NTR 102, Chapter 4, Gateway fall '18

Monosaccharide

A carbohydrate that consists of one one sugar molecule; ie glucose, fructose, and galactose Only monosaccharides can be absorbed by the cells of the small intestine

Disaccharide

A carbohydrate that consists of two sugar molecules; pairs of monosaccharides and are called: maltose sucrose, and lactose. Disaccharides must be digested into their component monosaccharides before they can be absorbed by cells of the intestines

Starch

A complex carbohydrate polysaccharide made up of many glucose units joined together by digestible bonds; amylose and amylopectin are examples. Starch can be fully broken down into glucose molecules and can be either branched or unbranched molecules. Found in grains, legumes, and starchy vegetables such as peas, potatoes, and corn. Starches are a form of stored energy for the plant. Amylopectin May contain as many as 100,000 glucose units

Lactose Intolerance

A condition characterized by diminished levels of the enzyme lactase and subsequent reduced ability to digest the disaccharide lactase. In most people, lactase levels decline with age, but different populations of humans make differing amounts of lactase as adults, therefore some people are more prone to lactose intolerance than others. Treatment: cut back in dairy products. There are also many lactose-free dairy alternatives on the market, as well as milk products like 'Lactaid' that incorporate the enzyme lactase to improve digestibility

A green plant can carry out photosynthesis so long as it has what 3 things?

A green plant can carry out photosynthesis as long as it has carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight

Polysaccharide

A long-chain (or polymer) carbohydrate that consists of more than 10 monosaccharides joined together; tend not to have a sweet taste (unlike monosaccharides and disaccharides) and can be found in foods such as whole grain breads, dried beans, and starchy vegetables

Oligosaccharide

A short-chain complex carbohydrate that consists of 3 to 10 monosaccharides joined together

Nutritive Sweeteners sugar alternatives

A sugar alternative, source of calories, including Polyols, which are alcohol forms of sugars *Tagatose *Sorbitol *Mannitol *Xylitol

Added sugars

Added sugars add sweetness, enhance palatability, function to preserve, brown, improve texture and appearance. Examples: brown sugar, corn sweetener, dextrose, fructose, fruit juice concentrate, glucose, honey, invert sugar, lactose, maltose, molasses, raw sugar, sucrose, and table sugar. Another common and controversial added sugar is HFCS high fructose corn syrup, which differs slightly from sucrose or table sugar in that it contains 55% versus 60% fructose in relation to glucose. Added sugars do not include naturally occurring sugars like those found in fruit or milk Added sugars can also be found in processed foods such as ketchup, sandwich bread, pizza. They can also be found in foods advertised as containing whole grains to improve consumer acceptance. *to help consumers better assess added sugars in foods, processed food label changes by the FDA would require the inclusion of 'added sugars' on all packaged foods

All the substances that are depleted from whole grains when they are refined

All the substances that are depleted from whole grains when they are refined: fiber, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and essential fatty acids

Dental Caries

Also called cavities or tooth decay; the progressive destruction of tooth enamel and ultimately the tooth itself, through the action of bacteria on carbohydrates in the mouth. The more teeth are exposed to sugar, the more bacteria on the teeth metabolize the sugars and produce acids that dissolve tooth enamel and decay teeth. 85% of people 18 years and older have had cavities

Aspartame

Aspartame is a non-nutritive, functionally considered a non-caloric alternative sweetener sole under the trade names Equal and NutraSweet that is 169-220x as sweet as sugar. Aspartame is widely used in sugar free drinks. Composed of 2 amino acids (aspartate, phenylalanine) and, like protein, it provides 4 kcal/g. However, it is so intensely sweet that so little is used to achieve the same level of sweetness as sucrose that it provides no significant amount of calories. Aspartame can withstand elevated temperatures for only a brief period but is destroyed at baking temperatures. When in solution it is not as stable as other sweeteners

