Neuroplasticity

About Forgetting Memories are stored as '____________' throughout the brain. This is a wonderful strategy and makes memories almost _______________ (but associations can be disconnected) i.e. a damage to one local part of the brain may result in the loss of the '________' information related to a cup but other parts not damaged still enable _______________ of the cup, smell, shape, etc.

About Forgetting Memories are stored as 'fragments' throughout the brain. This is a wonderful strategy and makes memories almost indestructible (but associations can be disconnected) i.e. a damage to one local part of the brain may result in the loss of the 'color' information related to a cup but other parts not damaged still enable recognition of the cup, smell, shape, etc.

Alpha-syn suppression reverses synaptic and memory defects in a mouse model of dementia with lewy bodies Αlpha-synuclein is predominately expressed in the ______________, ____________, __________, and the _____________ ___________. Over-expression of the protein has been linked to both Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. The suppression of alpha-syn can cause the reversal of synaptic and memory defects in mouse models with dementia and ______ bodies. When α-syn expression was suppressed, partial clearing of pre-existing α-syn pathology and reversal of structural synaptic defects, resulting in an improvement in ___________ _____________.

Alpha-syn suppression reverses synaptic and memory defects in a mouse model of dementia with lewy bodies Αlpha-synuclein is predominately expressed in the hippocampus, neocortex, thalamus, and the substania nigra. Over-expression of the protein has been linked to both Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. The suppression of alpha-syn can cause the reversal of synaptic and memory defects in mouse models with dementia and lewy bodies. When α-syn expression was suppressed, partial clearing of pre-existing α-syn pathology and reversal of structural synaptic defects, resulting in an improvement in memory function.

Areas that, when damaged, tend to give rise to declarative memory disorders _______ ___________ system - entorhinal and perirhinal cortices, hippocampus proper, parahippocampal gyrus, and amygdala are critical for the acquisition of declarative information, is not necessary for skill learning. Damage causes complete loss of ability to form _____ ________.

Areas that, when damaged, tend to give rise to declarative memory disorders Mesial temporal system - entorhinal and perirhinal cortices, hippocampus proper, parahippocampal gyrus, and amygdala are critical for the acquisition of declarative information, is not necessary for skill learning. Damage causes complete loss of ability to form new memories.

Brain reorganization/remapping involves "___________ sprouting", where undamaged axons grow new nerve endings to reconnect the neurons, whose links were severed _________ ______________. Undamaged axons can also sprout nerve endings and connect with other undamaged _______ ________, thus making new links and new neural pathways to accomplish what was a __________ _________.

Brain reorganization/remapping involves "axonal sprouting", where undamaged axons grow new nerve endings to reconnect the neurons, whose links were severed through damage. Undamaged axons can also sprout nerve endings and connect with other undamaged nerve cells, thus making new links and new neural pathways to accomplish what was a damaged function.

Cross-Modal Plasticity Sur and colleagues (2000) demonstrated that visually responsive neurons may "rewire" the primary auditory cortex. visual afferents were rerouted from the retina to the _____ so that visual information were directed to the ___________ cortex. There is some evidence that deaf individuals respond more quickly and more accurately to visual stimuli than hearing. Additionally, blind individuals have been shown to be better at auditory ________________ and ______________ compared to controls (Weeks, R., et al., 2000; Kujala et al 2000) ____ and _____ studies indicated that cortical areas normally activated during vision may be activated during auditory or tactile processing in blind individuals.

Cross-Modal Plasticity Sur and colleagues (2000) demonstrated that visually responsive neurons may "rewire" the primary auditory cortex. visual afferents were rerouted from the retina to the MGN so that visual information were directed to the auditory cortex. There is some evidence that deaf individuals respond more quickly and more accurately to visual stimuli than hearing. Additionally, blind individuals have been shown to be better at auditory discriminations and localization compared to controls (Weeks, R., et al., 2000; Kujala et al 2000) PET and ERP studies indicated that cortical areas normally activated during vision may be activated during auditory or tactile processing in blind individuals.

