - drugs, alcohol, legal or illegal
A behavioral
B cognitive-behavioral C Gestalt D psychoanalysis - RATIONALE - Behavioral groups are more concerned with achieving a particular end goal or "product" - i.e., quitting smoking, becoming more extroverted, losing weight, dealing with anger, etc. Although such end results may be desirable for the other theories, those groups are more likely to be concerned with the impact of the therapy process itself.
Another name for 'Type II error'
Beta error
Between-Subjects Design
Between-Subjects Design is a research study uses different subjects for each condition. (Each subject receives only one value of the IV)
Two classes of constructive therapy are
Brief therapy - examines what worked in the past Narrative therapy - attempts to rewrite or 'reconstruct' stories
Career Terms
CAREER - the total work one does in a lifetime plus leisure.
Career Terms
CAREER INTERVENTION - any activity designed to enhance a person's career development or to enable that person to make more effective career decisions.
Robert Hoppock
COMPOSITE THEORY- Feels that to make an accurate career decision you must know your personal needs and then find an occupation that meets a high percentage of those needs. As your personal needs change you might need to secure a different occupation.
Pavlov's famous experiment: using dogs, the bell was the conditioned (learned) stimulus (CS), and the meat was the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS)
CS - conditioned stimulus UCS or US - unconditioned stimulus
Alfred Adler
Father of Individual Psychology
Career Salience
Career Salience refers to the significance an indivudal places on the role of career in relationship to other life roles. Career Salience involves 3 factors:
Every individual has potential. People have skills and talents that they develop through different life roles making them capable of a variety of tasks and numerous occupations.
Career development is life long
Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) (1996)
Career problem solving is primarily a cognitive process that can be improved through a sequential procedure known as CASVE, which includes generic processing skills. A GAP exists between the client's current situation and future career decision. Counselors are to seek out the problems and factors in this GAP.
Causal Comparative Design
Causal Comparative design is a true experiment WITHOUT random assignment. Data from the causal comparative ex post factor 'after the fact' design can be analyzed with a test of significance, t test or ANOVA, just like any true experiment.
Chi-Square
Chi-Square is used for 'Non-parametric' data i.g. cannot be plotted on a x y axis, statistical measure that tests whether a distribution differs significantly from an expected theoretical distribution of scores. (Memory: ''chi' like 'chi-a pet' that I expected more from)
Manageability to Change and Innovation
Clearly stated goals, objectives, and models of delivery make it easier to locate difficulties and find areas needing change.
Confounded or flawed variable
Confounded or flawed variable are undesirable variables that invalidate experiments. (The only experimental variable should be the independent variable.)
Confounding
Confounding occurs when an undesirable variable (also known as contaminating variable) which is not controlled by the researcher is introduced in the experiment.
NCE - Group
Corrective Recapitulation Yalom has identified several curative factors that operate in every type of therapy group. A group can serve as a microcosm of the family and allow members to work through past family problems in a more encouraging environment; Yalom refers to this process as corrective recapitulation of the primary family group.
Correlation is concerned with covariation.
Correlation does not imply causation!
What type of experiment is a correlational research, and what does it tell us about cause and effect?
Correlational research is a Quasi-experimental and does not yield cause-effect data.
Two types of developmental studies
Cross-sectional and longitudinal
EMDR
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (Francine Shapiro)
Sigmund Freud
Father of Psychoanalysis (originally worked with Adler, Jung, and Viennese neurologist [re: talking cure])
William Glasser
Father of Reality Therapy
Career Materials (DOT/O*NET, OOH, GOE)
DOT (Department of Occupational Titles) was replaced by O*NET- was developed by the US Dept. of Labor and utilizes a 9-digit classification system and lists 20,000 jobs.
NCE - Group
Depending upon the theoretical orientation of a group, the group meeting emphasis will vary, as will the goals of group members. Which of the following groups is most likely to focus on a specific goal to be attained: A T-group B behavioral group C existential group D Gestalt group - RATIONALE - Although all of the groups listed may have specific goals, the other groups are "process-oriented" groups, while behavioral groups are clearly "goal-oriented." Behavioral group therapy is similar to other types of behavioral therapy, in which the goal is to identify a target behavior and change it.
Alloplastic View
Development is the result of one's adapting to other people and objects. What is this view of cognitive development called?
The safest way to avoid Type I/Type II errors is to set alpha (significance level) at a very stringent level and use a large sample size for the study.
Differences revealed via large samples are more likely to be genuine than differences revealed using small sample size.
Directional Hypothesis
Directional Hypothesis is a one-tailed test, you assume that by manipulating the independent variable there will be one specific change in the dependent variable. You can predict if this change will be positive or negative. For example if you ask someone to say la la la la while trying to remember a list of words (the IV) you can assume that this will have a negative impact on their ability to recall the words (the DV).
Leptokurtic distribution
Distribution curve is very tall, thin and peaked. (Memory: Leptokurtic leaps tall buildings in a single bound.)
Stanine scores (contraction of 'standard' and 'nine')
Divides the distribution into 9 equal intervals with stanine 1 as the lowest 9th and 9 as the highest 9th - in this, 5 is the mean.
EAT (in terms of social power)
E - expertness A - attractiveness T - trustworthiness (by Stanley Strong in 1968)
ERIC
Education Resources Information Center (1.2 million + journal articles)
Trait-Oriented Theories
Emphasize how standardized tests are used and the importance of choosing appropriate testing tools. Human traits can be matched with certain work environments for a means of evaluating potential work sites. An individual's work needs can be compared with components of job satisfaction found in certain occupational environments.
A negative correlation
Evident wen the variables are inversely associated (one goes up and the other goes down).
A positive correction
Evident when both variables change in the same direction (imagine a graphical representation of scores)
Ex post facto study
Ex post facto study is a type of quasi-experiment (literally means 'after the fact') connoting a correlational study in which preexisting groups are utilized
What are some examples of "Threats to internal validity"?
Examples of threats to 'internal validity' or factors that reduce the impact of tx on Data are 1. maturation of subjects, the psychological & physical changes e.g. fatigue due to time involved, 2. 'mortality' subjects withdrawing, 3. instruments used to measure the behavior or trait, or 4. 'statistical regression' the notion that extremely high or low scores would move toward the mean if utilized again.
Existentialism is considered a humanistic form of helping in which the counselor helps the client discover meaning in his or her life by doing a deed, experiencing value, and suffering.
Existentialism is more of a philosophy of helping than a grab bag of intervention strategies.
Experimental Ethics Dictate that..
Experimental Ethics dictate that subjects should be 1. informed of risk, negative after effects are removed, 2 allowed subjects to withdraw at any time, 3 confidentiality of subjects is protected, 4 results will be presented in an accurate format that is not misleading, and 5 will use only techniques trained in.
Experimental Hypothesis
Experimental Hypothesis states, "There will be differences between the control group and the experimental group.
Experimental Research
Experimental Research is the process of gathering data in order to make evaluative comparisons regarding different situations.
Pygmalion Effect (aka Rosenthal or Experimenter Effect)
Experimenter falls in love with his own hypothesis and the experiment becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Factor Analysis
Factor Analysis is Statistical procedure to summarize MANY variables, e.g. A test measuring a counselor's ability, may try to describe 3 important variables that make up an effective helper although hundreds exist.
Social Responsiveness
For the first two to three months of life the infant uses signaling behavior to establish contact with others. At 3 to 6 months the primary caregiver becomes the focus of the signaling. This is called the _______ _______ stage.
