NGEC 8 ETHICS
Distributive justice Retributive or corrective justice Compensatory justice
DIFFERENT KINDS OF JUSTICE
PRIVATE RIGHTS
Example: A contract entered into by two people gives rise to private rights to them.
Uninheritable Rights
Example: All personal rights are ____________
RIGHT IN REALIENA
Example: Right of way over the neighbor's field. So, it is not an absolute right.
PERSONAL RIGHT
Example: Right to life.
PUBLIC RIGHTS
Example: Right to vote, Right to use public parks, etc.
REAL RIGHT
Example: Tort or crime
PERSONAL RIGHT (CONTRACTUAL NI SA)
Example: breach of contract
Proprietary Right
Example: the right to ownership of property, Right to patent, Right to goodwill, etc.
'Principle of Utility', alternatively called 'The Greatest Happiness Principle' (GHP)
First Principle of Morals
John Rawls
His THEORY OF JUSTICE as fairness describes a society of free citizens holding EQUAL BASIC RIGHTS and cooperating within an egalitarian economic system. His THEORY OF POLITICAL LIBERALISM delineates THE LEGITIMATE USE OF POLITICAL POWER in a DEMOCRACY, and envisions how civic unity might endure despite the diversity of worldviews that free institutions allow. His WRITINGS ON THE LAW OF PEOPLE set out a liberal foreign policy that aims to create a PERMANENTLY PEACEFUL and TOLERANT international order.
Jeremy Bentham
He viewed LIBERTY AND AUTONOMY as good —— but good instrumentally, not intrinsically. Thus any action deemed wrong due to a violation of autonomy is derivatively wrong an instrumental grounds as well.
■Treat everyone as an end and never as a means ■Good Will is the only good thing in itself ■Only act upon that maxim which you can at the same time, will that it should be a universal law ■Actions that fuel the good will are done for the sake of duty ■If you are inclined to do something, your actions have no moral worth.
Highlights of Kantian ethics
PERFECT AND IMPERFECT RIGHTS POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE RIGHTS REAL AND PERSONAL RIGHTS PROPRIETARY AND PERSONAL RIGHTS PUBLIC AND PRIVATE RIGHTS INHERITABLE AND UNIHERITABLE RIGHTS RIGHT IN REPRORIA AND RIGHT IN REALIENA
KINDS OF LEGAL RIGHTS
'moral rights'. ■They mean you must: attribute (give credit to) the creator not say a person is a creator of a work when they're not do something with a work (such as change or add to it) that would have a negative impact on the creator's reputation ■These obligations do not apply if you have the creator's consent, or if you act reasonably (as set out in the legislation; industry practice can be relevant). ■Creators have moral rights even if they do not own copyright in their work. They cannot sell or completely waive their rights, but they can give consent for certain things that may otherwise breach their moral rights.
There are legal obligations to attribute creators and treat their work with respect. These creators' rights are known as __________
fair result (substantive fairness) fair procedures (procedural fairness)
These are the two aspects of fairness:
UTILITARIANS
They REJECT MORAL CODES or systems that consist of commands or taboos that are based on customs, traditions, or orders given by leaders or supernatural being. Instead THEY think that what makes a morality be true or justifiable is its positive contribution to human (and perhaps non- human) beings.
Richard Cumberland (1631-17818) and John Gay (1699-1745).
They believed that promoting human happiness was INCUMBENT on us since it was approved by God.
A holy or divine will, if it exists, though good, would not be good because it is motivated by thoughts of duty because such a will does not have natural inclinations and so necessarily fulfills moral requirements without feeling constrained to do so.
A human will in which the Moral Law is decisive is motivated by the thought of duty.
Aristotle
According to him, virtue is a habit. He believed that virtue as a habit requires an intentional choice when you begin. The habit of virtue is not yet developed, but over time one becomes used to behaving virtuously and after a while one acts virtuously without needing to use volition
RIGHT OF ASSOCIATION
being able to choose in WHAT CONTEXTS and in ASSOCIATION with which works or causes the creative work is shown and/or used is also an important author's right in copyright law. An author may be able to claim moral rights infringement and seek a remedy if use of their original work directly threatens an author's good name or reputation
the moral virtues.
excellences of character
Foundations of Metaphysics of Morals
explains the PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF MORALITY and moral actions
Virtue ethics
falls somewhat outside the traditional DICHOTOMY between deontological ethics and consequentialism:
teleological/teleology
from Greek telos, "end"; logos, "science"
fairness
has also been used to refer to the ABILITY TO MAKE JUDGMENTS that are not overly general but that are concrete and specific to a particular case.
fairness
has been used with regard to an ABILITY TO JUDGE without reference to one's feelings or interests;
John Stuart Mill
was a follower of Bentham, and, through most of his life, greatly admired Bentham's work even though he disagreed with some of Bentham's claims, particularly on the nature of 'happiness.
John Rawls
was an American political philosopher in the liberal tradition
Categorical Imperative
was devised by Immanuel Kant to provide a SET OF REQUIREMENTS A MAXIM (or motivation) MUST PASS in order for the action to be considered a moral obligation.
MORAL RIGHTS
■These arise out of a general principle of fairness and justice. IT may or may not be enforced and supported by the law of the land but which ought to be respected.
Negative Rights
■prevent a person to do some act, that is it corresponds to a negative duty.
Utilitarianism
is a tradition stemming from the late 18th- and 19th-century English philosophers and economists Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill that an action is right if it tends to promote happiness and wrong if it tends to produce the reverse of happiness—not just the happiness of the performer of the action but also that of everyone affected by it.
a good will
is a will whose decisions are wholly determined by moral demands or, as he often refers to this, by the Moral Law
Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle)
is an INQUIRY INTO THE BEST LIFE for human beings to live
Capitalism
is an economic system where PRIVATE ENTITIES own the factors of production. The four factors are entrepreneurship, capital goods, natural resources and labor. The owner of capital goods, natural resources and entrepreneurship exercise control through companies . The individual own his or her labor , the only exception is slavery, where someone else owns a person's labor. Although illegal throughout the entire world, slavery is still widely practiced.
JUSTICE
is an expression of our mutual recognition of each other's basic DIGNITY, and an acknowledgement that if we are to live together in an interdependent community we must treat each other as EQUALS.
Distributive justice
is another form of egalitarianism that addresses life outcomes and the ALLOCATION of valuable things such as income, wealth, and other goods.
Proprietary Right
is available with respect to a PROPERTY that is it relates to the owner & his assets. The assets must have some monetary value.