Sources of added sugars

Beverages (not milk or fruit juice) account for the majority of the added sugar in foods consumed in the US by people's added yrs and older *soft drinks: 25% *fruit drinks: 11% *sport and energy drinks: 3% *coffee and tea: 7% *alcohol beverages: 1% ***beverages (not milk or 100% fruit juice) account for 47% in total of added sugars consumed in the US*** *snacks and sweets: 31% *grains: 8% *mixed dishes: 6% *condiments, gravies, spreads, salads dressings: 2% *vegetables: 1% *Fruits and fruit juice: 1% *protein foods: 0%

Bran

Bran contains the majority of dietary fiber and a significant amount of B vitamins and minerals and phytochemicals

Sources of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate - rich foods are a staple of most humans on earth. That's because carbohydrate rich foods are typically a plentiful and cheap source of energy. Plant foods supply most of the carbohydrates we consume. Milk and milk products and honey are the only significant animal source of carbohydrates in the American diet.

Carbohydrates are classified as polysaccharides?

Carbohydrates are classified as polysaccharides? starch and dietary fiber

Carbohydrates are found primarily in plant sources. The only other food source for carbohydrates includes:

Carbohydrates are found primarily in plant sources. The only other food source for carbohydrates includes: DAIRY

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen arranges as one or more sugar units. Abundant in grains and other plant foods, as well as in milk and some milk products, and are key sources of fuel for the body, providing 4 kcal of energy per gram. Carbohydrates are one source of energy for exercising muscles; they are the exclusive source of energy for red blood cells and provide a significant portion of the energy needed by the brain Depending on their size, Carbohydrates can be classified as either simple or complex. Simple carbohydrates are known as sugars, composed of one or two sugar molecules (monosaccharides and disaccharides). Complex carbohydrates are composed of three or more sugar molecule monosaccharides linked together *carbon, hydrogen, oxygen *composed of one or more sugar (saccharide) units *4 kcal/g *source of fiber *adds sweetness and flavor *source of energy for all cells in the body *indispensable source of energy for the brain, red blood cells, and muscles during intense exercise *important for intestinal health *reduces the use of protein for energy

Refined Grain

Cereal grains that have been stripped, a process that removes the bran and germ; white flour is an example In grains, most of the starch is contained within the endosperm, which, if the seed was planted, would provide energy to the growing plant embryo, or germ. This energy is not readily accessible to humans as it is surrounded by the fibrous bran coating. Beginning in the 19th century, "refining" grains became a common practice. Sophisticated milking machines allowed humans to separate the starchy endosperm from the tough bran and oily germ. The purified endosperm could then be ground into white flour. This helped keep the flour from spoiling, since oil quickly turns rancid when exposed to air, and resulted in white bread that is smooth and white The downside of refining grains is that the bran and germ contain the majority of healthful vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and fiber. Not only are many modern grain based foods made with nutrient poor refined flour, they also often have a significant amount of added sugar.

Enriched Grain

Cereal grains that lost nutrients during processing but have vitamins and minerals added back in;!refined grains are often enriched

Whole Grain

Cereal grains, or foods made from cereal grains, that contain all the essential parts (starchy endosperm, germ, and bran) of the entire grain seed in its original proportions Consuming whole grains has been linked to a host of health benefits including a reduced risk of heart disease, obesity, diabetes, and cancer The DGAs advise that Americans should consume at least half their grains as whole grains

Complex Carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates are composed of 3 or more monosaccharides linked together. They can often take the form of long branches chains. Humans and other animals break down some complex carbohydrates into individual monosaccharides during the process of digestion. These units are absorbed by the cells of the intestine and dumped into the blood for all body cells to pick up and use for energy. *Oligosaccharides - 3 to 10 linked monosaccharides *Polysaccharides are chains of 10 or more monosaccharides Types of Complex Carbohydrates: *Starch *Fiber *Glycogen

Dietary Fiber

Dietary fiber is undigestible carbohydrates and lignin that are present naturally in intact plant foods

Resistant starches

Different carbohydrate rich foods are broken down into glucose more quickly than others, depending on how resistant their starches are to digestive enzymes. When we eat foods with resistant starches, such as whole grain oatmeal, pinto beans, or cashews, for example, the sugars within them are released slowly over the course of hours, helping to keep our hunger satisfied. By contrast, when we eat foods with less resistant starches, such as a piece of most breads or a baked potato, the sugar is released quickly - almost as quickly as if you are pure glucose. What this means is that blood sugar levels rise quickly, insulin levels spike, and hunger returns sooner than you might expect. The end result is that we end up eating more calories than we might have otherwise.