The word 'eclectic' is most associated with
Frederick C. Thorne (felt true eclecticism was more a 'hodgepodge of facts') -preferred the term 'psychological case handling' rather than psychotherapy)
Oedipus/Electra complex
Freud's most controversial theory
Loves to be touched and held closely
From birth to 4 months an infant weighs 10-18 pounds and has a length of 23-27 inches. What can be said about emotional development at this age?
Gelatt's Decision-Making Model (1962)
Gelatt's decision-making model is a sequential model that includes generating alternatives and evaluating the consequences and desirability of each as steps in the sequence.
Eric Bern is to TA as Fritz Perls is to
Gestalt therapy
Parametric tests assume scores are NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED.
Good external validity = generalization
Thanatos
Greek for 'death' (i.e., 'Thanatologists study death')
Eros
Greek god of 'love of life' Freudians use it also to mean 'self-preservation'
Hawthorne Effect (also known as reacting to the presence of the investigator, or observer effect)
Happens sometimes if subjects know they are in experiment, their performance may improve because of the extra attention and knowledge they are being observed.
Interval scale
Has numbers scaled at equal distances but NO ABSOLUTE ZERO point. -Since intervals are same, amount of differences can be stipulated (i.e., 3 IQ points), can add/subtract but not multiply/divide (IQ TESTS provide interval measurement!)
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Henry Murray's 1938 work, Exploratoin in Personality - subjective test
Personalogy
Henry Murray's term for personality typing.
Trait-Oriented Theories
Holds the position that individuals are attracted to an occupational environment that meets their personal needs and provides them with satisfaction.
Mesomorphy
How can a good developed, stocky, muscular body be defined?
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a hunch or educated guess which can be tested utilizing the experimental model. A statement which can be tested regarding the relationship between the independent (IV) and the dependent variables (DV).
Identity Terms
IDENTITY DIFFUSION - the status in which the adolescent does not have a sense of having choices; he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment
In experimental terminology, IV stands for _____ ______, and DV stands for ______ _______.
IV stand for the independent variable, and the DV for dependent variable
35-55
If Bob suffers moderate and trainable mental retardation, what would be the range of his IQ score?
Affects Neurons and the Corpus Stratum
If Epinephrine and Norepinephrine are associated with stress reactions, what is the function of Dopamine?
Sexual Coercion
If Sid threatens to tell Mary's mother that she smokes Marijuana unless she has sex with him, what type of harassment is he guilty of?
Attempts to touch, grab, kiss, fondle
If a person is found guilty of sexual assault, what behaviors were included toward the harassed person?
Without will; no desires
If a person suffers from schizophrenia and is in the AVOLITION phase, how can his behavior be characterized?
Multiple treatment interference
If a subject receives more than one treatment, it is often tough to discern which modality caused the improvements.
Reliable experiement
If an experiment can be replicated by others with almost identical findings.
Motivation
If modeling or acquiring of learning through observation occurs through four processes, what is the process where reinforcement, either internal/self reinforcement or external is required for behavior to be maintained and regularly manifested?
Stage 2: Orientation of Sex Roles
In Gottfredson's Theory, how can the stage between ages 6-8 be defined?
James-Lange Theory
In a lecture of yours, you are discussing the theory that asserts that the individual's perception of his physical reaction is the basis of his emotional experience. What theory are you talking about?
Cannon-Bard Theory
In a lecture or yours, you are discussing the theory that pertains to which comes first, the physical action or the emotional reaction. What is this theory called?
T score
In a research paper you are writing about the score that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. What is this score?
z-score
In a research paper, you are writing about the most basic standard score which allows scores from different tests to be compared. What is the name of this score?
Construct Validity
In a research report you are writing about the extent to which a test measures a concept or trait of interest. What is this called?
Criterion Related Validity
In a research report, you are writing about the extent to which a test can predict, diagnose or classify and individual's behavior in specific situations. What is this called?
A directive
In counseling, merely a suggestion
Traditionally, PROBABILITY in social science research is set at _____ or lower (i.e., 01, .001).
In social sciences, the accepted probability level is usually .05 or less (.05 indicates differences would occur via chance only 5 times in 100.
When you see the letter P in relation to a test of significance it means
In test of significance p stands for Probability
The response occurs prior to the effect (reward)
In the case of Classical Conditioning stimulus-response sequence, the stimulus precedes the response. What happens in the case of operant conditioning?
Successive Approximation
Increments of change toward a desired behavior are reinforced, thereby shaping the response to the desired behavior
Independent Group Comparison Design
Independent Group Comparison Design, In a study of two groups, change in one group DID NOT influence the other group.
3. Instrumental and associative learning experiences
Instrumental= person's behavior leads to a consequence (punishment or reward) Associative= observational learning, classical conditioning
Internal Validity
Internal validity 'in experiments' refers to whether the Dependent Variables, 'DVs' , the data were truly influenced by the experimental independent variables, 'IVs', treatment or if other factors impacted the Data.
Collective unconscious
Jungian term, common to all mankind, and passed from generation to generation.
Archetype
Jungian; primal universal symbol that means the same thing to men and women (i.e., the cross), found to be in all walks of life (i.e., myths, fables, religion)
Latent
Learning that takes place without an immediate manifestation is known as __________ learning.
Random sampling
Like sticking your hand in a fishbowl to pick up a winning lottery ticket - each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
John B. Watson is associated with what study?
Little Albert (demonstrated that fears were learned and not the result of some unconscious conflict)
C. G. Jung said men operate on logic (aka ____) principle, while women are intuitive, operating on the ____ principle.
Logos, Eros (Founder of Analytic Psychology)
Nonparametric tests
Mann-Whitney U-test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test (for matched pairs), Soloman and Kruskal-Wallis H-test
Enactive
Objects have meaning only with respect to the actions performed on them. This is called the ________ mode.
T-score (often called transformed score)
Mean of 50 with each SD of 10 [different from a Z-score] (i.e., a Z score of -1.0 would be a T score of 40. A Z-score of -1.5 would be a T-score of 35, etc.) - Not mathematically threatening because never expressed as a negative number.
Most common measures of central tendency
Mode, Median, Mean
Sexual Bribery
Morton, who is Sarah's boss, is suggesting sex with her for a salary raise and promotion. What type of harassment has he committed?
...
NCE - Group Corrective recapitulation of the primary family group</question> A belief by the dominant culture that the minority group possesses a pattern of negatively valued traits is best referred to as:
Negative reinforcement requires withdrawal of an aversive (negative) stimulus to increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur.
Negative reinforcement is NOT the same thing as punishment.
Double-blind study
Neither the subject nor the researcher knows of the person is in the control group. (Researcher is sometimes unaware of the null hypothesis too.)
NOIR
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Four basic measurement scales (by. S. S. Steven)
Nominal - simplest type, strictly qualitative NOT quantitative Ordinal Interval Ratio
...
Non-Directional hypothesis A non-directional hypothesis is two tailed. You assume that by manipulating the independent variable there will be a change in the dependent variable. You cannot predict if this change will be positive or negative. For example if you ask someone to roll a ball in their hands while trying to remember a list of words (the IV) this could either have a positive or negative impact on their ability to recall the words (the DV).
Psychoanalysts believe a client who is resistant will be reluctant to bring unconscious ideas into the conscious mind.
Nonanalytic counselors use the term 'resistant' to describe clients who are fighting the helping process in any manner.
Intermittent schedule of reinforcement
Not every desirable behavior is reinforced (sometimes called 'thinning')
Occam's Razor
Occam's Razor (aka Parsimony) refers to the practice of interpreting the results in the simplest ways (Literally a tendency to be miserly and not overspend.)