Cultural Relativism
is closely linked to Moral Subjectivism. It implies that we cannot criticize the actions of those in cultures other than our own.
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS' NATURAL LAW
is comprised of those precepts of the ETERNAL LAW that govern the behavior of beings possessing REASON AND FREEWILL
Fairness
is concerned with actions, processes, and consequences, that are morally right, honorable, and EQUITABLE
Good Will
is good by virtue because it is the will to follow the Moral Laws.
fairness
is more commonly about how those principles are APPLIED to a specific set of circumstances or a particular situation.
Happiness
is not pleasure nor is it virtue. It is the exercise of virtue. Since man is a rational animal, human happiness depends on acquiring a moral character where one displays the virtues of courage, generosity, justice, friendship and citizenship in one's life.
Reason
is objective and universal for humanity and so is a reliable and REASONABLE basis for a moral theory.
Justice
is often about overriding principles
egalitarian
is often used to refer to a POSITION that favors, for any of a wide array of reasons, a GREATER DEGREE OF EQUALITY of income and wealth across persons than currently exists.
positive right
is one in which the corresponding duty REQUIRES A POSITIVE ACTION, e.g., giving a charitable donation in order to sustain someone's right to life, shelter, education, etc.
negative right
is one in which the corresponding duty merely requires REFRAINING FROM DOING SOMETHING THAT WILL HARM SOMEONE.
Virtue ethics
is primarily concerned with traits of character that are ESSENTIAL TO HUMAN FLOURISHING, not with the enumeration of duties.
egalitarianism Although all egalitarians believe in equality, they often differ in their understanding of the qualities all humans share.
is the BELIEF that all humans share an essence or quality that MAKES THEM EQUAL
Happiness
is the PRACTICE OF VIRTUE OR EXCELLENCE (arete), and so it is important to know the two types of virtue: character virtue, the discussion of which makes up the bulk of the Ethics, and intellectual virtue
Utilitarianism
is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall utility in maximizing happiness or pleasure as summed among all people.
Good Will (i.e., having the right intentions) So, actions are truly moral only if they have the right intention, i.e., based on Good Will.
is the only thing that is good without qualification.
Ethics
is the philosophical study of Morality.
RIGHT IN REALIENA
is the right in the PROPERTY OF ANOTHER PERSON
Morality
is the system through which we determine right and wrong conduct
Ethical Egoism
is usually based upon Psychological Egoism -- that we, by nature, act selfishly.
Cultural Relativism
it implies that a culture cannot be mistaken about what is right and wrong (which seems not to be true), and so it DENIES THE POSSIBILITY OF MORAL ADVANCEMENT (which also seems not to be true).
Ethical Egoism
it is immoral to act contrary to your self-interest.
SOCIALISM
its mantra is "from each according to his ABILITY, to each according to his CONTRIBUTION. Everyone in the society receives a share of the production based on how much each has contributed. That motivates them to work long hours if they want to receive more.
Justice is often about overriding principles and fairness is more commonly about how those principles are applied to a specific set of circumstances or a particular situation. Just as philosophy is about overriding principles and ethics is about how those principles are applied
justice : philosphy fairness : ethics
the person who helps others at the expense of their self-interest is actually acting immorally.
key implausibility of Ethical Egoism
sensation
lower pleasures are thos obtained through ___________
THEORY
may either be scientific or other than scientific (or scientific to less extent). Depending on the context, the results might, for example, include generalized explanations of how nature works.
Justice
means giving each person what he or she DESERVES or, in more traditional terms, giving each person his or her due.
Ethical Egoism
morality is the system of practical reasoning through which we are guided to constrain our self-interest, not further it.
Utilitarianism
morally right actions are those that produce the best overall consequences / total amount of pleasure or absence of pain.
Personal right
persona is available against a particular person & it corresponds to duty the duty imposed upon a particular person. Therefore, IT generally arises out of contractual obligation. Example: breach of contract
moral theories
provide the framework upon which we think and DISCUSSED IN A REASONED WAY, and so evaluate, specific moral issues.
ATTRIBUTION RIGHTS
refer to the author's ability TO NAME HIMSELF or herself as the author of the work publicly, and to have their name appear in any relevant authorship sections of the work (i.e., credits of a film, signature of the artist on a painting, name of an author on a literary work, etc.). It also entitle the author to remain anonymous, if they so choose.
Retributive or corrective justice.
refers to extent in which PUNISHMENT is FAIR and JUST. In general, punishment are held to be just to the extent that they take into account relevant criteria such as the seriousness of the crime and the intent of the criminal, and discount irrelevant criteria such as race. It would be barbarously unjust, for example, to chop off person's hand for stealing a dime, or to impose the death penalty on a person who by accident and without negligence injured another party.
Distributive justice
refers to the extent to which society's institutions ensure that benefits and burdens are DISTRIBUTED among society's members in ways that are FAIR and JUST. When the institutions of a society distribute benefits or burdens in unjust ways, there is a strong presumption that those institutions should be changed.
Compensatory justice
refers to the extent which people are FAIRLY COMPENSATED for their INJURIES by those who have injured them; just compensation is proportional to the loss inflicted on a person.
principles of retributive or restorative justice
shape our response to activity that VIOLATES a society's rules of "fair play."
Sometimes a case may suggest that we need to change or adjust our thinking about what moral theory we think is the best, or perhaps it might lead us to think that a preferred theory needs modification.
sound moral thinking does NOT simply involve going ONE WAY -- from theory to applied issue.
Rights-based Theories
states that we are to act in accordance with a set of MORAL RIGHTS, which we possess simply by being human.
Feminist Ethics
suggests that we need to consider the self as at least PARTLY CONSTRUCTED by SOCIAL RELATIONS.
the highest good/end
summum bonum means
'The Greatest Happiness Principle' (GHP) (under Utilitarianism)
usually characterized as the ideal of working towards the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
fairness
usually comes down to APPLYING the same rules, standards and criteria in similar situation. The purpose is to reduce the role of bias in one's decision making, thus, leveling the playing field.
justice
usually has been used with reference to a STANDARD OF RIGHTNESS
the nature of correlative duty it carries with it.
The basis of distinguishing right as positive or negative is __________
RIGHTS OF ASSOCIATION
(i.e., a painting being showcased in a hunting exhibition that was created by an animal rights advocate who makes works about animal rights).
RIGHTA OF ATTRIBUTION
(i.e., credits of a film, signature of the artist on a painting, name of an author on a literary work, etc.).
What is Categorical Imperative
"Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law" "So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in another, always as an end, and never as only a means."
Moral Subjectivism
'right' and 'wrong' lose their meaning because so long as someone THINKS OR FEELS that some action is 'right', there are no grounds for criticism.