Enzymes in Carbohydrate Digestion

Different enzymes are specific for different carbohydrates. *In the mouth, salivary amylase breaks down starch molecules into shorter polysaccharides. In the stomach, salivary amylase is inactivated by gastric acid and starch digestion stops *In the small intestine, the enzyme pancreatic amylase digests starch into oligosaccharides and maltose; ~the digestion of oligosaccharides derived from starch is completed by enzymes attached to the surface of the microvilli. The enzymes that break down sucrose, maltose, and lactose are also located at the microvilli complete the dismantling process. The resulting monosaccharides are absorbed by the small intestine and then transported out of the cells into the blood *maltase is the enzyme that breaks maltose down into two glucose units; *sucrase digests sucrose into fructose and glucose; *lactase breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose. •Sucrose->Sucrase->Glucose+Fructose •Maltose->Maltase->Glucose+Glucose Lactose->Lactase->Glucose+Galactose

Lactose

Disaccharide lactose is often called 'milk sugar' as it is found in milk, yogurt, and other dairy products. The mammary glands of humans and other mammals synthesize lactose (galactose and glucose), which is incorporated into milk to feed offspring

Endosperm

Endosperm contains the highest amount of starch and protein. This is all that remains when a grain is refined

Enzyme that completes the digestion of starch into absorbable units?

Enzyme that completes the digestion of starch into absorbable units? maltase

Benefits of Fiber

Fiber (particularly insoluble Fiber) is healthful in part because it softens stools and thereby helps maintain regular bowel movements and reduced the risk of hemorrhoids and diverticular disease. Insoluble Fiber has also been shown to decrease the risk of diabetes. A higher intake of soluble Fiber has been shown to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. Diets high in Soluble fiber also slow the emptying of food from the stomach into the small intestine, making one feel fuller longer. Many soluble fibers also slow digestion and absorption, and reduce the rise in blood glucose following a carb-containing meal, which may improve blood glucose control in those with diabetes. Additionally, nutrition surveys demonstrate that high fiber diets are more likely to be nutrient-dense and lower in saturated fats, sodium and added sugar *Soluble fiber may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease *High fiber foods promote satiety and may reduce the risk of obesity *High intakes of insoluble cereal fiber may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes *Soluble fiber slows the increase in blood glucose following carb ingestion *High insoluble fiber intake softens stools and reduces the occurrence of constipation *High intake of a variety of high fiber foods may reduce the risk of some cancers

Categorizing Fiber

Fiber can be categorized in several ways *Soluble fiber *Insoluble fiber -or- *Dietary fiber *Functional fiber A Nutrition Facts Panel doesn't identify whether fiber is Soluble or insoluble