Nondirective is to person-centered as parsimony is to _____________
Occam's Razor (both are synonymous)
Occam's Razor
Occam's Razor is (also known as Lloyd Morgan's 1894 Canon) suggests experimenters interpret the results in the simplest manner.
Horizontal sampling
Occurs when a researcher selects subjects from a single socioeconomic group.
Vertical sampling
Occurs when persons from two or more socioeconomic classes are used.
Unimodal
One peak in a distribution curve
biserial correlation
One variable is continuous while the other is dichotomous.
Directional experimental hypothesis
One-tailed test (i.e., hypothesis specifies one average is larger than another)
Freud's 3 psychosexual stages
Oral Anal Phallic
Sweet lemon rationalization
Overrates a reward (to protect self from bruised ego) (memory: sweets are overrated in our society)
The major functions of testing in vocational/career counseling are:
PREDICTION, DISCRIMINATION, MONITORING, EVALUATION
Parameter
Parameter is A value obtained from a population (Summarizes a characteristic of a population, i.e., average male height)
Parametric tests have more power than nonparametric statistical tests.
Parametric tests are used ONLY with interval and ratio data.
Parsimony
Parsimony (aka Occam's Razor) refers to the practice of interpreting the results in the simplest ways (Literally a tendency to be miserly and not overspend.)
Personal Fable Concept
Part of and adolescent's egocentrism; belief that individual experiences are unique that no one felt the way the adolescent does
R. A. Fisher
R. A. Fisher pioneered hypothesis testing.
Pioneers in the Behaviorist movement
Pavlov, Jones, Watson
Kurtosis
Peakedness of a frequency distribution.
Percentage Score
Percentage score is another way of stating a RAW score.
Percentile Rank
Percentile Rank is a descriptive statistic telling the counselor what percentage of the cases fell below a certain level.
NCE - Group
Person-Centered Groups In Person-centered groups members find their own direction with minimal leader help. The leader's tasks include: role of facilitator - conveying congruence (genuineness), unconditional positive regard (acceptance), and empathetic understanding. The leader provides very little structuring or direction.
Life Scripts
Personal Life Plans born out of early decisions about self, others and the world
Scattergram (also known as scatterplot)
Pictorial diagram or graph of two variables being correlated.
NCE - Group
Pre-Interview The pre-interview serves as an INFORMED CONSENT procedure. Each member becomes aware of what is expected of them and what takes place in this type of group before it begins.
NCE - Group
Primary Tension Secondary Tension PRIMARY Tension is anxiety which is apparent when coming together, sharing, and learning the rules.
The 6 "levels" of skill include:
Professional & Managerial 1, Professional & Managerial 2, Semi-Professional / Small bBsiness, Skilled, Semi-Skilled, and Unskilled.
NCE - Group
Psychodrama Moreno is considered the originator of psychodrama in a group setting and is often called the "father" of psychodrama.
NCE - Group
Psychodynamic Approach The psychodynamic approach attempts to uncover the unconscious determinants of groups members' present behavior. Psychodynamic group leaders do not require members to remain strictly in the here-and-now.
Apgar rating
Quantitative rating test used to measure the vital signs of newborns a minute or two after birth
NCE - Group
REBT Group A Rational Emotive Therapy group leader would teach the A-B-C-D-E- method and how people create and resolve their own problems. Disputing irrational beliefs and underlying feelings and actions require a highly didactic and active approach.
Social exchange theory advocates that power is based upon having control of valuable resources (i.e. ability, material, means of punishment, position, identity, and information)
REFERENT POWER- when people do as he/she requests because they respect the person or want to be like him/her.
If F value exceeds the critical F value in a statistical table
REJECT the null hypothesis
Ordinal scale (2nd level of measurement)
Rank-orders variables, though distance between the variables may not be equal - Provides relative placement or standing but does not delineate absolute differences (adding/subtracting is no-no) (Memory: 'ordinal' sounds like 'order')
Two basic classes of intermittent reinforcement schedules
Ratio - based on # of responses ('variable' often used with this) Interval - based on time elapsed ('fixed' often used with this)
William Glasser is to reality therapy as Albert Ellis is to
Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) (Ellis is father of REBT)
Types of ego defense mechanisms
Rationalization, Compensation, Repression, Projection Reaction formation, Identification, Introjection, Denial, Displacement
Spontaneous Recovery
Recurrence of the previous extinguished conditioned response after a rest period
Comparative View of Practice
Repeated Trials result in repeated pairings of the CS and the UCS
Repeated-Measures Comparison Design
Repeated-Measures Comparison Design Measuring the SAME group of subjects without the IV and then with the IV.
Solomon 4 group design
Researcher uses 2 control groups - only one experimental group and one control group are PRE-tested. The other control group and experimental group are merely post-tested. (Lets the researcher known if results are influenced by testing.)
I-Thou relationship
Rogerian and Existentialistic (relationship is horizontal in nature)
NCE - Group
Rudolph Dreikurs Rudolph Dreikurs was a student of Adler and was the first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice. Dreikurs also introduced Adlerian principles in the treatment of children in the school setting.
NCE - Group
Selection of members The key factor in selecting a person for group work is to identify a personality pattern that may not lend itself to the group. Hostile, suicidal, homicidal, paranoid, and self-centered or psychotic persons are not good candidates for group counseling.
Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
Self-knowledge and occupational knowledge are schemas that keep evolving over the person's life span.
Factorial experiment
Several experimental variables are investigated and interactions can be noted. Factorial designs include 2 or more IVs.
What do correlational studies tell us about the relationship between variables?
Since correlational research is Quasi-experimental, it only shows a positive or negative relationship between the variables, but does not yield cause-effect data.
Peer Cluster Theory
Small, identifiable peer clusters determine where, when and how drugs will be used
NCE - Group
Sociogram As well as identifying alliances in the group, sociograms can help assess whether the alliances are growth-oriented. A sociogram is a graphic representation of the patterns showing which members are drawn to one another, which do not interact, and which members have a one-way attraction, mutual attraction, or aversion to each other.
NCE - Group
Stages In the beginning (initial) stage of group work, the participants are concerned with fitting in. It is during the second (transition) stage that issues of power and control surface and conflicts arise. Nearing termination, groups tend to be less conflictual.
NCE - Group
Stages in a Group Introduction Conflict Cohesion Work Termination
Standardized tests always have formal procedures for test administration and scoring.
Standardization implies the testing format, test materials, and scoring process are consistent.
Statistic
Statistic is a value obtained from a sample.
SPSS
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (computer program for crunching statistics)
Trend analysis
Statistical procedure performed at different times to see if a trend is evident, using ANOVA sometimes.
Statistically speaking, 68.26% of scores fall within + or - one SD of the mean.
Statistically speaking, 95.74% of scores fall within + or - 2 SD of the mean.
As X increases, Y also increases; As X decreases, Y also decreases
Statistically, how can 2 positively and directly related variables be described?
NCE - Group
Structure The overuse of structure hinders the development of closeness, trust, and genuineness.
Child (son or daughter)
Student Leisurite Citizen Worker Spouse (Partner) Homemaker Parent Pensioner
Matched design
Subjects are literally 'matched' in regard to any variable that could be correlated with the DV, which is really the postexperimental performance.
Vroom's Motivation and Management Expectancy Theory
Suggests employee performance is influenced by:
Empathy is the ability to experience the client's subjective world.
Sympathy is compassion.