Misericordia
A primary example for Thomas is __________ which is the virtue that PERTAINS TO SUFFERING with others and acting to alleviate their suffering. It looks like Justice because it bears upon the good of another. And yet it is different from Justice because it springs from the natural friendship that all human beings bear to one another, and requires that one take upon oneself the sufferings of other human beings. Thomas explicitly but unconvincingly claims that Aristotle recognized it. And yet in the Summa Theologiae he says that it is an effect of Charity. In that case there is an acquired form of it and an infused form of it. As infused, it is informed by the love of God and the love of neighbor in God which is beatitude.
UTILITARIANS
ACCORDING TO THEM it is possible for the right thing to be done from a bad motive.
Most important for economic growth is CAPITALISM'S INTRINSIC REWARD FOR INNOVATION. This includes innovation in more efficient production methods. It also means innovation of new products. As Steve Jobs said " you can't just ask customers what they want and then try to give that to them. By the time you get it built, they'll want something new.
ADVANTAGES Capitalism result in the best products for the best prices. That's because consumers will pat more for what they want the most. Business provide what customers want at the highest prices they'll pay. Prices are kept low by competition among businesses. They make their products as efficient as possible to maximize profit.
The moral duty to be fair places constraints on our judgments and actions.
Almost everyone has the power to give or withhold benefits (including approval, praise, honor and support) and to impose burdens (including disapproval, criticism, blame, and condemnation)
Teleological ethics (TELEOLOGICAL)
Also known as consequentialist ethics consequentialism
That telos is eudaimonia, or happiness, where " happiness" is understood in terms of completion, perfection, or well—being. Achieving happiness, however, requires a range of intellectual and moral virtues that enable us to understand the nature of happiness and motivate us to seek it in a reliable and consistent way.
Aquinas follows Aristotle in thinking that an act is a good or bad depending on whether it contributes to or deters us from our proper human end—— the telos or final goal at which all human actions aim.
to lead a life of true flourishing as a human, which required abiding by the dictates of rationality and so acting in accordance with the traditional virtues.(virtue ethics)
Aristotle thought that humans had a specific function. This function is ________________
The Merchant Marine Deck Officer has a moral obligation and social responsibility to practice his profession according to a Code of Ethics and Conduct. Every Merchant Marine Deck Officer shall regard the Code of Ethics as a way of life which has its foundation in Honesty, Truth, Justice, Integrity, and Love of the Country, not as a set of rules which should strictly be observed. Professionalism is the keystone of every Merchant Marine Deck Officer in the conduct of his profession and above all upholds the honor and dignity of every Filipino Merchant Marine Deck Officer.
Article I GENERAL PROVISION
a) A deck officer shall strive to elevate, maintain and contribute to the HONOR AND DIGNITY of the profession. b) He shall conduct himself with the traditional decorum of an OFFICER and a gentleman, restraining himself from all acts contrary to the established rules of MORALITY AND PERSONAL DISCIPLINE. c) He shall continually improve his professional competency by keeping up to date with the latest technological and SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE being applied in the MARINE FIELDS. d) It shall be his obligation to keep himself prepared for the next higher license through reading, DILIGENT STUDIES and keen observation of the shipboard activities. e) He shall MAKE FINANCIAL GAIN secondary only to the service that the entire profession can render to the economic growth of the country. f) A deck officer shall NOT HESITATE TO CONSULT his fellow deck officers in matters that will affect the honor and integrity of the deck officer's profession. g) He shall EXPOSE, without fear or favor, to the proper authorities of the profession; corrupt or dishonest conduct of members of the profession whose existing practices can degrade the reputation of other practitioners. h) Every deck officer should aid in SAFEGUARDING THE PROFESSION against the admission to its ranks of persons who are unfit or unqualified in moral character or professional training.
Article II RELATION TO THE PROFESSION
a) A Deck Officer, in his capacity as a person of high technical potentialities and delegated with leadership for the discipline of his men, shall recognize and respect the SUPREME AUTHORITY OF THE STATE. b) A Deck Officer shall strive to become an exemplary citizen by the devoted or fruitful fulfillment of his CIVIC DUTIES. c) He shall perform his professional duties in conformity with the existing LAWS. d) He shall endeavor to assist and cooperate with proper authorities in the enforcement of maritime and customs REGULATIONS. e) He shall offer to the STATE his full knowledge and experience in the interest of NATIONAL SECURITY and especially in time of NATURAL EMERGENCY.
Article III RELATION TO THE STATE
a) Every deck officer shall compose himself as an officer and a gentleman, and act honorably when dealing with the GENERAL PUBLIC. b) He should be concerned foremost with the SAFETY OF EVERY MAN, WOMAN AND CHILD who boards the ship as a passenger by following all safety measures prescribed for shipboard use. c) He shall contribute his professional knowledge for the GENERAL PUBLIC WELFARE and comfort of the riding public to gain their respect and confidence. d) He shall, above all, continually consider the PRESERVATION OF LIFE, HEALTH AND POVERTY, even at the risk of his own life, to enhance the sense of public interest that is an integral obligation of the profession.
Article IV RELATION TO THE COMMUNITY
This Code of Ethics shall be published in the Official Gazette of the Code or any newspaper of general circulation to have the force and effect of Law. Copies of the Code shall be distributed every year to all Merchant Marine Deck Officer during the annual Conference Workshop conducted by the Integrated and accredited professional Merchant Marine Deck Officer (Master and Mates Association of the Philippines, Inc.) for proper information and guidance of all Merchant Marine both in public and government service and be distributed among all Merchant Marine Deck Officers immediately following their oath taking. It shall be included in the curriculum of all Maritime Institutions as part of the course of study in ship's familiarization, ethics and Maritime laws. Violations of any of the provision of the Code of Ethics shall constitute unethical and unprofessional conduct and therefore garner sufficient grounds for reprimand, suspension or revocation of the certificate of registration and certificate of competency of the offending Merchant Marine Deck Officer in accordance with the provision of Article IX Section 37 of R.A. 8544 known as the Philippine Merchant Marine Officers Act of 1998.
Article IX PENAL PROVISION
a) A superior officer shall always conduct himself with the proper decorum in his acts or deeds and thoughts to set an example for his SUBORDINATE BEFITTING HIS RANK OR DESIGNATION. b) He should give the necessary training, guidance and opportunities for the IMPROVEMENT OF HIS SUBORDINATE'S COMPETENCY and especially to overcome his shortcoming demanded by his license as a deck officer. c) He should continually MOLD THE CHARACTER OF HIS SUBORDINATE to impress the importance of command responsibility. d) He should give merits unselfishly when due, to inspire his subordinates to achieve greater result. e) He should not hesitate to listen to the advice of his subordinates but to exercise discretion before implementation. f) He should not hesitate to admit errors in his decision when it is obvious, but it must be done within the circle of staff.