Fiber Content of selected foods

Fiber content of selected foods: Grains *Rye Crisp triple cracker: 4.1 grams fiber *Spaghetti whole wheat 1/2 cup: 3.2 g fiber *Whole wheat bread 1 slice: 1.9 g fiber *Brown rice 1/2 c: 1.8 g fiber *Spaghetti 1/2 c: 1.3 g fiber *White bread 1 slice: 0.8 g fiber *White rice 1/2 c: 0.3 g fiber Grains (cereals) *Kashi Go-Lean Crunch, Honey Almond Flax, 1 c: 8.1 g fiber *Raisin Bran 1 c: 7.8 g fiber *Frosted Mini-Wheats, 24 biscuits: 6.4 g fiber *Wheat Chex 3/4 c: 5.7 g fiber *Quaker Oatmeal Squares 1 c: 4.6 g fiber *Instant Oatmeal 1 packet: 4 g fiber *Cheerios 1 c: 2.6 g fiber *Corn Flakes 1 c: 0.9 g fiber *Rice Krispies 1 c: 0.1 g fiber Protein Foods: *Black beans canned 1/2 c: 8.2 g fiber *Baked beans 1/2 c: 5.2 g fiber *Almonds 1/4 c: 3.8 g fiber *Peanuts 1/4 c: 3.4 g fiber *Peanut butter 2 Tbs: 1.9 g fiber *Cashews 1/4 c: 1.0 g fiber Vegetables: *Acorn Squash 1/2 c: 4.5 g fiber *Green Peas 1/2 c: 4.4 g fiber *Baked potato's w/skin, 1 small: 2.9 g fiber *Broccoli 1/2 c: 2.6 g fiber *Carrots: 1/2 c: 2.3 g fiber *Corn 1/2 c: 2 g fiber Fruits: *Raspberries 1 c: 8 g fiber *Avocado 1/2 c: 7.8 g fiber *Pear 1 medium: 5.5 g fiber *Apple 1 medium: 3.6 g fiber *Banana 1 medium: 3.1 g fiber *Orange 1 medium: 3.1 g fiber *Grapes 1 c: 1.4 g fiber

Fiber

Fiber is a complex carbohydrate and includes cellulose and hemicellulose, which make up plant cell walls and impart structure to the plant. Fiber rich foods are numerous and include whole grains and vegetables such as broccoli and green beans. Humans lack the digestive enzymes to break down plant fiber, so this material passed undigested through the digestive tract. Dietary fibers are a diverse group of polysaccharides found in plants within their cell walls. They may be straight chains of glucose (like cellulose), or they may be branched chains composed of a variety of sugars (like hemicelluloses and some pectins). They are abundant in legumes, nuts, whole grains, vegetables, and some berries. Fiber includes cellulose and other nonstarch polysaccharides and oligosaccharides that cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes. Fiber is typically found in and around plant cell walls. It is most abundant in legumes, nuts, seeds, berries, many vegetables, fruit coverings such as apple peels, and the bran surrounding grains like wheat, oats, rice, and rye

Food that is NOT a good source of soluble fiber

Food that is NOT a good source of soluble fiber: wheat wheat is not a good source of soluble fiber

Fructose

Fructose is the sweetest of the monosaccharide sugars and is found in fruit, vegetables, and honey. Fructose is also used to sweeten foods and beverages by food manufacturers who process corn to make high fructose corn syrup

Functional Fiber

Functional fiber is nondigestible carbohydrates that have been added to food product and have health benefits that are similar to those of dietary fiberq

Galactose

Galactose is one of the two monosaccharides that make up milk sugar (the other is glucose)

Germ

Germ is the embryo of the seed that germinates and grows. It contains essential fatty acids and a number of B vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals . Oily part of the kernel

Glucose

Glucose, simple carbohydrate monosaccharide that circulates in the blood stream. Found in fruits, vegetables, and honey. Glucose is the most abundant sugar in our diet because it is part of every disaccharide, starches, and most fibers.

Glycogen in _____ is broken down and released into blood when blood glucose is low.

Glycogen in _____ is broken down and released into blood when blood glucose is low. the liver liver glycogen is broken down to glucose, which is then exported to the blood.

Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other animals found primarily in:

Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other animals found primarily in: the liver and skeletal muscles.

Grains

Grains include things like wheat, barley, rice, corn, and other cereal grasses that humans use to make everything from granola bars, breads, and breakfast cereals, to pasta, crackers, and cupcakes