Declarative Memory (Explicit memory) - Memory for _______ or ________ Storage and retrieval are conscious Remembering bees ______, green is a _______, that crazy weekend in ____________. Semantic memory = ________, general knowledge, vocabulary, concepts Episodic memory = __________, "episodes" e.g., that day the bee stung you on the way home.

Declarative Memory (Explicit memory) - Memory for facts or events Storage and retrieval are conscious Remembering bees sting, green is a color, that crazy weekend in Cancun. Semantic memory = facts, general knowledge, vocabulary, concepts Episodic memory = events, "episodes" e.g., that day the bee stung you on the way home.

Dynamic neuroplasticity after human prefrontal cortex damage Six subjects were given visual working memory task and visual working memory task monitored with ______ and _____ Our results provide evidence that the intact, _________________ hemisphere dynamically compensates for the damaged _____ when the damaged hemisphere is challenged with either memory or attentional loads.

Dynamic neuroplasticity after human prefrontal cortex damage Six subjects were given visual working memory task and visual working memory task monitored with fMRI and EEG Our results provide evidence that the intact, non-lesioned hemisphere dynamically compensates for the damaged PFC when the damaged hemisphere is challenged with either memory or attentional loads.

Explicit memory in mammals involves long-term _______________ in the hippocampus. Simplified pathways in hippocampus showing set-up of an experiment used to induce activity-dependent production of long-term potentiation of Schaffer collaterals-_____ synapses Once LTP is produced it lasts for a very long time and this is something that is ideal as a mechanism facilitating _____________ _____________.

Explicit memory in mammals involves long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. Simplified pathways in hippocampus showing set-up of an experiment used to induce activity-dependent production of long-term potentiation of Schaffer collaterals-CA1 synapses Once LTP is produced it lasts for a very long time and this is something that is ideal as a mechanism facilitating memory formation.

How we hold short memory is dependent on how skilled we are in the ______________ use of our memory Our use of strategies People who use more sophisticated strategies remember better e.g. "____________" the material works better Use of strategies rely on areas in the _________ _________ - the location of our ability to plan our __________ and engage in _____________ __________

How we hold short memory is dependent on how skilled we are in the conscious use of our memory Our use of strategies People who use more sophisticated strategies remember better e.g. "chunking" the material works better Use of strategies rely on areas in the prefrontal cortex - the location of our ability to plan our behavior and engage in abstract thoughts

Implicit memory - learning occurs _____________ because it is for learnt skills including regularly performed ________ tasks and _________ activities. Learning is gradual and recall is improved with repetition and practice. (3) Patient J.K. after the age of 78 (showed signs of Parkinson's disease) could not perform tasks he had done _____ _____ ____ (e.g. ability to turn lights off in bedroom)

Implicit memory - learning occurs gradually because it is for learnt skills including regularly performed motor tasks and mental activities. Learning is gradual and recall is improved with repetition and practice. Acquisition Association Autonomous Patient J.K. after the age of 78 (showed signs of Parkinson's disease) could not perform tasks he had done all his life (e.g. ability to turn lights off in bedroom)

In this study, we combined functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to investigate the existence and extent of cortical and callosal plasticity in these subjects. Nine "painless" patients with lower limb amputation and nine control subjects (sex- and age-matched) underwent a 3-T MRI protocol, including fMRI with somatosensory stimulation. In amputees, we observed an expansion of activation maps of the stump in ___ and __ of the de-afferented hemisphere, spreading to neighboring regions that represent the _______ and ________ limbs. We also observed that tactile stimulation of the intact foot in amputees induced a greater activation of ipsilateral S1, when compared with controls. These results demonstrate a functional remapping of ___ in ______ _____ amputees

In this study, we combined functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to investigate the existence and extent of cortical and callosal plasticity in these subjects. Nine "painless" patients with lower limb amputation and nine control subjects (sex- and age-matched) underwent a 3-T MRI protocol, including fMRI with somatosensory stimulation. In amputees, we observed an expansion of activation maps of the stump in S1 and M1 of the de-afferented hemisphere, spreading to neighboring regions that represent the trunk and upper limbs. We also observed that tactile stimulation of the intact foot in amputees induced a greater activation of ipsilateral S1, when compared with controls. These results demonstrate a functional remapping of S1 in lower limb amputees

Korsakoff's syndrome - ____________ memory disturbance and in some cases implicit memory

Korsakoff's syndrome - Explicit memory disturbance and in some cases implicit memory

Major Regions, Excitatory Pathways and Synaptic Connections of the Rodent Hippocampus Cross section of the hippocampus will reveal __________ pathway ___________ ________ _________ fibers pathway _____ pyramidal neurons Schaffer _______________ ____ pyramidal neurons Much of the work done in the __________________ is in the __________ regions.