Article V RELATION TO THE SUBORDINATE
a) Every deck officer should work TOGETHER in mutual cooperation and harmonious relationship by sharing individual knowledge for professional advancement. b) He should associate himself with his COLLEGUES in any reputable and recognized marine society to further broaden his knowledge. c) He should never attempt to issue statements to the general public concerning the shortcoming of his FELLOW OFFICERS. d) The following specified acts of a deck officer shall be deemed to be unethical as a breach of professional ethics, subject to immediate actions: 1) Open criticism of a fellow officer without knowledge of the other. 2) Spreading false information on the professional competency and ability of other practitioners. 3) Degrading a colleague in order to acquire his position. 4) False recommendation on the competency of another officer. 5) Maliciously withholding information or knowledge to place others in a controversial situation. 6) Tending to accept a position lower than his highest license to displace another officer applying for the same. 7) Exerting political influence to displace a co-marine officer or engineer. 8) Certifying that he can work better or could render service more satisfactorily than another. 9) Openly expressing that he holds exclusive methods of practice or style of service.
Article VII RELATION TO HIS FELLOW-PRACTITIONER
The Board of Directors of the Masters and Mates Association of the Philippines Incorporated by majority vote of all the Directors may amend or repeal the code or adopt a new Code of Ethics of the Merchant Marine Deck Officer in the Philippines subject to the review of the Board of Marine Deck Officer and approval by the Commission.
Article VIII AMENDMENTS
This Code shall take effect after approval by the Professional Regulation Commission and after fifteen (15) days following its publication in the Official Gazette or any newspaper of general circulation whichever comes first. Adopted in the City of Manila this ______day of November 1999. Board of Marine Deck Officers
Article X EFFECTIVITY
John Stuart Mill
Bentham's student who produced a more sophisticated version of Utilitarianism in which pleasures may be higher or lower.
rights of attribution and association rights of integrity.
■Moral rights can be divided into two overarching categories:
Kant had another way of formulating the Categorical Imperative that is worth noting. Never treat anyone merely as a means to an end. Rather, treat everyone as an end in themselves. We can understand this by noting an example, i.e., the slave society What is wrong with the slave society, following the above principle, is that a slave is treated as a means to the slave owner's ends, i.e., as an instrument or tool, not as a person. The upshot is that no person's interests (or rights) can be overridden by another's, or the majority.
Categorical Imperative = Principle of Universalizability (something like The Golden Rule). The basic idea is that we should adopt as action guiding rules (i.e., maxims) only those that can be universally accepted.
Kant's Theory
■Represent deontological ethics
In short term, inequality may seem to be in the best interest of capitalism winner. They have fewer competitive threats. They may also use their power to "rig the system" by creating barriers to the entry. For example, they will donate to elected officials who sponsor laws that benefit their industry. They could send their children to private schools while supporting lower taxes for public schools. Capitalism ignores external costs, such as pollution and climate change. This makes goods cheaper and more accessible in short run. But over time, it depletes natural resources, lowers the quality of life in the affected areas, and increases cost for everyone.
DISADVANTAGES Capitalism doesn't provide for those who lack competitive skills. This includes the elderly, children, the developmentally disabled, and caretakers. To keep the society functioning, capitalism requires government policies that value family unit. Despite the idea of a "level playing field," CAPITALISM DOES NOT PROMOTE EQUALITY AND OPPURTUNITY. Those without the proper nutrition, support, and education may never make it to the playing field. Society will never benefit from their valuable skills.
moral theory
EXPLAINS why a certain action is wrong -- or why we ought to act in certain ways.
egalitarianism is always based on theory of UNIVERSAL human COMMONALITY and because such universal human qualities are difficult to define, their essence is often unspecified by egalitarian thinkers. Nonetheless, anyone who believes all humans are equal must also believe all humans have some kind of essence or quality in common, because without commonality there can be no equality.
Every form of egalitarianism is cosmopolitan and inclusive. Those who see only the members of their own group as equal are not egalitarian. Because _________
LEGAL RIGHTS
■These are rights laid down in law and because they can be defended in a natural COURT of law they are the most solid of all rights.
1st Formulation of Categorical Imperative
FORMULATION ■"Act as if the maxim of your actions were to secure through your will a UNIVERSAL LAW OF NATURE." ■Meaning act as if in your will you were defining a maximum rule for all to follow.
2nd Formulation of Categorical Imperative
FORMULATION ■"Act so that you treat humanity , whether in your own person or that of another, always AS AN END AND NEVER AS A MEAN." ■See if your actions are using others or affecting others, in the meaning of never using them as a mean to achieve but always as an end.
1.Treat all people EQUITABLY based on their merits and abilities and handle all essentially SIMILAR situations SIMILARLY and with consistency 2.Make ALL DECISIONS on appropriate criteria, WITHOUT UNDUE FAVORITISM or improper prejudice. 3.Never blame or punish people for what they did not do, and appropriately sanctions those who violate moral obligations or laws. 4.Promptly and voluntarily correct personal and institutional mistakes and improprieties 5.Not take unfair advantage of people's mistakes or ignorance. 6.Fully consider the rights, interest, and perspective of all stakeholders, approach judgments with open-minded impartiality (setting aside prejudice and predisposition), conscientiously gather and verify facts, provide critical stakeholders with an opportunity to explain or clarify ,and carefully evaluate information.
Fairness requires that we:
"Ethica"
For Aristotle, the central concern is ______________ which means "things to do with character"
Usually we cannot make the required utilitarian calculation before acting. So, in most situations, following 'rules of thumb' will produce the best consequences. Democratic and economic principles reflect Utilitarianism.
For Utilitarians, no person's preferences or interests (including your own, your relatives, friends, neighbors, etc.) carry a greater weight than any other person's.
Distributive justice
For example, the American institution of slavery in the pre-civil war South was condemned as unjust because it was a glaring case of treating people differently on the basis of race.
Plato, John Rawls REPUBLIC; PLATO A THEORY OF JUSTICE; JOHN RAWLS
From the Republic, written by the ancient Greek philosopher _________, to A Theory of Justice, written by the late Harvard philosopher __________, every major work on ethics has held that justice is part of the central core of morality.