Carbohydrate Intake Recommendations

In addition to encouraging consumption of carb rich plant foods, 2015 DGAs recommends that people consume at least half of all grains as whole grains, and to increase whole grain intake by replacing refined grains with whole grains. The Institute of Medicine recommends that people consume carbs within a certain range, the AMDR of 45-65% of total calories, which is associated with a reduced risk of chronic disease while providing adequate amounts of essential nutrients. There is also a recommended dietary allowance RDA for carbs, which is based on the amount of carbs that is needed for the brain to function properly *2015 DGAs: •Total carbs: consume at least half of all grains as whole grains. Increase whole grain intake by replacing refined grains with whole grains. •Fiber: no recommendations stated •Added sugars: consume less than 10% of total calories from added sugars *Institute of Medicine Recommendations (DRIs) Dietary Reference Intakes: •Total carbs: RDA: 130 g/day AMDR: 45-65% of total calories 2,000 kcal/day diet: 225-326 g/day 2,500 kcal/day diet: 281-406 g/day •Fiber: AI: 14 g per 1,000 kcal/day Women: 19-50yrs: 25 g/day Women: 51+: 21 g/day Men: 19-50yrs: 38 g/day Men: 51+: 30 g/day •Added Sugars: 25% or less of total calories *AHA American Heart Association: Added Sugars: Women: 100 kcal/day or less, 25g or less Men: 150 kcal/day or less, 37 g or less *WHO 2003 World Health Org: Added Sugars: 10% or less of energy intake

Insoluble Fiber

Insoluble Fiber does not dissolve in water and is typically poorly fermented. It passes through the gastrointestinal tract readily intact Insoluble Fiber is always the dominant type of fiber that is naturally present in foods. Therefore, all high-fiber foods are good sources of insoluble fiber

List all the products of starch digestion by pancreatic amylase

List all the products of starch digestion by pancreatic amylase maltose and oligosaccharides the breakdown of starch by amylase produces maltose and oligosaccharide

List all the sugars that can be absorbed without additional digestion

List all the sugars that can be absorbed without additional digestion: fructose, galactose, and glucose fructose, galactose, and glucose are all monosaccharides.

Maltose

Maltose is a disaccharide formed in large amounts as a product of starch digestion; however, very little is found in the foods we eat. Maltose is composed of two glucose units and is produced when starch is broken down in digestion

Simple Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) and Disaccharides (maltose, sucrose, lactose)

Average added sugars consumed by most Americans

Most Americans consume about 270 calories of added sugars per day, or 13% of total calories. The 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend consuming less than 10% of total calories from added sugars

Neotame

Neotame is a non-nutritive, non-caloric alternative sweetener with no trade name as it is I frequently used. Neotame is 7,000-13,000 times as sweet as sucrose. Neotame is very similar in structure to aspartame with much greater stability in solution and can withstand high temperatures encountered during baking

Non-nutritive Sweeteners

Non-nutritive Sweeteners contain no calories and are regulated by the FDA as GRAS, generally recognized as safe: *Acesulfame K (Sunnet, Sweet One) *Aspartame (Equal, NutraSweet) *Neotame (no trade name) *Saccharin (Sweet'N Low, Sugar Twin) *Stevia (Pure Via, Truvia) *Sucralose (Splenda)

Glucose in the Body

Of the several monosaccharides released from carbohydrates through the process of digestion, glucose is the one that our cells use as fuel. Fructose and galactose are taken up primarily by the liver where they can be converted into glucose, which then may be exported back into the blood for distribution to cells throughout the body. Any glucose the body doesn't use to meet its immediate energy needs is stored for later use. The liver and skeletal muscles use this excess glucose to synthesize glycogen. The liver will break down this glycogen into glucose when needed to maintain normal blood sugar levels, and skeletal muscles will use it to fuel muscle contractions during intense exercise.

Polysaccharides in plant foods may function as a stored form of energy (starch) or indigestible material (fiber) depending on:

Polysaccharides in plant foods may function as a stored form of energy (starch) or indigestible material (fiber) depending on: the type of bonds between the monosaccharides.