Brief Psychotic Disorder
Symptoms of schizophrenia that do not last more than a month is classified as which disorder?
CAREER THEORIES OVERVIEW
TRAIT-ORIENTED THEORIES > Trait-and-Factor (1909; 1939) > Person-Environment-Correspondence > Holland's Typology / Personality Approach (1966)
Conformist Stage
Taking into consideration that a child is preoccupied with social acceptance, appearance, and material possessions, at what ego development sequence is he?
Intelligence, attention and motor skill defects
Taking into consideration that a mother takes aspirin during pregnancy, what effect could this have on the fetus?
Delirium
Taking into consideration that a person has the following symptoms: perceptual disorders, disrupted attentional impairment and he is disoriented, what diagnosis would be accurate for his disease?
Disillusionment and Anger
Taking into consideration that victims can react differently to sexual harassment what does the client experience when a resolution of the complaint may be a long hard process and not always successful with many organizations not always supportive?
Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) (1996)
Tenets: Career choice results from an interaction of cognitions and affective processes. Career development involves continual growth & change in knowledge structures.
Use of tests of significance
Tests of significance are used to determine whether a difference in the groups' scores is significant or just due to change factors.
Alternative Hypothesis
The Alternative Hypothesis (aka 'affirmative hypothesis') asserts the independent variable (IV) has indeed caused a change.
The Control Group
The Control Group does NOT receive the IV (same characteristics of the experimental group - the averages between the two groups should not differ significantly)
Experiment
The Experiment is the most valuable type of research it is used to discover cause-and-effect relationships
The Experimental Group
The Experimental Group received the IV (has the same characteristics of the control group the averages between the two groups should not differ significantly)
Independent variable
The Independent variable is the variable the researcher manipulates, controls, alters, or wishes to experiment with. Memory Device: 'I' manipulate the IV, or a hospital patient gets treatment form IV)
Null hypothesis
The Null hypothesis suggests there WILL NOT be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not. (asserts the samples will not change - will stay the same - even after the experimental variable is applied.) *The IV DOES NOT affect the DV.*
The RANGE is the simplest way to measure the spread of scores.
The RANGE is usually calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest scores (i.e., 93-33=60.) - If 'inclusive range' is specified on exam, then use the formula but add '1' to the final value after subtraction of the range. -generally increases with sample size
Discriminating Social Responsiveness
The attachment stage from 2-7 months where the infant begins to show a preference for a familiar person is known as _____________.
Echolalia
The automatic repetition by someone of words spoken in his or her presence (ie: the baby babbling when the mother talks). It can also be a mental disorder.
ONTOGENESIS
The course of development of an organism or an individual
Dependent variable
The dependent variable expresses the outcome or the data regarding factors one wants to measure. Memory Device: 'D' in dependent signifies 'D' in data.
Rosenthal Effect (experimenter expectancy)
The experimenter's beliefs about the individual may cause the experimenter to treat them in a special way so that they begin to fulfill the experimenter's expectations.
The umbilical chord falls from the naval and the child regains weight lost from birth
The first developmental stage of a human being is infancy (birth02 weeks) what is characteristic for this stage?
Statistically speaking, 99.74% of scores fall within + or - 3 SD of the mean.
The greater the standard deviation of scores, the greater the spread of a plotted graph.
X axis (also called 'abscissa')
The horizontal line drawn under a frequency distribution graph. (horizontal axis plots the independent variable [IV])
The probability of committing a Type I error equals the level of significance.
The level of significance is also called the 'alpha level'.
The larger the range, the greater the dispersion or spread of scores from the mean.
The most useful measure of central tendency is the MEAN (i.e., average). In skewed distributions, the median is the best choice.
Gelatt's Decision-Making Model (1962)
The nature of decision making is continuous and cyclical. Although there are times when key decisions must be made.
Drug Dependence
The need for continued or repeated use of a drug in order to maintain a particular desired state which includes the avoidance of withdrawl
Drug Tolerance
The need for ever increasingly larger doses of a drug to obtain the initial effect of the original dose
Aggressive Behavior
The reinforcers used for the behavior, the models of aggressive behavior seen by the child and the amount of guilt or anxiety associated with aggressive behavior influences what type of behavior in a child ages 2-6?
Interquartile range
The score distance between the 25th and 75th percentile.
Single-blind study
The subject does not know whether they are in the control group, but the researcher does. (helps eliminate 'demand characteristics')
The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the
The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the IV or independent variable ("I am the researcher so I manipulate or experiment with the IV.")
NCE - Group
Tuckman & Jensen's STAGES Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning
Multimodal distribution
Two or more peaks in a distribution curve
Type I (Alpha Error) occurs when
Type I (Alpha Error) occurs when a researcher REJECTS the NULL hypothesis although it is true.
Lowering the significance level LOWERS Type I errors, but it RAISES the risk of Type II errors.
Type I/Type II relationship is a seesaw.
Type II (Beta Error) occurs when
Type II (Beta Error) occurs when a researcher ACCEPTS the NULL hypothesis although it is False
Existentialist speak of 3 worlds:
Umwelt (physical) Mitwelt (relationship) Eigenwelt (identity)
Ego defense mechanisms are
Unconscious processes that minimize anxiety and protect the self from severe id or superego demands -distort reality and are based on self-deception to protect our self image
Decided Client
Undecided Client Indecisive Client DECIDED CLIENT - clients who have made a career decision. These clients might profit from counseling that is designed to formulate other steps in decision making and to determine if their choice was inappropriately made.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Used for more than 2 sample groups, yields and F statistic
Factorial design
Used to ferret out the effects of more than one IV.
Y axis (also known as 'ordinate')
Used to plot frequency of the DVs, plotting the experimental data. (memory: Letter 'Y' is vertical like the line it represents in a graph)
Quota sampling
Used when a specific number of cases are necessary from various strata (groups).
Cluster sampling
Used when it is nearly impossible to find a list of the entire population. (Will not be as accurate as random sample but is used to save time and practical considerations.)
Likert scale
Uses choices like: strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. Created by Renis Likert in 1930, helped improve the overall degree of measurement. (memory: How much do you Likert something?)
Validity
Validity is the extent or degree to which an idea/ conclusion/measurement/ score/ study is well-founded, measures what it claims to measure, corresponds accurately to the real world & answers the questions it is intended to answer. 'valid' in Latin meaning strong, equivalent.
Variable
Variable is a behavior or circumstance that can exist on at least two levels or conditions. (a factor that 'varies' or is capable of change)
Gender Harassment
Verbal remarks and non touching behaviors that are sexist in nature
answer needed
What are Rossi's four stages of adult development related to parenting?
Visual discrimination and memory skill problems
What are the consequences of PCB (a manufacturing chemical) exposure?
retarded growth, mental retardation and lukemia
What are the consequences of x-ray exposure?
Pre-term births
What are the consequences to the new born if a pregnant woman takes caffeine?
Answer Needed
What are the four processes of "modeling" or acquiring learning through observation?
Mental Retardation
What are the health effects of a newborn if he has been exposed to x-rays for 6 months before his birth?
maternal diseases
What can produce birth defects by crossing the placental barrier
Death
What can the HIV taratogen cause to happen in a newborn?
Intimacy with Others
What characterizes the early adulthood stage of Erickson's stages of development?
Ancient Egypt
What civilization provided some of the earliest written evidence of treatment of disease and behavior disorders, including a detailed description of the treatment wounds and other surgical operations?
Seductive Behavior
What defines inappropriate sexual advances, attempting to discuss sexual interest or a person's sex life?