Major Regions, Excitatory Pathways and Synaptic Connections of the Rodent Hippocampus Cross section of the hippocampus will reveal Perforant pathway Dentate gyrus Mossy fibers pathway CA3 pyramidal neurons Schaffer collaterals CA1 pyramidal neurons Much of the work done in the hippocampus is in the CA3/CA1 regions

Mechanisms of LTP/Synaptic Plasticity in _____ Glutamate receptors mediate ________________ synaptic transmission active synapse depolarization of postsynaptic neuron Synaptic strengthening occurs when neurotransmitter binds to depolarized postsynaptic membrane. _______ receptors Na+ ions enter to cause ______ NDMARs - ______ entry only if the cell is depolarized enough to displace _______ ions that clog channel Inhibition of NMDAR (2-Amino-5-phosphonopentanoate -5-AP, DXM, MK801) blocks LTP Ca++ binds with ____________ Ca++ - activates _____ & _____________ Inhibition of kinases blocks _____ AMPA receptors are located inside the ______________, but move to the tips of spines after LTP. More AMPA receptor insertion and more __________ involvement.

Mechanisms of LTP/Synaptic Plasticity in CA1 Glutamate receptors mediate excitatory synaptic transmission active synapse depolarization of postsynaptic neuron Synaptic strengthening occurs when neurotransmitter binds to depolarized postsynaptic membrane. AMPA receptors Na+ ions enter to cause EPSP NDMARs - Ca++ entry only if the cell is depolarized enough to displace Mg++ ions that clog channel Inhibition of NMDAR (2-Amino-5-phosphonopentanoate -5-AP, DXM, MK801) blocks LTP Ca++ binds with CaM-KII Ca++ - activates PKC & CaMKII Inhibition of kinases blocks LTP AMPA receptors are located inside the dendrite, but move to the tips of spines after LTP. More AMPA receptor insertion and more spines involvement.

Mechanisms of Synaptic Plasticity LTP results in the insertion of new _______ (non NMDA) ___________ into the ____________. More ____________ receptors means stronger potentials in an active synapse. Synaptic Growth Dendritic spines are perforated (split) after LTP suggesting new growth. Perforated synapses result in production of new synapses. After LTP, a single synapse may be perforated into numerous (___ _____________) synapses.

Mechanisms of Synaptic Plasticity LTP results in the insertion of new AMPA (non NMDA) receptors into the dendrite. More glutamate receptors means stronger potentials in an active synapse. Synaptic Growth Dendritic spines are perforated (split) after LTP suggesting new growth. Perforated synapses result in production of new synapses. After LTP, a single synapse may be perforated into numerous (3x increase) synapses.

Memory is a _____________ (recall) of past experiences/learnt. Initial acquisition (_____________) involves 'learning' Neurons that discharge together to produce a specific experience, are altered so that they have a tendency to _____ ____________ again. This is further maintained via activity-induced restructuring of the brain which forges new connections between ____________. Events that are destined to be recalled (______________) are more strongly encoded compared to events that are later forgotten.

Memory is a recreation (recall) of past experiences/learnt. Initial acquisition (encoding) involves 'learning' Neurons that discharge together to produce a specific experience, are altered so that they have a tendency to fire together again. This is further maintained via activity-induced restructuring of the brain which forges new connections between neurons. Events that are destined to be recalled (RETRIEVED) are more strongly encoded compared to events that are later forgotten.

NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH COGNITIVE DECLINES GAP-43 in the frontal cortex and in the hippocampus in _______________s disease: an immunohistochemical and quantitative study. (Bogdanovic et sl., J Neural Transm (2000) 107: 463-478). Quantitative analysis showed that GAP-43 was significantly reduced in AD, both in the _________ _________ and in the ___________________. A significant positive correlation was found between GAP-43 and the number of ________ ________ in the ____________________ but not in the frontal cortex. in the frontal cortex, _____________ levels decline as a consequence of the synaptic degeneration in the ________________, sprouting processes, involving GAP-43, are active.

NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH COGNITIVE DECLINES GAP-43 in the frontal cortex and in the hippocampus in Alzheimer's disease: an immunohistochemical and quantitative study. (Bogdanovic et sl., J Neural Transm (2000) 107: 463-478). Quantitative analysis showed that GAP-43 was significantly reduced in AD, both in the frontal cortex and in the hippocampus. A significant positive correlation was found between GAP-43 and the number of senile plaques in the hippocampus but not in the frontal cortex. in the frontal cortex, GAP-43 levels decline as a consequence of the synaptic degeneration in the hippocampus, sprouting processes, involving GAP-43, are active.

Neurogenesis There a several factors that may augment the process of rewiring and neuronal survival Experiences: (6) Growth factors increase _____________ growth factor favors differentiation into glial cells, whereas ______________ growth factors promote neuronal production ____________ factors probably mediate the effects of other factors

Neurogenesis There a several factors that may augment the process of rewiring and neuronal survival Experiences: Enriched environment increases Promotion of cell survival Learning tasks increase Stress reduces Reduce drugs of abuse - alcohol, nicotine, psychostimulants, opiates Voluntary exercise and antidepressants Neurochemicals Growth factors increase Epidermal growth factor favors differentiation into glial cells, whereas fibroblasts growth factors promote neuronal production Neurotrophic factors probably mediate the effects of other factors

Neuronal Repair The onset of motor disability simultaneously creates a powerful incentive to develop new, compensatory ways of performing daily activities. Molecular mechanism for neural repair. Axonal and dendritic sprouting - substantial that it remaps the predominant pattern of cortical connection. Partially degenerated neurons increase the expression of ________ and _______________ that help them survive the damage and promote _______________. Recovery - to the ______________ of a function back to a more-normal, pre-injured state Compensation - to the ________________ for, or circumvention of, impaired functions.

Neuronal Repair The onset of motor disability simultaneously creates a powerful incentive to develop new, compensatory ways of performing daily activities. Molecular mechanism for neural repair. Axonal and dendritic sprouting - substantial that it remaps the predominant pattern of cortical connection. Partially degenerated neurons increase the expression of genes and molecules that help them survive the damage and promote structuring. Recovery - to the restoration of a function back to a more-normal, pre-injured state Compensation - to the substitution for, or circumvention of, impaired functions.

Neuronal Rewiring Moken children are able to make their _________ _____________ and change their lens shape underwater. Seals and dolphins have a similar adaptation A group of European children on holiday in Thailand, and a separate group of children in Sweden took part in training sessions, in which they dived underwater and tried to work out the direction of lines on a card. After 11 sessions across one month, both groups had attained the same underwater acuity as the Moken children. The adults have lost the ability to see underwater because their lenses are ______ _______

Neuronal Rewiring Moken children are able to make their pupils smaller and change their lens shape underwater. Seals and dolphins have a similar adaptation A group of European children on holiday in Thailand, and a separate group of children in Sweden took part in training sessions, in which they dived underwater and tried to work out the direction of lines on a card. After 11 sessions across one month, both groups had attained the same underwater acuity as the Moken children.

Neuroplasticity - ability of the brain to reorganize by creating new ________ ____________ to adapt, as it is needs. Comparable to brain's way of __________ itself to meet your needs. *New neural pathways or ____________ _______________ are made the same way when we __________ ____________ ____*. The more you focus and practice something, the better you become at the new skill that you are learning or an _____________ you are trying to overcome. Ultimately the plastic ability of the brain helps us ____________ our new skill ___________ is then formed

Neuroplasticity - ability of the brain to reorganize by creating new neural pathways to adapt, as it is needs. Comparable to brain's way of tuning itself to meet your needs. *New neural pathways or synaptic connections are made the same way when we learn something new*. The more you focus and practice something, the better you become at the new skill that you are learning or an obstacle you are trying to overcome. Ultimately the plastic ability of the brain helps us sharpen our new skill Memory is then formed

