Nutrition Ch 8
25, lung
-52% -12 years old+ = "current drinkers" -6.5% = Heavy -___% = Binge --Implications: Decrease in HR and ______ function
ketogenic, excess, unknown, months
-A __________ diet: high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet (under 50g/day); rapidly depletes glycogen stores -Ketosis is the formation of _______ ketone bodies --Result of ketogenic diet --Causes loss of appetite --May be used to treat epilepsy --Long-term health effects are ______ --Keto diets should not last longer than a few ________ --Side effects:
14, 5, 40-50
-A standard drink is ___g of alcohol: --12 ounces of beer --___ ounces of wine --1 ½ ounces of liquor --Alcohol content: --Beer= 3-6% --Wine= 8-14% --Hard liquor/distilled spirits= ___-___% --Nutritional value?
2, carnitine
-Lipids in cell's cytoplasm are activated by binding to coenzyme A (requires energy from ___ ATP) -_________ is a molecule that helps fatty acids pass through the outer and inner mitochondrial membrane
lipoproteins
-After a fatty meal, most of the lipids are incorporated into very-low-density ____________ (VLDLs) -Lipoprotein lipase is an enzyme that enables adipocytes and other cells to access lipoproteins' lipid contents --Free fatty acids and glycerol enter the cells --After entering, triglyceride is re-created --Energy requirement
inborn error of metabolism
-An ____________________ is an inherited metabolic defect (i.e. PKU) Glycogen storage disease is an inborn error of metabolism --Results from a defect of an enzyme involved in carbohydrate metabolism --Cannot make or degrade glycogen properly --Signs/symptoms: fatigue, irritability, kidney enlargement
glucagon, maintained, anabolic
-As blood glucose levels fall during an overnight fast, the pancreas secretes ________ --Liver increase glycogenolysis --Blood glucose levels are __________- -When liver glycogen stores are depleted, glucagon stimulates the liver to convert amino acids to pyruvate and then into glucose --Gluconeogenesis --Once person "breaks fast", metabolic tide changes from catabolic to _________
glycogenolysis, pyridoxal
-Cells can obtain glucose by _____________ --Breakdown of glycogen into glucose --Requires _________ phosphate
starvation, pancreas, raises
-Cells that synthesize these hormones release higher amounts with: --Intense exercise, extreme stress, _________ -Glucagon is secreted from the _________ in response to low blood sugar levels (postabsorptive state) --Signals liver to increase glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis --________ blood glucose levels
amino acids, glucose
-Cells use ____ ______to synthesize essential proteins -After these needs are met, cells may catabolize amino acids for ATP or convert them into glucose or fatty acids --______ and fatty acids are primary energy sources
macronutrients, niacin, riboflavin
-During certain catabolic reactions, _________ release hydrogen ions (H+) -Two different coenzymes accept and transport these ions: --Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+): _____-containing coenzyme --Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD): ______-containing coenzyme
energy
-Enzymes cleave the bond between the last two phosphate groups of ATP --_________ is released --Cells can use energy for anabolic activities
catabolic, anabolic, cortisol
-High energy needs: _______ pathways; ATP production -Low energy needs: surplus stored; _________ pathways -Hormones that direct/regulate metabolic activities: insulin, glucagon, _________, epinephrine, and thyroid hormones -Actions depend on metabolic state of absorptive or postabsorptive
catabolic, fatty, brain
-Highly catabolic state -Over a longer period of fasting, additional changes are made --Muscle cells rely more on _______ acids for energy --Adipose tissue increases lipolysis --Liver cells rely more on ketogenesis ---Converts acetyl CoA to ketone bodies ---Brain starts using ketone bodies for fuel ---Muscle cells break down and release AA's (proteolysis) ---Leads to weight loss, muscle wasting and weakness
lipase, lipolysis, albumin
-Hormone sensitive ________: enzyme in fat cells (adipocytes) that removes the three fatty acids from a triglyceride --Facilitates __________ -Fatty acids can be taken up by cells (bind to _______) when they need ATP --Undergo catabolism in the mitochondria
depressant, 0.20
-In pregnant women: --CNS: appear within minutes (________) --___.___% = brain cannot process information --0.25%+ = loss of consciousness --Coma and death can ensue if BAC reaches critical levels
slow, insulin, glycogen
-Insulin directs liver and muscle cells to: --______ down their glycogenolysis rates --Increase their rate of glycogenesis -________ promotes energy storage: --Shifts glucose molecules into storage as ________ --Increases fatty acid uptake and triglyceride synthesis --Stimulates protein synthesis
high, liver, nonalcoholic