Hyperirritability, crib death, miscarriage (spontaneous abortion), and still birth
What effect can marijuana usage during pregnancy and/or after the baby is born?
Lower birth weight and pre-term births
What impact does smoking have on a fetus?
Symbolic Mode
What is the last stage to develop?
Mental Retardation
What is the main consequence of Lead exposure?
Standard Deviation
What is the measure of variability that is most often used and describes how scores vary around the mean?
AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale
What is the measurement used for mentally retarded, emotionally maladjusted, developmentally disabled and other handicapped children and adults.
ENCODING
What is the mental process of converting external stimuli into meaningful forms (memory)
Authoritative
What is the most effective form of parenting style where parents have definite standards but also encourage the child to be independent and will illicit opinions at times?
MANOVA
What is the name of the measurement that shows the relationship between each independent variable and the dependent variable?
Sampling Error
What is the name of the occurrence when subjects are not under the researcher's control or there is a discrepancy due to random sampling?
Standard Score
What is the name of the score that is derived from the normal curve?
Exploration Life Stage
What is the name of the stage which characterizes of the developing self; a realistic self concept and where one learns more about various opportunities
The Peabody Picture Vocabulary?
What is the name of the testing instrument used with severely handicapped individuals ages 2.5 to 18 years?
Concern with the larger world
What is the primary social characteristic that develops during late adolescence?
Action Research
What is the research that has as its purpose the development of new approaches with direct applications for counseling practitioners or use within the education field?
Stratified Random Sample
What is the sampling technique in which items/subjects are divided into parts and in each part, each item/subject, has an equal chance of being selected?
Iconic mode
What is the second stage to develop which utilizes symbols for thought?
Plateau Phase
What is the sexual response phase as defined by Master's and Johnson where the tension prepares the body for orgasm and there is increased stimulation of body parts and functions.
Biological Energy
What is the source of all basic drives as people progress through the stages of life?
Percentage
What is the statistic that indicates a proportion of a subgroup to a total group?
Constructive Alternativism
What is the term for an important determinant for one's decisions and behaviors?
Causality
What is the term for the understanding that the child can cause something to happen?
Sampling Bias
What is the term for when a researcher selects a non-representative sample for his/her own convenience?
Autonomous Morality
What is the term for when children begin to realize that rules are created by people and that intentions and consequences may be taken into consideration (Begins about age 10).
Disequalibrium
What is the term for when the child's current schemas cannot process new information. The child changes the schemas and equilibration is established?
Organicism
What is the term that is sometimes used to classify the more holistic theories that accept qualitative changes?
An Ordeal
What is the term when a therapist prescribes a situation that is equal or greater than the distress of the client- described symptom itself.
25 percent
What is the weight and size of the brain at the time of birth expressed as a percentage of adult weight and size?
Permissive Parenting Style
What kind of parenting style is it when parents keep their "hands off" and let children be with the hope that they will be more self-reliant?
External, Environmental Forces
What main principle do learning theorists emphasize?
Vineland Social Maturity Scale
What measure assesses an individual's competency in taking personal responsibility and seeing to practical needs?
25%
What percentage of adult weight and size does an infant brain have at birth?
Martin Seligman
What researcher experimentally induced learned helplessness in dogs?
Hiskey-Nebraska Test
What test assesses hearing impaired children up to 16 years old?
Brain Lateralization Theory
What theory contends that the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body?
Astin's Theory
What theory of motivation purports three primary needs (survival, pleasure, and contribution)
Skewed distribution
When a distribution of scores is not distributed normally (and symmetrically).
Multiple-baseline design
When a researcher employs more than 1 target behavior.
Multi-variate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
When a study has moe than one dependent variable.
Halo Effect
When a trait that is not being evaluated (i.e., attractiveness) influences a researcher's rating on another trait (i.e., counseling skill).
Bivariate
When correlational data describes the nature of two variables .
Multivariate
When more than two variables are under scrutiny.
Covary negatively
When one variable increases while the other decreases.
Experimental neurosis
When the differentiation process becomes too tough because stimuli are almost identical
Naturalistic observation
When the researcher does not intervene but merely observes a subject, preferably in its natural setting. (oldest method of research)
Covary positively
When two variables vary together.
Mode
Which measure of central tendency is only appropriate for use with nominal data?
Serotonin
Which neurotransmitter has the effect of creating sleep disorders?
NCE - Group
Which of the following is a product-oriented group counseling theory, rather than a process-oriented group counseling theory:
Acquisition
While Conditioned Response (CR) is the learned response to a conditioned stimulus, what is the term for the period when the organism learns the association between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response?
ANCOVA
While giving a lecture on Inferential Statistics you mention the measurement that shows how a covariate interacts with the dependent variable. How do you name this measurement?
Lightner Witmer
Who founded the first psychological clinic in Philadelphia where he focused on addressing the problems of mentally deficient children?
Paul Ekman
Who is the researcher who studied the cross-cultural facial expressions of emotions?
Stanley Coopersmith
Who is the theorist who conducted the most extensive study of parent-child relationships and self-esteem with middle class boys from ages 10 -12 years?
A. Gibson
Who is the theorist who performed the VIsual Cliff experiment with infants?
Galen
Who made a number of original contributions concerning the anatomy of the nervous system
Aretaeus of Cappadocia
Who was the first person to note the difference between acute and chronic mental disorders and to distinguish among illusions, delusions and hallucinations?
Asclepiades
Who was the first to note the difference between acute and chronic mental disorders and distinguish between illusions, delusions and hallucinations?
William of Occam
William of Occam as in Occam's Razor" was a 14th century philosopher and theologian. (Occam's Razor, aka 'parsimony' named for)
Some researchers refer to the level of significance as where one _____ the ____, or as the ______ point.
draws, line, cutoff (If a researcher sets the level of significance at .50, then the odds would be 50/50 that the results were due to pure chance.)
68-95-99.7 rule (empirical rule)
Within a normal distribution, 68% of scores will fall within +/- 1 standard deviation (SD) of the mean; 95% within 2 SDs of the mean; and 99.7% within 3 SDs of the mean. (Almost all scores will fall between 3 SDs of the mean.)
Within-Subjects Design
Within-Subjects Design is a two or more values or levels of the IV are administered to each subject.
NCE - Group
Working Stage During the working stage the leader links common themes in order to promote awareness of shared concerns.
Multiple-Treatment Interface
You are administering more than one treatment consecutively to the same subjects. What are you causing to occur?
Percentile Rank (PR)
You are giving a lecture on the types of derived scores. Your students what to know the name of the score which indicates the percentage of scores that fall below a given score. What is this score?
Psychological Addiction
You are telling your students about a pattern of behaviors wherein one is driven to use the drug and to act in ways that guarantee its availability. What are you telling them about?
The Cohort Effect
You are telling your students about the effect of a group of people being born at a certain time and being reared in a certain historical setting. What are you telling them about?
Transfer Learning
You are telling your students about the effect of earlier learning on present learning. What is this?
Enactive Mode
You are telling your students about the first stage to develop. What is it?
Penetrance
You are telling your students about the genetic transfer of mental illness or other characteristics from one generation to another. What are you telling them about?
Dependence
You are telling your students about the need for continued or repeated use of a drug in order to maintain a particular desired state which includes the avoidance of withdrawl. What are you telling them about?
Descriptive Research
You are telling your students about the research that is used when the independent variables have already occurred so the researcher cannot predict outcomes. What type of research is this?