Neuroplasticity makes your brain extremely _____________ the process by which all _________________ learning takes place in your brain. Neuroplasticity also enables people to recover from stroke, injury, and birth abnormalities. Overcome ________ ADD and _______ Learning ______________ and other brain deficits Pull out of ______________ and addictions Reverse obsessive ______________ patterns

Neuroplasticity makes your brain extremely resilient the process by which all permanent learning takes place in your brain. Neuroplasticity also enables people to recover from stroke, injury, and birth abnormalities. Overcome autism ADD and ADHD Learning disabilities and other brain deficits Pull out of depression and addictions Reverse obsessive compulsive patterns

Patient Boswell's amnesia Age 48 developed _________ ________ _________ After recovery, his post-disease intelligence was _________ ___________ __________ and ______________ was intact Was left with profound __________ (both retrograde and anterograde) for events both prior to and since his ________________. His ______________ memory was intact

Patient Boswell's amnesia Age 48 developed herpes simplex encephalitis After recovery, his post-disease intelligence was below average Speech and language was intact Was left with profound amnesia (both retrograde and anterograde) for events both prior to and since his encephalitis. His implicit memory was intact

Patient HM - Following Surgery: HM could not: - learn new ______ - no _________ ability - keep track of current events - recall some memories in response to question, e.g., the characters in novel? (_________ memory deficit) HM could: - acquire _______ _______ - experience influences __________ even if it was not remembered, e.g., always chose person who was ______________ to him (___________ memory)

Patient HM - Following Surgery: HM could not: - learn new facts - no spatial ability - keep track of current events - recall some memories in response to question, e.g., the characters in novel? (explicit memory deficit) HM could: - acquire new skills - experience influences behavior even if it was not remembered, e.g., always chose person who was friendly to him (implicit memory)

Processes leading to long term memory formation encompass 5 basic stages ________________: Brain sorts out what will be useful later and prepares to keep it. ____ ______: New information is associated with pre-existing memories (building on past). __________________: New events activate some of the past experiences to guide future actions. __________: Restructuring/expansion of existing experiences to accommodate new information. _______________: Unless pre-existing experiences are refreshed (replayed) often, they are gradually lost (disconnected).

Processes leading to long term memory formation encompass 5 basic stages Selection: Brain sorts out what will be useful later and prepares to keep it. Lay down: New information is associated with pre-existing memories (building on past). Recollection: New events activate some of the past experiences to guide future actions. Change: Restructuring/expansion of existing experiences to accommodate new information. Forgetting: Unless pre-existing experiences are refreshed (replayed) often, they are gradually lost (disconnected).

Qualitative Human Memory Nondeclarative/Implicit memory - Memory for _____ or _____________ (unconscious memory or ________________ memory) Do not require conscious executive control Storage and retrieval are usually ___________________ Walking, driving, skiing, typing, reading reversed text Brain (____________ and ________ _________) areas processing procedural memories are more __________ and __________, depending on the type of procedural memory. Procedural memory - ability to carry out commonly learned tasks without ______________ thinking about them. Priming - you are primed to recall something you have _____________ ______.

Qualitative Human Memory Nondeclarative/Implicit memory - Memory for skills or behaviors (unconscious memory or automatic memory) Do not require conscious executive control Storage and retrieval are usually nonconscious Walking, driving, skiing, typing, reading reversed text Brain (cerebellum and basal ganglia) areas processing procedural memories are more complex and diverse, depending on the type of procedural memory. Procedural memory - ability to carry out commonly learned tasks without consciously thinking about them. Priming - you are primed to recall something you have experienced quickly

Regeneration Several neurotrophic factor genes have been shown to be useful in preventing cell death after axotomy and the use of this approach to improve neurite elongation, and possibly ________ ________ _________. Geschuind, et al., (1996) demonstrated that _______ gene therapy can induce neurite outgrowth from mammalian auditory neurons. Gene therapy with NGF has also been shown to induce axonal growth from cholinergic neurons, and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) gene therapy can increase sprouting of dopaminergic axons in the striatum.