■Kant argues that no consequence can have fundamental moral worth; the only thing that is good in and of itself is the Good Will. The Good Will freely chooses to do its moral duty. That duty, in turn, is dictated solely by REASON. The Good Will thus consists of a person's freewill motivated purely by reason. Because the dictates of reason allow for no exceptions, moral duty is absolute.
Goodwill, Moral Worth and Duty
Francis Hutcheson
HE is EXPLICITLY UTILITARIAN when it comes to action choice
beatitubo
However, even though this ___________ is brought about supernaturally by the power of God, it is not utterly foreign to human nature. In effect, the supernatural power of God elevates or expands the power of intellect and will to a kind of completion beyond themselves and not yet foreign to them. So this distinction of a " two—fold happiness" should not be thought of as involving two fundamentally distinct goals or ends of human life. The second supernatural happiness is seen as a kind of surpassing perfection of the first (Bradley, 1997).
Moral Law
Human beings inevitably feel this Law as a CONSTRAINT ON THEIR NATURAL DESIRES, which is why such Laws, as applied to human beings, are imperatives and duties.
moral subjectivist
If you are a ______________, you cannot object to anyone's behavior (assuming people are in fact acting in accordance with what they think or feel is right).
deontological
In ____________ ethics an action is considered morally good because of some CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ACTION ITSELF, not because the product of the action is good
consequentialism (TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS)
In order to determine the best course of action according to ___________, you have to add up the total negative and positive consequences and subtract one from the other. For example, you need to consider not only the degree of happiness caused by an action, but also the number of people affected and for how long.
VIRTUE ETHICS
It agrees with consequentialism that the criterion of an action's being morally right or wrong lies in its relation to an end that has intrinsic value, but more closely resembles deontological ethics in its view that morally right actions are constitutive of the end itself and not mere instrumental means to the end
Formula of a Kingdom of Ends
It is a world in which EVERYONE ACTS FROM CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE, and although we may not live in this world, we must act as if we are. asks for us to act as if a LEGISLATING member in the universal Kingdom of Ends. According to this formula we must act on the assumption that everyone will follow the rules you make through your actions. If the intended action passes each of the formulations it is a categorical imperative and thus is not only right, but a moral obligation.
JUSTICE
It is action that pays due regard to the proper interests, property, and safety of one's fellows
Consequentialism
It upholds that the CONSEQUENCES of one's conduct are the ultimate BASIS FOR ANY JUDGMENT about the rightness or wrongness of the conduct. Thus from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right action is one that will produce a good outcome
Through a thought experiment, Rawls developed a way of getting people to come up with universal principles of justice. The basic idea is nothing new -- i.e., of impartial developing a social contract of universal principles -- but many find Rawls' novel method very appealing. The idea is to start by thinking, hypothetically, that we are at the beginning of forming a society and we want to know which principles of justice to ground the society. However, in this 'original position' we do this without knowing which position we will occupy in the future society -- we don't know if we will be rich or poor, male or female, old or young, etc. We then advocate those principles that will be in our self-interest (though we don't know what 'self' that will be). This forces us to be impartial, and if we are rational, to propose universal principles. The idea of the thought experiment is not to think that we actually begin again and construct a society from scratch. Rather, we can use the thought experiment as a test of actual principles of justice. If a principle is one that would not be adopted by people in the original position, behind the 'veil of ignorance (about who they will be), then it is unjust and should be rejected.
John Rawls' Thought Experiment (cONTRACTARIANISM)
Categorical Imperative All specific moral requirements, according to Kant, are justified by this principle, which means that all immoral actions are irrational because they violate the Categorical Imperative.
Kant characterized the _____________ as an objective, rationally necessary and UNCONDITIONAL PRINCIPLE that we must always follow despite any natural desires or inclinations we may have to the contrary.
maxims
Kant describes the will as operating on the basis of subjective VOLITIONAL PRINCIPLES he calls "____________-". Hence, morality and other rational requirements are, for the most part, demands that apply to the maxims that we act on.
"good will". While the phrases "he's good hearted", "she's good natured" and "she means well" are common, "the good will" as Kant thinks of it is not the same as any of these ordinary notions.
Kant's analysis of commonsense ideas begins with the thought that the only thing good without qualification is a ____________
Virtue Ethics
Like Plato, Aristotle wants to show that there are objective reasons for living in accordance with the traditional VIRTUES (wisdom, courage, justice and temperance). For Aristotle, this comes from a particular account of human nature -- i.e., the virtuous life is the 'happiest' (most fulfilling) life.
Mill also held that natural features of human psychology, such as conscience and a sense of justice, underwrite motivation. The sense of justice, for example, results from very natural impulses. Part of this sense involves a desire punish those who have harmed others, and this desire in turn "... is a spontaneous outgrowth from two sentiments, both in the highest degree natural ...; the impulse of self—defense, and the feeling of sympathy." In Utilitarianism, Mill argues that virtue not only has instrumental value, but is constitutive of the good life. A person without virtue is morally lacking, and is not as able to promote the good.
Mill's version of utilitarianism differed from Bentham's also in that he placed weight on the effectiveness of internal sanctions —— emotions like GUILT AND REMORSE which serve to regulate our actions. According to Mill, we are the sorts of beings that have social feelings, feelings for others, not just ourselves. We care about them, and when we perceived harms to them this causes painful experiences in us. When one perceives oneself to be the agent of that harm, the negative emotions are centered on the self. One feels guilt for what one has done, not for what one sees another doing. Like external forms of punishment, internal sanctions are instrumentally very important to appropriate action.
Feminist Ethics
Morality must be ground in 'moral emotions' like LOVE AND SYMPATHY, leading to relationships of CARING. This allows legitimate biases towards those with whom we have close social relationships.
The descriptive accounts of what people do is left to sociologists and anthropologists.
Most take moral theories to be prescriptive
"The Integrated and Accredited Maritime Association of Marine Deck Officer shall prescribe a Code of Ethics for Marine Deck Officer which shall be adopted by the Board of Marine Deck Officers and approved by the Commission."
R.A. 8544 is known as Philippine Merchant Marine Officers Act of 1998 under Section 40:
EGALITARIAN
REFERS TO: "a person who fights for civil rights". "a married couple that equally shares the household duties, child rearing, and financial responsibilities".
Real Right
REM corresponds to the duty imposed upon the people in general. It is AVAILABLE AGAINST THE WHOLE WORLD in general.