Sugar alternatives

Regulated by the FDA as GRAS Generally Recognized As Safe. Two main types: Nutritive Sweeteners: source of calories Non-nutritive Sweeteners: not a source of calories

Saccharin

Saccharin is a non-nutritive, non-caloric alternative sweetener sold under the trade names of Sweet'N Low and Sugar Twin. Saccharin is 300 times sweeter than sucrose. Saccharin was discovered in 1878 and is widely used in sugar free soft drinks and as a tabletop sweetener. Saccharin can be used in baking without losing its sweetness. Saccharin was once listed as a carcinogen, it has since been shown not to cause cancer in humans

Scientists and health authorities categorize fiber according to its source in foods, whether naturally occurring or added during manufacturing, as well as by:

Scientists and health authorities categorize fiber according to its source in foods, whether naturally occurring or added during manufacturing, as well as by: its solubility in water.

Soluble Fiber

Soluble Fiber dissolves in water, often forming viscous girls and is typically readily fermented (broken down) by bacteria in the colon. Soluble fibers can decrease gastric emptying and give a feeling of fullness. They can also bind bile in the intestine, helping decrease body cholesterol. Best sources of soluble fiber: Whole grain oats, barley, and rye Citrus fruits Legumes Mangos Avocados Pears Apples Psyllium

Calculating Carbs to Fiber Ratio

Step 1: find the total number of carb grams on the label (ie 23g carbs), as well as the grams of fiber (ie 5g fiber) Step 2: write the expression as 23:5, then divide the first number by the second to get the ratio. In this example the ratio is 4.6:1 which is a favorable ratio being less than 10:1

Stevia

Stevia is a non-nutritive, non-caloric alternative sweetener sold under the trade names of Pure Via and Truvia. Stevia is 250 times sweeter than sucrose. Rebaudioside A (rebiana) is the active compound that is isolated from the leaves of the South American Stevia plant. Stevia was approved for use in the US in 2008. Stevia is primarily used in beverages, as a tabletop sweetener, and in yogurt. Stevia is heat stable.

Amount of Carbs that can be digested and absorbed

Subtract Fiber from total carbohydrates to determine the amount of carbohydrates that can be digested and absorbed

Sucralose

Sucralose is a non-nutritive, non-caloric alternative sweetener known under the trade name Equal. Sucralose is 600 times sweeter than sugar. Sucralose is made from sucrose by replacing 3 -OH groups with chlorine. Sucralose is used as a tabletop sweetener, and is widely used in beverages where it is remarkably stable over long periods.

Polyols

Sugar alcohols, nutritive alternative to sugar sweeteners, are made from naturally occurring sugars in plants. They are poorly absorbed by the body, they provide fewer than 4kcal/g. Because of their poor absorption, excessive consumption of sugar alcohols often causes diarrhea *Sorbitol *Mannitol *Xylitol

Sugars NOT naturally present in foods we eat in significant amounts?

Sugars NOT naturally present in foods we eat in significant amounts? galactose galactose is rarely found in the foods we eat.

Tagatose

Tagatose is a nutritive sugar alternative sweetener; trade name: Naturlose 1.5 kcal/g Sweetness relative to Sucrose: 0.75-0.92 Tagatose is a monosaccharide almost identical to fructose. Provides fewer calories because it is poorly absorbed. It also occurs naturally in foods (dairy) in small amounts. Is used much like sucrose to provide both bulk and sweetness in foods such as ice cream, cakes, and candies. Tagatose is not a sugar alcohol

Fiber Recommendations

The Institute of Medicine, the health arm of the US National Academy of Sciences, recommends: *Men younger than 50 consume 38 grams of fiber per day *Women younger than 50 consume 25 grams of fiber per day Only about 5% of Americans meet these goals, consuming an average of 17 grams of fiber a day

Whole Grain Food Stamp

The Whole Grains Council, a nongovernmental organization funded by food companies, created the Whole Grain Food Stamp. Used in 36 countries, the Whole Grain Stamp is a front of package icon that tells consumers that a product contains at least 8 grams of whole grains per serving The stamp is meant to identify products that contain a meaningful amount of whole grains, not to rate the overall healthfulness of a food There are two stamps: *if the product bears the Basic Stamp, it contains a minimum of 8g of whole grains per serving. Even if a product contains large amounts of whole grain (20g, 37g, etc) it will use the Basic Stamp if it also contains extra bran, germ, or refined flour. The stamp itself states: 20g or more per serving *if the product bears the 100% Stamp, then all its grain ingredients are whole grains. There is a minimum requirement of 16g - a full serving - of whole grain per labeled serving, for products using the 100% Stamp. The stamp itself states: 18g or more per serving • many foods with the stamp are also very high in added sugar