Constructive Play
You are telling your students about the self-regulated creation of a product or a problem solution. How do you name it on being asked by your students?
Frequency
You are telling your students about the statistic that indicates the number of subjects in a particular category. What do you call this statistic?
Proportion
You are telling your students about the statistic that indicates the relation of a subgroup to the total group. How do you name it?
Achievement Tests
You are telling your students about the tests that measure the level of acquisition of information. What are they called?
Louis Thurston
You are telling your students about the theorist who first developed a scale technique to measure attitude. What is his name?
Leon Festinger
You are telling your students about the theorist who is associated with attitude changes, specifically cognitive dissonance. What is his name?
William Sheldon
You are telling your students about the theorist who places human development into three major body types. Who is he?
Arnold Gesell
You are telling your students about the theorist who used the theory of maturation to explain common developmental patterns that are internally controlled rather than influenced by the external environment. Who is he?
Telegraphic Speech
You are telling your students about the utterances of two or three words that children make, usually between the ages of 18 months and 24 months that convey complete thought. What are you telling them about?
100 Percent
You are telling your students about the weight and size of the brain at age 16. They want to know it as a percentage of its adult weight and size. What do you tell them?
80 percent
You are telling your students about the weight and size of the brain at age 2. What is the percentage of its adult weight and size?
Symbolic Mode
You are telling your students that language provides the means for representing experience and for transforming it. What does this refer to?
Diathesis-Stress Model
You are using a model that emphasizes the combination of nature and nurture to produce abnormality. What kind of model are you using?
Statistical Model
You are using a model that emphasizes the rarity or infrequency of a behavior or a trait as the primary determinant of mental illness. What kind of model are you using?
Active Proximity Seeking
You tell your students that from seven months to two years, the child actively seeks close contact with the caretaker. Later, attachments with others develop. What do you name this stage?
Holophrastic speech
Your little son says just the word 'juice' when he wants to say 'give me some juice' What type of speech does this refer to?
Lallation
Your three year old son says 'tuice' whenever he wishes to have a juice or drink. What does this behavior refer to?
Process
_______ research examines the nature of the counseling interview and tries to determine successful outcomes
Sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to _____.
a correlation coefficient.
Little Albert
a famous case, John Watson (pioneer of American Behaviorism) in 1920 - toddler made to fear white furry things
Type II error (aka bet error)
a researcher has accepted the null hypothesis
Secondary reinforcement
a stimulus which accompanies a primary reinforcer takes on reinforcement properties of its own (most popular secondary is 'money')
Counseling paradigm
a treatment model (paradigm = model)
Eidetic imagery (aka photographic memory)
ability to remember the most minute details of a scene or picture for an extended period of time (children have it but is it gone by adolescence)
Reflection of emotional content
accomplished when the counselor restates the client's verbalization in such a manner that the client becomes more aware of his emotions.
Retroflection
act of doing to yourself what you really wish to do to someone else (gestalt concept)
Awfulizing (aka 'catastrophizing')
act of telling yourself how difficult,, terrible, and horrendous a given situation really is
REBT suggests the ABC theory of personality in which A is ____, B is the _____, and C is the ______.
activating event, belief system, emotional consequence
Token economies
agencies that use tokens as a system of behavior modification
If a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to .001, then
alpha errors decrease, but beta errors increase.
Unmatched/uncorrelated groups
also known as independent groups
Metacognition
an individual's tendency to be aware of his own cognitions or cognitive abilities
Free association
analytic technique, instructing the client to say whatever comes to mind.
Jung felt society caused men to deny their feminine side (aka ______) and women to deny their masculine side (aka ____).
anima, animus (memory: aniMA is feminine; aniMUS as in MUScles)
Operant
any behavior which is not elicited by an obvious stimulant.
Demand characteristic
any characteristic (aka bit of knowledge, correct or incorrect), that the subject in an experiment is aware of that can influence his or her behavior. (Demand characteristics can confound an experiment!)
Introspection
any process in which the client attempts to describe his own internal thoughts, feelings, and ideas.
ANCOVA and ANOVA
are NOT correlation coefficient.
Associationism
asserts ideas are held together by associations. (roots in Aristotle essay, but in line with John Locke, Hume, Mill, Hartley)
Existentialism is to logotherapy as ________ is to behaviorism.
associationism (asserts that ideas are held together by associations)
Horizontal relationship
assumes equality between persons.
An eclectic counselor
attempts to choose the best theoretical approach based on the client's attributes, resources, and situation. (50% of counselors claim to be eclectic)
Minnesota viewpoint
attempts to match the client's traits with a career (created by E. G. Williamson)
Some counselors feel transference is actually a form of projection, displacement, and repetition in which client treats counselor in same manner as he would an _______ _____from the past.
authority figure.
Mean
average of all scores
Characteristics of youngest child (Adlerian)
baby in the family and can be pampered or spoiled, often exceed older children's performance due to modeling/imitating.
Neurolinguistic programming (NLP)
brainchild of linguistics professor John Grinder and mathematician John Bander.
Preconscious mind
capable of bringing ideas, images, and thoughts into awareness with minimal difficulty -can access info from the conscious as well as unconscious mind
id
chaotic and has no sense of time (pleasure principle - 'I want it NOW')
Reality therapy (aka choice therapy)
childhood is usually not explored, present moment of counseling (therapist makes friends with client)
Transference neurosis
client is attached to the counselor as if he is a substitute parent.
Fixed role therapy (aka 'behavioral rehearsal')
client is given a sketch of a person in a role and is instructed to read the script at least 3 times a day to act, think, and verbalize like the person in the script. (by George A. Kelly who also did 'psychology of personal constructs')
Paradoxical strategies
client is instructed to intensify or purposely engage in the maladaptive behavior. (used by Frankl, and by family therapist)
Tyranny of the shoulds
coined by Karen Horney (neo-Freudian)
Key areas that often cause problems for counselor self-image are
competence power intimacy
Counseling in 1960s
competing psychotherapies
The superego
composed of values, morals, and ideals of parents, caretakers, and society
Subjective units of distress scale (SUDS)
concept used in forming a hierarchy to perform Wolpe's systematic desensitization (aka, technique for curbing phobic reactions and anxiety)
Implosive therapy (in anxiety terms)
conducted using the imagination and relies on psychoanalytic symbolism (brainchild of T. G. Stampf)
The counselor who is _____ is real and authentic.
congruent
Freud's topographic notion that the mind is like an iceberg with 2 states:
conscious unconscious
Respondent
consequence of a known stimulus. (dog salivating)
Dream work
consists of deciphering the hidden meaning (latent) of a dream (through symbolism) so the individual is aware of unconscious motives, impulses, desires, and conflicts.
Psychodynamic therapy
contasts psychoanalysis: -utilizes fewer sessions per week -doesn't utilize a couch, performed face-to-face (makes use of analytic principles but relies on fewer sessions)
Reality therapy incorporates
control theory and choice theory
When a researcher uses ______, then there is no direct manipulation of the IV.
correlation
Pearson r is the most common _______ ________.
correlation coefficient.
Attending (counseling behavior)
counselor behaviors that signal he is truly engaged in active listening skills.
Accurate empathy
counselor can truly understand what the client is feeling or experiencing
Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)
counselor positively reinforces an individual for engaging in a healthy alternative behavior.
In _________ the counselor's past is projected onto the client and the helper's objectivity suffers markedly.
counter-transference
Albert Ellis
created Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
Arthur Janov
created primal scream therapy
John B Watson is to cause as Mary Cover Jones is to
cure (demonstrated learning could serve as treatment for a phobic reaction)
Jung's assumption was that projection will _____ and individuation will ______ as therapy renders shadow behaviors conscious.
decrease, increase
Experimental is to cause and effect as correlational is to _____ of _______.
degree of relationship.