1.Each person is to have an EQUAL RIGHT to the most extensive total system of EQUAL BASIC LIBERTIES compatible with a similar system of liberty for all. This principle is mainly concerned with distribution of rights and liberties, the basic liberties of citizen are the political liberty to vote and run for office, freedom of speech and assembly, liberty of conscience, freedom of personal property and freedom form arbitrary arrest. However ,its is a matter of some debate whether freedom of contract can be inferred to be included among basic liberties. 2.Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both: (a) to the greatest benefit of least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principle, and (b) attached to offices an positions open to all under conditions of fair and equality of opportunity. These principle are lexically ordered, and Rawls emphasizes the priority of liberty. The first principle is often called the greatest equal liberty of principle. The second, until (a), the difference principle and the final addendum in (b) the equal opportunity principle.
Rawls identified two principles of justice, namely
CAPITALIST
Refers to the OWNERS of CAPITAL GOODS, natural resources, and entrepreneurship exercise control through companies. •The individual owns their labor. The only EXCEPTION is SLAVERY, where someone else owns a person's labor.
Virtue Ethics
Right and wrong are characterized in terms of acting in accordance with the TRADITIONAL VIRTUES -- making the good person.
Kantian Theory
Right and wrong is determined by RATIONALITY, giving UNIVERSAL DUTIES. It is a NON-CONCEQUENTIALIST MORAL THEORY.
Utilitarianism
Right and wrong is determined by the OVERALL GOODNESS (utility) of the consequences of action. It is also a Consequentialist moral theory.
Cultural Relativism
Right and wrong is determined by the particular set of principles or RULES THE RELEVANT CULTURE just happens to hold at the time.
Ethical Egoism
Right and wrong is determined by what is in your SELF-INTEREST.
Moral Subjectivism
Right and wrong is determined by what you -- the subject -- just happens to THINK (or 'FEEL') is right or wrong.
Feminist Ethics
Right and wrong is to be found in WOMENS' RESPONSES to the relationship of CARING.
liberal individualism and capitalism.
Socialism developed in opposition to the excesses and abuses to ___________________
Retributive or corrective justice.
Studies have frequently shown that when blacks murder whites, they are much more likely to receive death sentences that when whites murder whites or blacks murder black.
Utilitarianism
Such a theory is in opposition to egoism, the view that a person should pursue his own self-interest, even at the expense of others, and to any ethical theory that regards some acts or types of acts as right or wrong independently of their consequences
T
T/F it is possible for one to have an overall happy life, even if that life has its moments of sadness and pain
True
T/F it is possible to perform an excellent action accidently or without knowledge, but doing so would not make for an excellent person, just as accidently writing in a grammatically correct way does not make for a grammarian. One must be aware that one is practicing the life of virtue
T
T\F we cannot draw a sharp division between moral theory and applied ethics
1. Formula of the Law of Nature 2. The Formula of End 3. Formula of a Kingdom of Ends
The Categorical Imperative is determined by referring to three (3) formulations namely:
intellectual pursuits
The higher pleasures (those obtained through _____________
"good person" what makes a good person good is his possession of a will that is in a certain way "determined" by, or makes its decisions on the basis of, the moral law. The idea of a good will is supposed to be the idea of one who is committed only to make decisions that she holds to be morally worthy and who takes moral considerations in themselves to be conclusive reasons for guiding her behavior. This sort of disposition or character is something we all highly value, Kant thought. He believes we value it without limitation or qualification.
The idea of a good will is closer to the idea of a ___________, or, more archaically, a "person of good will". This use of the term "will" early on in analyzing ordinary moral thought prefigures later and more technical discussions concerning the nature of rational agency.
eudaimonia
The life of human flourishing or happiness is the best life.
Robert Owen, H enri de Saint Simon, Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin
The most famous early socialist thinkers were
"equals should be treated equally and unequal unequally." "Individual should be treated the same, unless they differ in ways that are relevant to the situation in which they are involved." For example, if Pedro and Juan both do the same work , and there are no relevant differences between them or the work they are doing, then in justice they should be paid the same wages. And if Jack is paid more than Jill simply because he is a man, or because he is white, then we have an injustice—a form of discrimination—because race and sex are not relevant to normal work situations.
The most fundamental principle of justice, one that has been widely accepted since it was first defined by Aristotle more that two thousand years ago is the principle that _______________
"fair play"
The principles of justice and fairness CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS A RULES of ________ for issues of social justice.
Contractarianism
The principles of right and wrong (or Justice) are those which everyone in society would AGREE UPONin forming a SOCIAL CONTRACT
PUBLIC RIGHTS
The rights which are vested in a person by STATE, GOVERNMENT or CONSTITUTION is called
"equal" or "level"
The tem is derived from the French word "egal" meaning ______________, and was first used in English in the 1880's, although the equivalent term "equalitarian" dates from the late 18th century.
Divine Command Theory
The upshot is that an action is right -- or obligatory -- if God command we do it, wrong if God commands we refrain from doing it, and morally permissible if God does not command that it not be done.
R.A. 8544
This Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct of Merchant Marine Deck Officers are hereby adopted pursuant to _______________ known as the Philippine Merchant Marine Officers Act of 1998 under Section 40: "The Integrated and Accredited Maritime Association of Marine Deck Officer shall prescribe a Code of Ethics for Marine Deck Officer which shall be adopted by the Board of Marine Deck Officers and approved by the Commission."
Compensatory justice
This is precisely the kind of justice that was at stake in the brown lung hearings. Those who testified at the hearings claimed that the owners of the cotton mills where workers had been injured should compensate the worker whose health had been ruined by conditions at the mills.
(1) The ultimate end of human action is happiness. (2) Happiness consists in acting in accordance with reason. (3) Acting in accordance with reason is the distinguishing feature of all the traditional virtues.
Three steps to the argument: (under virtue ethics)
Eudaimonia
True 'happiness' is called ____________ (flourishing / well- being / fulfilment / self- actualization).
Character Virtue and Intellectual Virtue
Two types of virtue
In the language of utilitarians, we should choose the option that "maximizes utility", i.e. that action or policy that produces the largest amount of good.
Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism because it rests on the idea that it is the consequences or results of actions, laws, policies, etc. that determine whether they are good or bad, right or wrong.
Altruistic
Utilitarians are not a Hedonist. Utilitarians are concerned with everyone's happiness, so it is _________.
Article IX Section 37 of R.A. 8544 known as the Philippine Merchant Marine Officers Act of 1998.
Violations of any of the provision of the Code of Ethics shall constitute unethical and unprofessional conduct and therefore garner sufficient grounds for reprimand, suspension or revocation of the certificate of registration and certificate of competency of the offending Merchant Marine Deck Officer in accordance with the provision of ______________________
EGOIST
__________ will help others only if this will further their own interests
Consequentialism (TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS)
a kind of rationalism
Categorical imperative
a moral law that is UNCONDITIONAL OR ABSOLUTE for all agents, the validity or claim of which does not depend on any ulterior motive or end.