Best measure to identify healthful whole grain foods

The best measure to identify healthful whole grain foods is a total carbohydrates to fiber ratio of ten to one: Carbs:fiber = 10:1 This is the approximate the ratio of total carbohydrate to fiber in whole wheat flour. Foods with a higher ratio than 10:1 are likely to contain added sugars and refined grains

How many different ways can you tell if foods are whole grain?

The best way to identify a whole grain food is to check the ingredients. Choose foods that name one of the following whole grain ingredients first on the label's ingredient list: brown rice, buckwheat, bulgur, millet, oatmeal, quinoa, rolled oats, whole grain barley, whole grain corn, whole grain sorghum, whole grain triticale, whole oats, whole rye, whole wheat, and wild rice. Foods labeled with the words 'multi-grain,' Stone-ground,' '100% wheat,' 'cracked wheat,' '7 grain,' or 'bran' are usually not whole grain products

Glycogen

The complex carbohydrate Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animal tissues (liver and muscles). It is the most highly branched of all polysaccharides. Humans and other animals store glucose for later use. Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals. Like starch, it is made up of linked glucose sugars, but is the most heavily branched of the polysaccharides. Glycogen is both made and stored primarily in liver and muscle. When glucose is needed to maintain proper blood sugar levels, the liver breaks down the glycogen into glucose and releases it into the blood. Glycogen in skeletal muscles is broken down to supply fuel for contracting muscles during intense exercise.

The digestion of starch:

The digestion of starch: begins in the mouth with the enzyme amylase.

Sucrose

The disaccharide Sucrose, or 'Table sugar,' is composed of glucose and fructose and is also found in fruits and vegetables

The disaccharide sucrose is formed from:

The disaccharide sucrose is formed from: Glucose + Fructose

Photosynthesis

The energy found within carbohydrates comes, ultimately, from the sun. Photosynthesis enables plants to capture the energy of sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in the form of a three-carbon sugar from which glucose and fructose can be synthesized. Plants link glucose molecules together to form starch and some dietary fibers Carbon dioxide + water -> light energy -> carbohydrates + oxygen

Main problems associated with excessive consumption of added sugars

There are two main problems associated with excessive consumption of added sugars: The addition of sugars to foods adds substantial calories without adding significant bulk; this increases the energy density of foods and is likely one contributing factor to the increased prevalence of obesity around the world. Added sugars also provide no additional vitamins or minerals, and are therefore empty calories that decrease the nutrient density of foods

Whole Grain Recommendations

To help consumers make more informed choices, the USDA's MyPlate program recommends that people look for whole grains listed first on the ingredients list. That means being able to recognize any one of 29 ingredients classified as whole grains in the USDA's MyPlate Servings Database MyPlate also recommends that consumers choose products with fewer added sugars, but to do that, consumers need to be able to recognize as many as 21 different ingredients as sugar To help address this, the Whole Grains Council creates the Whole Grain Food Stamp Another approach, advocated by the American Heart Association, is to look for products with a total carb to fiber ratio of 10:1, the approximate ratio of of carbs and fiber in whole wheat flour.

Total Carbohydrates on Food Labels

Total carbohydrates on the food labels include the total amount of starch, sugars, and dietary fiber in one serving

Total Fiber

Total fiber is the sum of a food's dietary fiber and its functional fiber

What are all of the portions of a whole grain that are removed when it is refined?

What are all of the portions of a whole grain that are removed when it is refined? bran because bran is only one fraction of a whole grain kernel, adding it to a food would disqualify it from displaying the "100% whole grain" stamp.

Which carbohydrates may contain glucose as well as other monosaccharides?

Which carbohydrates may contain glucose as well as other monosaccharides? Fiber some fibers are polymers of many different sugars