Flooding (in anxiety terms)
deliberate exposure with response prevention
Neal Miller
demonstrated that animals could be conditioned to control autonomic processes. (heart rate, blood pressure)
Analytic psychology is sometimes referred to as
depth psychology
Correlation coefficient is a
descriptive statistic which indicates the degree of 'linear relationship' between two variables.
Compensation
evident when a person attempts to develop or overdevelop a positive trait to make up for a limitation.
Countertransference
evident when the counselor's feelings are strong enough to hinder the treatment process.
Aaron T. Beck
ex-psychoanalytic therapist, created Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), developed cognitive therapy
Cohort study
examines people who were born at the same time (or shared an event, like fought in Vietnam) in regard to a given characteristic.
Chi-square nonparametric test
examines whether obtained frequencies differ significantly from expected frequencies
ego
executive administrator of the personality (seen as the Child in TA) -acts as a police officer to control impulses of the id (aka instincts, or the Child) and the superego (conscience, or the Parent) -also called 'reality principle' and houses individual's identity
Rollo May
existentialist and prime move in this counseling movement.
Congruence in counselor
external behavior matches an internal response or state.
Wilhelm Reich
felt repeated sexual gratification was necessary for cure of emotional maladies. (orgone box - later outlawed and Reich died in jail)
Rudolph Dreikurs
first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice. (also introduced Adlerian principles to treatment of children in school setting)
Sensate focus
form of behavioral sex therapy, relies on counterconditioning (by Masters & Johnson)
Another term for classical conditioning is
forward conditioning
Gustav Jung
founded Analytic Psychology
Existential counselors emphasize the client's
free choice, decision, and will
Baseline
frequency that a behavior is manifested prior to or in the absence of treatment.
Systematic desensitization hierarchy
from least anxiety-producing to most, ideally with 10 to 15 evenly spaced steps.
Noogenic neurosis (Existentialism)
frustration of the will to meaning
Little Hans
gave Little Albert study a psychoanalytic explanation.
An IQ score on an IQ test which has 3 SDs above the mean would be near the ____ level.
genius
Reinforcement schedule
gives guidelines for reinforcement.
Characteristics of firstborns (Adlerian)
go to great lengths to please their parents, may feel upstaged by 2nd born and prone to feelings of inferiority
Placebo effect
happens when an item is thought to have an effect and produces results, even though there is no effect from the item (all in their head)
Bimodal distribution
has two modes (graphically looks like a camel with 2 humps)
Logotherapy
healing through meaning Viktor Frankl)
Latent content of dreams
hidden meaning of a dream
Ulterior transactions
hidden transactions as two or more ego states are operating at the same time.
Lower significance =
higher risk of Type II errors
Interpretation
highly valued in analytic and psychodynamic modalities (takes place when counselor uncovers a deeper meaning regarding a client's situation)
Factorial notation
i.e., 2x3 factorial notation = The first variable has 2 levels (i.e., male or female) and the second IV has 3 levels (age, height, weight)
Resolution of Freud's Oedipus complex leads to the development of the superego, which is accomplished by
identifying with the same sex parent (also called aggressor)
Ellis feels that _____ is at the core of emotional disturbance.
irrational thinking (at point B)
Robert Carkhuff
known for his 5 point scale measuring empathy, genuineness, concreteness, and respect.
B. F. Skinner's reinforcement theory elaborated on Edward Thorndike's ____ of _____.
law of effect (responses accompanied by satisfaction will be repeated)
Other terms for 'level of significance'
level of confidence confidence level alpha level
The purpose of interpretation in counseling is to
make the client aware of their unconscious processes. (in the hopes that insight will be followed by motivation)
animus, anima, self archetypes
male, female sides
Persona (archetype)
mask or role we present to others to hide our true self.
Characteristics of 2nd born (Adlerian)
may compete with firstborn and often passes 1st child's performance
Characteristics of middle child (Adlerian)
may feel they are treated unfairly, seen as more manipulative.
Electroencephalogram
measures the alpha waves of the brain What is an EEG?
Gaussian curve is said to be ______ because the peak is in the middle.
mesokurtic
Ontology
metaphysical study of life experience
Organ inferiority
methods in which person attempts to compensate for inferiority (Alfred Adler)
Median
middle scores in a distribution of scores (The middle scores when data are arranged from highest to lowest.)
Regardless of the shape, the ____ will always be the high point when a distribution is displayed graphically.
mode
Nominal scale
most basic, does not provide measurable info, merely classifies names, labels, or identifies by group, has NO TRUE ZERO point and DOES NOT INDICATE ORDER. (i.e., street address, telephone #, gender, brand or therapy; adding/subtracting nominal categories is meaningless)
Mode
most frequently occurring scores and the least important measure of central tendency. (The highest or maximum point of concentration on a curve.)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
most widely used measure of personality preference and disposition, 4 bipolar scales (based on Jung's work)
Joseph Breuer
neurologist who taught Freud 'talking cure', or 'catharsis'
Names for Carl. R. Rogers' theory
non-directive, client-centered, and now, person-centered counseling (also called 'self theory')
Covert
not observable
Insight
novel sudden understanding of a problem.
Accurate empathy
occurs when a counselor is able to experience the client's point of view in terms of feelings and cognitions.
Reaction formation
occurs when a person can't accept a given impulse and this behaves in the opposite manner.
Stimulus generalization (aka 'second order conditioning')
occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned (learned) stimulus produces the same reaction. (i.e., buzzer instead of bell)
Displacement
occurs when an impulse is unleashed at a safe target. (man hates boss but kicks dog)
Musturbation (aka 'absolutist thinking')
occurs when client uses too many shoulds, oughts, and musts in his thinking.
Perception
occurs when you perceive something unconsciously and thus it has an impact on your behavior.
Sensitization
one is made more sensitive to a stimulus
Z-score (often called standard score)
same as a standard deviation - the most elementary of standard score. (memory: Z score is simply SD) A Z-score of +1 or 1 SD would include about 34% of the cases in a normal population.
A person-centered therapist would treat all diagnostic categories of the DSM using the ____ _____.
same principles.
Idiographic studies
single case investigations (Case studies are often misleading because the results are not necessarily generalizable.)
1. SELF EFFICACY- Perceived abilities; Judgments of one's abilities to
organize and carry out actions. It is strengthened with repeated success and weakened with repeated failure. It is developed through 4 types of learning experiences: 1- Personal Performance Accomplishments (MOST Influential) 2- Vicarious Learning, 3- Social persuasion, and 4- Physiological States and Reactions (Weak efficacy beliefs can produce anxiety/high levels of anxiety undermine performance).
Operational definition
outlines a procedure (important so other researchers can attempt to replicate the study's findings)
Aversive conditioning
pairing an unpleasant stimulus to a pleasant stimulus to reduce the satisfaction (i.e., Antabuse and alcoholics)
Adler was the first therapist who relied on ______.
paradox (exaggerate the behavior you want to stop)
Frankl is the Father of existentialism and ____ _____.
paradoxical intention
Slips of the tongue
parapraxis (Freud called it 'the psychopathology of everyday life')
Reality therapy's 'BCP'
perception controls behavior
Interposition
perceptual term where one item conceals or covers another
The superego strives for _____ rather than _____ like the id.
perfection, pleasure
Incomplete parent (according to TA)
person expects others to parent him or uses lack of parenting as an excuse for poor behavior.