The Categorical Imperative.
a supreme principle of morality
Kant's theory is an example of a deontological moral theory
according to these theories, the rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend on their consequences but on whether they fulfill our duty.
Kantian Theory
acting morally was quite simple. That is: - you ought to do your duty (simply because it is your duty).- Reason guides you to this conclusion.
Capitalism
also called FREE MARKET ECONOMY or FREE ENTERPRISE ECONOMY, economic system, dominant in Western world since the breakup of feudalism, in which most of the means of production is guided and income distributed largely through the operation of markets.
Moral Subjectivism
amounts to the DENIAL of moral principles of any significant kind, and the possibility of moral criticism and argumentation.
ARISTOTLE
an Ancient Greek philosopher and scientist who is still considered one of the greatest thinkers in politics, psychology and ethics.
St. Thomas Aquinas
an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. An immensely influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, he is also known within the latter as the Doctor Angelicus and the Doctor Communis.
on Davidson' s account
an action is just something an agent does with an intention——that is, looking forward to some end to be achieved by the action.
Rights-based Theories
are CONNECTED TO KANTIANISM and are Non-consequentialist. The basic idea is that if someone has a RIGHT, then others have a corresponding duty to PROVIDE WHAT THE RIGHT REQUIRES.
Moral rights
are a PROVISION within copyright law intended to codify and protect the author's association with the creative work by preserving the integrity of the work and intent behind the work.
Hedonists
are concerned only with their own happiness.
PRIVATE RIGHTS
are connected with PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS or persons.
Feminist Ethics
are critical of the 'individualistic' nature of other moral theories (they take individualism to be a 'masculine' idea)
Moral rights
are rights accorded under some system of ethics
LEGAL RIGHTS
are rights that people have under some legal system, granted by a duly authorized legal authority or government
Kant . The Good Will freely chooses t do its moral duty. That duty in turn is dictated solely by reason. The goodwill thus consists of a person's free will motivated purely by reason.
argues that no consequence can have fundamental moral worth; the only thing that is good in and of itself is the Good Will
Socialism
assumes that the basic nature of people is cooperative
INHERITABLE RIGHTS
can be passed from one generation to another, i.e. this right survives even after the death of its owner.
code of ethics
can be seen as a guide, a system, a set of regulations or laws, which governs the conduct of a profession
. Character excellence
comes about through habit——one habituates oneself to ________________ BY KNOWINGLY PRACTICING VIRTUES.
Good Will
consists of a person's free will motivated purely by reason.
Aristotle
defines virtue as the AVERAGE or mean between excess and deficiency.
deontology
derived from the Greek deon, "duty," and logos, "science."
telos
derived from the Greek word for " end" ," purpose" , or " goal." It is an end or purpose, in a fairly constrained sense used by philosophers such as Aristotle.
principles of distributive justice
determine what counts as a "fair SHARE" of particular good
Uninheritable Rights
die with the death of its owner.
Ethical Egoism
does not imply hedonism or that we ought to aim for at least some 'higher' goods (e.g., wisdom, political success), but rather that we will (ideally) act so as to maximize our self interest.
Deontological ethics
ethical theories that place special emphasis on the RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DUTY AND THE MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTIONS.
Aristotle
he says the idea of virtue is " ALL things in moderation". Human s should enjoy existence but not be selfish. They should avoid pain and displeasure but not expect a life completely void of them.
Deontological ethics
holds that at least some acts are morally OBLIGATORY regardless of their consequences for human welfare. Descriptive of such ethics are such expressions as "Duty for duty's sake," "Virtue is its own reward," and "Let justice be done though the heavens fall."
St. Thomas Aquinas
identifies the rational nature of human beings as that which defines moral law: "the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts"
'The Greatest Happiness Principle' (GHP) (under Utilitarianism)
implies that we ought to act so as to maximize human WELFARE We do this in a particular instance by choosing the action that maximizes pleasure/happiness and minimizing suffering.
The Formula of End
in Itself ensures that you never treat others or oneself merely as a means but ALWAYS AN END To use someone merely as a means to some other end is to exploit their rationally, and we should value everyone as rational beings.
Formula of the Law of Nature
insists that we should act only according to that MAXIM WHICH COULD BE UNIVERSALIZED This means that we must be able to universalized a principle without contradiction. If this is not possible, we can logically assume that the act is immoral as it is counter to reason. If a rule is not universalized then others will not be free to act from the same moral principles, and Kant strongly believed that autonomy and freedom were essential to being a moral agent.
moral philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225—1274)
involves a merger of at least two apparently disparate traditions: : Aristotelian eudaimonism and Christian theology
Personal Right
is RELATED TO PERSON'S LIFE i.e. his reputation or standing in the society. These rights promote a person's well being in society & have no economic value. Example: Right to life.
Distributive justice •Equal work should provide individuals with an equal outcome in terms of goods acquired or the ability to acquire goods. Distributive justice is absent when equal work does not produce equal outcomes or when an individual or a group acquires a disproportionate amount of goods.
is a concept that addresses the OWNERSHIP OF GOODS in a society. It assumes that there is a large amount of FAIRNESS IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS.
theory
is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking.
Utilitarianism
is a philosophical view or theory about how we should evaluate a wide range of things that involve choices that people face.
Socialism
is a populist economic and political system based on the PUBLIC ownership (also known as COLLECTIVE or COMMON OWNERSHIP) of the means of production. Those means include the machinery, tools and factories used to produce goods that aim to directly satisfy human needs.
Egalitarianism
is a social and political philosophy promoting the EQUAL STATUS OF PEOPLE.
theory
is a structured set of statements used to EXPLAIN (or PREDICT) a set of facts or concepts.
socialist
take equality to be the ultimate POLITICAL ideal
Virtue ethics-
takes the notion of virtue (often conceived as excellence) as fundamental.
Anthony Ashley Cooper
the 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury is generally thought to have been the one of the EARLIEST 'MORAL SENSE' THEORIST, holding that we possess a kind of "INNER EYE" that allows us to make MORAL DISCRIMINATIONS. This seems to have been an innate sense of right and wrong, or moral beauty and deformity.
Character Virtue
the discussion of which makes up the BULK of the Ethics
Jeremy Bentham
the first to formulate Utilitarianism -- did not distinguish between kinds of pleasures.