Regeneration Several neurotrophic factor genes have been shown to be useful in preventing cell death after axotomy and the use of this approach to improve neurite elongation, and possibly growth cone guidance. Geschuind, et al., (1996) demonstrated that BDNF gene therapy can induce neurite outgrowth from mammalian auditory neurons. Gene therapy with NGF has also been shown to induce axonal growth from cholinergic neurons, and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) gene therapy can increase sprouting of dopaminergic axons in the striatum.

Rehabilitation Rehabilitation requires rewiring of neuronal circuits - ______________ _________ Creating a challenging environment that naturally challenges the injured individual's capacity for neuronal change. During rehabilitation, the functioning arm and hand of a ______________ were tied down. His task involved cleaning tables. In time, the 'bad' arm 'remembered' how it should move. The surgeon ____________ how to write, play tennis and many other things Functions of the areas of the brains that were damaged were transferred to __________ regions of the brain.

Rehabilitation Rehabilitation requires rewiring of neuronal circuits - functional shift Creating a challenging environment that naturally challenges the injured individual's capacity for neuronal change. During rehabilitation, the functioning arm and hand of a surgeon were tied down. His task involved cleaning tables. In time, the 'bad' arm 'remembered' how it should move. The surgeon relearnt how to write, play tennis and many other things Functions of the areas of the brains that were damaged were transferred to healthy regions of the brain.

Summary Memory is an ________ process as a recreation (recall) of past experiences. Declarative and non-declarative memories are associated with ____________ areas of the brain Different stages of memory formation Activity-dependent production of ____ can be affected by changes in the neuronal circuit. ________ Synthesis ___________ growth Damage to the ________________ memory Neuronal _____________ and _____________ Regeneration through ________ ___________ and other factors

Summary Memory is an active process as a recreation (recall) of past experiences. Declarative and non-declarative memories are associated with different areas of the brain Different stages of memory formation Activity-dependent production of LTP can be affected by changes in the neuronal circuit. Protein Synthesis Synaptic growth Damage to the hippocampus memory Neuronal remapping and rewiring Regeneration through gene therapy and other factors

Temporal Stages of Memory Working (sensory) memory - held for a ____ ______________ Spatial working memory (where) - _____________ ____________ _______________. What the object is - ___________________ cortex. Short-term memory - information is stored for use for a few minutes (grocery list). Memory is stored in the _________________, ________________ cortex and ______________. Short term acquired information is transferred to long term _______________ ____________ Long term memory - permanent information storage is throughout the ________ Consolidation may occur during _______ when the _______________ ________ _________ neurons that project to the ___________________ are active

Temporal Stages of Memory Working (sensory) memory - held for a few seconds Spatial working memory (where) - dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. What the object is - orbitoprefrontal cortex. Short-term memory - information is stored for use for a few minutes (grocery list). Memory is stored in the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex and amygdala. Short term acquired information is transferred to long term declarative memory Long term memory - permanent information storage is throughout the cortex Consolidation may occur during sleep when the serotonergic raphe nucleus neurons that project to the hippocampus are active

The Molecular Basis of Long-Term Memory Additional de novo Protein Synthesis Requirement of _________________ memory Synthesis of new __________ (e.g. cAMP, CREB, GAP-43, Alpha synuclein. AMPA and NMDA receptor) CREB - genetic disruptions of CREB activity in several animal species leads to severe deficits in _____________ and _____________ GAP-43 is involved in _____________ of synapses and in neuritic ______________. Immediate early genes (IEGs) and synaptic proteins are widely believed to play a critical role in transformation of activity in neural circuits into long-term memories in the brain. (5) Protein Synthesis and Memory Protein synthesis inhibitors Deficits in learning and memory

The Molecular Basis of Long-Term Memory Additional de novo Protein Synthesis Requirement of long-term memory Synthesis of new protein (e.g. cAMP, CREB, GAP-43, Alpha synuclein. AMPA and NMDA receptor) CREB - genetic disruptions of CREB activity in several animal species leads to severe deficits in learning and memory GAP-43 is involved in maintenance of synapses and in neuritic regeneration. Immediate early genes (IEGs) and synaptic proteins are widely believed to play a critical role in transformation of activity in neural circuits into long-term memories in the brain. c-fos, BDNF, c-jun, ΔFosB, Early Growth Response (Egr) Protein Synthesis and Memory Protein synthesis inhibitors Deficits in learning and memory