Extroversion
person has tendency to find satisfaction in other people (term is Jungian)
Existentialism is a type of _______.
philosophy
Perls suggested FIVE layers of neurosis:
phony, phobic, impasse, implosive, and explosive
Internal verbalizations are to REBT as ____ ___ ___ ____ are to Glasser's Choice Theory.
pictures in the mind
When something is added following an operant, it is known as a ____ ______, and when taken away, it is called a ______ ______.
positive reinforcer, negative reinforcer
Statistical regression
predicts very high and very low scores will move toward the mean if a test is administered again. (It is a threat to internal validity.)
Counseling in 1980s
professionalism, licensing
transference
projecting feelings toward the therapist that the client originally felt toward a significant other person in their life.
Phrenology
pseudo-science which asserted one's personality could be determined by the shape of their skull.
Symptom substitution
psychoanalytic concept which means if one symptom is stopped, a new symptom may start in its place (behaviorists also believe in this concept)
All reinforcers strengthen probability that a behavior will occur, but _____ lowers it.
punishment
Behavior modifiers feel _____ temporarily suppresses the behavior.
punishment (decreases the probability a behavior will occur)
Mark is obsessed with stamping out pornography. He is unconsciously involved in this cause so that he can view the material. This is
reaction formation (the person acts the opposite of the way they actually feel.)
A counselor decides to increase the sample size in her experiment. This will ____
reduce Type 1 and Type II errors. Raising the size of a sample helps lower the risk of chance/error factors.
Quartile
refers to the points that divide a distribution into fourths. (indicates 25th percentile is the 1st quartile, 2nd quartile is the median, 3rd quartile is at 75 percentile.
Respondent behavior
reflexes
All ______ rend to increase probability that a prior behavior will occur.
reinforces
Continuous schedule of reinforcement
reinforcing every behavior (not necessarily the most practical or effective)
Type I errors _____ null when it is _____.
reject, true. (memory: RA - Reject when Applicable/true)
Systematic desensitization consists of 4 steps
relaxation training, construction of anxiety hierarchy, desensitization in imagination, and in vivo desensitization.
Suppression differs from repression in that
repression is automatic and involuntary.
Inductive research
research goes from the specific to a generalization.
Neo-Freudians emphasized
social factors (Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, Erich Fromm)
Repression
subconsciously forgetting a traumatic or painful event (Freudians think it is the most important of defenses)
Empathy
subjective understanding of the client in the here-and-now.
When the past is discussed in reality therapy, the focus is on
successful behaviors.
Karpman's triangle
suggested 3 roles necessary for manipulative drama (a 'game' in transaction analysis): -persecutor, rescuer, and victim
Manifest content of dreams
surface meaning of a dream
The simplest form of descriptive research is the _______, which requires a questionnaire return rate of ______ to be accurate.
survey, 50-75% (Ideal sample size for a survey is 100, compared to an experimental study which gets by with 15) Survey problems include - poor construction of instrument, low return rate, subjects are often not randomized
Counterbalancing
switching the order in which stimuli are presented to a subject in a study. (Used to control for the fact that the order of an experiment could impact its outcome.)
Systematic desensitization
systematic paradigm that lessens one's anxiety to a stimuli through gradual exposure to it (form of behavior therapy based on Pavlov's classical conditioning)
Therapeutic cognitive restructuring (aka 'changing thoughts')
takes place when a client begins thinking in a healthy new way using different internal dialogue.
Catharsis
talking about difficulties in order to purge emotions in a curative process
Confrontation
technique used to illuminate discrepancies between the client's and the helper's conceptualization of a given situation.
Mandalas
term borrowed from Hinu writings by Jung that stands for a magic protective circle that represents self-unification.
Freud's critics cite that many aspects of his theory are difficult to ____ from a scientific standpoint.
test Freud's psychoanalysis is the OLDEST major form of psychotherapy.
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
tests 2 or more groups while controlling for extraneous variables that are called covariates
ANCOVA
tests a null hypothesis regarding the means of two or more groups AFTER the random samples are adjusted to eliminate average differences.
The Interpretation of Dreams
the Bible of Psychoanalysis by Freud
Berne's Transactional Analysis (TA) posits 3 ego states
the Child (like id) the Adult (like ego) the Parent (like superego)
Existentialists focus primarily on
the client's perception in the here-and-now. (focus is on what the person can ultimately become)
The mean is misleading when ___ and ___
the distribution is skewed, there are extreme scores.
Reality principle
the ego
Pleasure principle
the id
shadow archetype
the mask behind the persona which contains id-like (child-like) material - denied yet desired (dark side of the personality)
Variable ratio of intermittent scheduling
the most difficult to extinguish
Ego ideal
the superego (the perfect self that the person judges himself against)
Normal curve
theoretical notion often referred to as 'bell-shaped curve'. Bell is symmetrical.
Active therapy (aka 'active-directive' therapy)
therapy to delineate the directive paradigm.
P.05 means
there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental group is due to chance. (differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 out of 100 times.)
Concreteness (aka 'specificity')
this principle is used to alleviate vague language.
John Henry Effect (also known as 'compensatory rivalry of a comparison group')
threat to internal validity when subjects strive to prove an experimental treatment that might threaten their livelihood isn't really effective. (i.e., sabotage)
Desensitization
to make one less sensitive
Beck's contention was that depression is the result of a cognitive _____ of negative beliefs regarding oneself, one's future, and one's experience.
triad
Id, ego, superego is to structural theory as _______, _____, _____ are to topographical theory.
unconscious, preconscious, and conscious
Sour grapes rationalization
underrating a reward (because they didn't get it)
Constructivist theories of intervention stress importance of ______ the client's views.
understanding
Unfinished business (Gestalt concept)
unexpressed emotions
Bibliotherapy
use of books or writings pertaining to self-improvement. (is a form of homework)
Rational imagery
used by rational-emotive behavior therapists where client is asked to imagine that he or she is in a situation which has traditionally caused disturbance)
Pearson Product-Moment correlation r
used for interval or ratio data. (memory - Pearson r uses I and R for Info and Referral)
Spearman rho correlation
used for ordinal data
Spearman correlation (also known as Kendall's tau)
used in place of the Pearson r when parametric assumptions cannot be utilized
Kruskal-Wallis
used instead of the ANOVA when data is nonparametric
Rational-behavior therapy
uses rational-emotive imagery regularly, works well for multicultural counseling, by Maxie Maultsby.
Resistance
when a client refuses to follow a counselor's directives such as homework, completing psych tests, etc.)
Summarization
when a counselor reviews what has transpired in past counseling sessions he is using (constitutes a 'synthesis' regarding general tone and feeling of helping process)
Higher order conditioning.
when a new stimulus is paired with the conditioned (learned) stimulus and the new stimulus takes on the power of the conditioned (learned) stimulus.
Sublimation
when a person acts out an unconscious impulse in a socially acceptable way (i.e., aggressive person has a career as a boxer)
Identification
when a person identifies with a cause or a successful person with the unconscious hope that he or she will be perceived as successful or worthwhile.
Trace conditioning
when conditioned (learned) stimulus terminates before the occurrence of the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus.
Delayed conditioning
when the conditioned (learned) stimulus is delayed until the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus occurs
Paraphrasing
whenever a counselor restates a client's message in the counselor's own words.
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
• Interaction between people & environment is dynamic & ever changing. People influence and are influenced by the environment. People's interests lie in their beliefs they can do those things well.