Contractarianism
the idea is that the principles or rules that determine right and wrong in society are determined by a HYPOTHETICAL CONTRACT forming procedure.
probably nearly everyone thinks that it is legitimate to object, on moral grounds, to at least some peoples' actions. That is, it is possible to disagree about moral issues.
the key flaw in moral subjectivism
Positive Rights
the person has to perform some positive duty to fulfill this right.
Arete
the practice of virtue or excellence
teleology It is central to nearly all philosophical theories of history, such as those of Hegal and Marx.
the study of PURPOSIVENESS, or the study of objects with a view to their AIMS, PURPOSES, or INTENTIONS.
EGOISM
the view that a person should pursue his own self-interest, even at the expense of others, and to any ethical theory that regards some acts or types of acts as right or wrong independently of their consequences
Teleological ethics
theory of morality that derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or desirable as an END TO BE ACHIEVED
Kantian Theory
there is "the SUPREME principle of morality". Good and Evil are defined in terms of LAW / DUTY / OBLIGATION. Rationality and Freedom are also central.
Divine Command Theory
there is a necessary connection between morality and religion, such that, without religion (in particular, without God or gods) there is no morality, i.e., no right and wrong behavior.
LEGAL RIGHTS
these rights are CREATED, UNEQUAL, ALIENABLE, LOCAL ■Created: upheld or altered by government or legislation ■Unequal: there are situations in which distribution of THESE rights is unequal ■Alienable: can be taken away with or without consent ■Local: They can vary based on jurisdiction.
MORAL RIGHTS
these rights are NATURAL, EQUAL, INALIENBLE, UNIVERSAL ■Natural: an entitlement that exists simply from being human ■Equal: no injustice in how rights are distributed ■Inalienable: moral rights cannot be taken without consent ■Universal : the same regardless of your location
EGOIST
they deny the possibility of genuine altruism (because they think we are all by nature selfish).
prescriptive
thinking how to judge them in what they are doing if it is right or wrong
LEGAL RIGHTS
this right is an interest accepted and PROTECTED BY LAW the court of law can enforce THESE rights against persons and also against the government any debasement of any THIS right is PUNISHABLE BY LAW a right that affect every citizen THESE rights are equally available to all the citizens without the discrimination of caste, creed & sex.
Jeremy Bentham
was influenced both by Hobbes' account of human nature and Hume's account of social utility. He famously held that humans were ruled by TWO SOVEREIGN MASTERS —— PLEASURE and PAIN. He also promulgated the principle of utility as the standard of right action on the part of governments and individuals. Actions are approved when they are such as to promote happiness, or pleasure, and disapproved of when they have a tendency to cause unhappiness, or pain.
Aquinas
what is good and evil, according to him, is derived from the RATIONAL NATURE of human beings.
descriptive
what people are doing in their every day life
Vladimir Lenin
who EXPOUNDED on the ideas of earlier socialist and help bring socialist planning to the national level after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in RUSSIA.
NATURAL LAW
•A principle or body of LAWS considered as DERIVED FROM NATURE, right reasons or religion and as ethically binding in human society.
DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
•Do Not Kill - We all see killing or murdering as the wrongest human deed because we are taught since our childhood that killing anybody including an animal is a wrong act. For instance, if we found a killer in our society, we all will hate him and consider him wrong because he/she has killed somebody. But we dont know the detail behind the situation. Maybe that person has killed another one in self-defense. •Do Not Steal - Stealing is also considered as a legal crime. We are taught not to steal anything or take anybody's thing without asking them. •Religious Belief - Every person of the particular religion has to follow the rules and regulation of his religion. For example, If you're a Hindu you might believe that it's wrong to eat beef; this rule would be part of our deontology because we think it is wrong to eat beef. •Keeping Promises - If you have made a promise, you must keep it. For example, you might borrow money on the promise to pay it back, but you don't intend to pay it back. So, making false promises is considered wrong. •Respect The Elders - Elders have to be respected. Respecting them is considered Right. If someone is found disrespecting them, (may have a genuine reason behind the disrespect) is considered as a bad person.
CONSEQUENTIALISM (TELEOLOGICAL)
•For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. But if telling a lie would help save a person's life. Entail lying under the threat of government punishment to save an innocent person's life, even though it is illegal to lie under oath. •Child labor - imagine you run a factory in a very poor country and a child comes to your door and ask for a job. If turning the child away means that she would starve or turn into something worse then it would be ethical to give her the job.
CONSEQUENTIALISM (TELEOLOGICAL)
•Suppose that by killing X, an entirely innocent person, we can save the lives of 10 other innocent people. A consequentialist would say that killing X is justified because it would result in only 1 person dying, rather than 10 people dying. A non-consequentialist would say it is inherently wrong to murder people and refuse to kill X, even though not killing X leads to the death of 9 more people than killing X.
Socialism
•is an ECONOMIC SYSTEM where EVERYONE IN SOCIETY EQUALLY OWNS the factors of production. That ownership is acquired through a DEMOCRATICALLY ELECTED GOVERNMENT or through a cooperative or a public corporation in which EVERYONE OWNS SHARES
capitalist
•is someone who OWNS A BUSINESS which they run in order to make a profit for themselves. For example: "Most property, for example, is owned by people or companies, not by the government".
Socialism •For example, many opponents claim that President Barack Obama is a socialist because he takes the position that the government should be involved in many aspects of people's lives and because he believes that people have a SHARED responsibility to each other.
•social and economic doctrine that CALLS FOR THE PUBLIC rather than private ownership or control of property.
Right in Repropria
■A person possesses Right in __________ with RESPECT to his own PROPERTY. He can use, dispose of, destroy, modify or exclude others from his property. Thus, this right gives a person, ABSOLUTE OWNERSHIP over the property.
INHERITABLE RIGHTS
■Example: A son is a legal heir to the property of his father after his death.
NEGATIVE RIGHTS is a negative right because it prevents a person to kill another person.
■Example: Right to life under article 21 of the Indian constitution
Kant
■For him, a right action consists solely in an action that is ruled and justified by a rule or principle
IMPERFECT LEGAL RIGHTS
■It is recognized by law HOWEVER IT IS not enforceable by law. This means that a person cannot go to court for the breach of THIS right. ■All the TIME-BOUND CLAIMS or DEBTS come under the category of THIS rights.
PERFECT LEGAL RIGHTS
■It is recognized by law. It is enforceable by law. ■So, in the case of breach of this right, a person may go to court for enforcing this right. ■Thus, all fundamental rights, viz. Right to equality, right to religion, etc. are _________ rights as these are enforceable by law.
Kant's Theory
■It was the rational and autonomous conformity of one's will to see right the universal moral law