The role of neural plasticity in formation and modification of cortical maps Neuronal maps are set up crudely during development, are refined by ___________, and respond to changes in the environment. There is generally a critical period during which the map may be radically altered by ____________________ change, and then later period when the maps may be more static. __________ - ability of the brain the change and be _______________ Functional plasticity - the brain can move a function from a damaged area of the brain to an _______________ one. Structural plasticity - the brain's incredible ability to change its physical structure as a result of ______________ or _____________.

The role of neural plasticity in formation and modification of cortical maps Neuronal maps are set up crudely during development, are refined by activity, and respond to changes in the environment. There is generally a critical period during which the map may be radically altered by environmental change, and then later period when the maps may be more static. Plasticity - ability of the brain the change and be dynamic Functional plasticity - the brain can move a function from a damaged area of the brain to an undamaged one. Structural plasticity - the brain's incredible ability to change its physical structure as a result of experience or learning.

To remember anything a person must (3) Memory is an _________ process our existing knowledge is always _____________ and always being examined and reformulated by our thinking

To remember anything a person must Acquire a piece of information Retain it Retrieve it Memory is an active process our existing knowledge is always changing and always being examined and reformulated by our thinking

Two-stage model of recovery According to World Health Organization Recovery relates to: Restoration of neural tissue initially _____________ after the injury (_________ level) Restoration of movement exactly as it was performed prior (____________ level) Restoration of activity exactly as it was performed prior (_________ level) Compensation refers to: Recruitment of new neural circuits (_________ level) Training of new movement sequences (______________ level) Training of activity in a new way after injury (__________ level)

Two-stage model of recovery According to World Health Organization Recovery relates to: Restoration of neural tissue initially perturbed after the injury (neural level) Restoration of movement exactly as it was performed prior (behavioral level) Restoration of activity exactly as it was performed prior (activity level) Compensation refers to: Recruitment of new neural circuits (neural level) Training of new movement sequences (behavioral level) Training of activity in a new way after injury (activity level)

Vertebrate Models of Learning and Memory The ____________ hippocampus has been used to demonstrate activity-induced changes in synaptic efficacy undergirding memory formation

Vertebrate Models of Learning and Memory The rodent hippocampus has been used to demonstrate activity-induced changes in synaptic efficacy undergirding memory formation

Your brain is plastic. positive changes in brain areas of experts in a specific domain have been documented A study by Maguire, Woollett and Spiers (2006) showed that London taxi drivers have a ________ ______________ than bus drivers owing to the fact that this region of the brain is specialized in acquiring and using complex spatial information in order to navigate _______________. taxi drivers have to navigate around cities very efficiently and memorized city map to be licensed, but bus drivers follow a limited set of routes. A 2004 study by Mechelli showed that people who are ___________ have a larger ______ ______________ ____________ ___________ is larger than that in ____________________ people.

Your brain is plastic. positive changes in brain areas of experts in a specific domain have been documented A study by Maguire, Woollett and Spiers (2006) showed that London taxi drivers have a larger hippocampus than bus drivers owing to the fact that this region of the brain is specialized in acquiring and using complex spatial information in order to navigate efficiently. taxi drivers have to navigate around cities very efficiently and memorized city map to be licensed, but bus drivers follow a limited set of routes. A 2004 study by Mechelli showed that people who are bilingual have a larger left inferior parietal cortex is larger than that in monolingual people.

changes in the neuronal circuit Injury - _______, ____________ Pharmacological assault Common impairments reported in ________ addicts involve episodic memory Chronic METH abuser seem to have an abnormal brain size that is comparable with patients with ______ ____________ and _____________________.

changes in the neuronal circuit Injury - stroke, surgery Pharmacological assault Common impairments reported in METH addicts involve episodic memory Chronic METH abuser seem to have an abnormal brain size that is comparable with patients with early dementia and schizophrenia.