-Insulin resistant cells do not take up glucose and fatty acids from the bloodstream --Blood glucose levels stay _____ after a meal --Lipolysis is not restricted ---More fatty acids released into bloodstream -Influx of fatty acids stimulates triglyceride synthesis in the _______ --___________ fatty liver: abnormal accumulation of fat in the liver that is not caused by alcohol consumption
acetone, ketogenesis
-Ketone bodies: acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone; produced in the liver when there is excess acetyl CoA -________=toxic to cells; lungs remove by exhalation -____________: ketone body formation
secondary, excessive, heat
-Microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system (MEOS): ________ pathway for processing alcohol in the liver --Used when __________ amounts of alcohol are consumed --Wastes energy in the form of ______ ---Implications-
catalyze, coenzymes, B
-Most chemical reactions that occur in living cells require specific enzymes that _________ reactions --Enzymes remain unchanged --Usually require use of coenzyme -___________: group of organic cofactors that often have ___ vitamins in their chemical structures
liver, glucose, energy
-Primary sites for glycogen storage and degradation are the _______ and muscle tissue --Liver degrades glycogen to release ________ into the bloodstream ---Occurs when any tissue of body needs _______ --Muscle tissue degrades glycogen for glucose catabolism to occur in muscle cells ---Stored for "fight or flight"
size, higher
-Several physiological factors account for the variability in alcohol metabolism: --Sex --Body ______ and composition --Age --Prior drinking history --*Women will have ________ BAC after one hour of consuming same amount of alcohol as men
stomach, slowed, detoxifies
-The _________ and small intestine rapidly absorb alcohol --Absorption _______ if alcohol is consumed with meals --Expedited with carbonation -Gastric alcohol dehydrogenase: enzyme that ________ some alcohol while it is in the stomach
mitochondria, synthesize
-The chemical pathway that initiates the breakdown of glucose and produces some ATP occurs in the cytoplasm -____________ are organelles that __________ most of the ATP that cells need to function
removed, glucogenic, ketogenic
-The nitrogen group must be _________ before an amino acid can be used for ATP production (de-/transamination). Affect of deficiency in B6? -____________ amino acids can be broken down into either pyruvate or intermediates of the citric acid cycle -___________ amino acids enter the catabolic energy pathways as acetyl CoA
insulin, membrane
-When blood glucose levels rise, the pancreas secretes ______ -Insulin attaches to receptors on cell membranes --Results in signal to glucose transport proteins --Glucose passes across cell __________
glycogenesis, adipocytes
-When cells need energy: --Glycolysis -When they don't: --___________: pathway that enables certain cells to store glucose as glycogen. Limited -When a person consumes a surplus of glucose, cells catabolize it for ATP. Result: Triglycerides are stored in ___________ -Consuming excess protein/AA's
syndrome, rise, fat
-When liver cells become insulin resistant, their ability to regulate glycogen synthesis and gluconeogenesis becomes altered -Metabolic _________ can occur as a result --Glucose still produced and released into bloodstream --Blood glucose levels _____ --Pancreas secretes more insulin -Excess body ____ is a major risk factor
oxygen, irreversible
-With plenty of _________ available, pyruvate enters the mitochondria --Converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), a 2‒carbon molecule --___________ reaction
interest, high
-You might be at risk of an alcohol use disorder (AUD) if you: --Drink to relax, forget your worries, or improve your mood --Lose ________ in food as a result of your drinking habits --Binge drink --Lie about your drinking habits or try to hide them --Drink alone --Hurt yourself or someone else while drinking --Were drunk more than three or four times last year --Need to drink more alcohol than you used to drink to get "______" --Feel irritable when you are not drinking --Have medical, social, or financial problems caused by drinking habits --Have been cited for driving while intoxicated (DWI) or driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI)
liver, hour, kidneys
-______ is primary site for alcohol metabolism --Alcohol takes priority over glucose, FAs and AAs -A moderate drinker can metabolize 12 to 15 g of alcohol per ____ -Consuming more than this: --Raises BAC until liver metabolizes; --Respiration/perspiration eliminates a small % -_______ filter and eliminate in urine
insulin, obesity, 2
-_______ binds to receptors on muscle, fat, and liver cells --Allows glucose and fatty acids to enter them -In _________, the increase in adipose tissue results in abnormal metabolic changes --Cells become resistant to insulin ---Insulin resistance ---Associated with type ___ diabetes
energy, macronutrients, chemical
-_______: the capacity to perform work --Can neither be created nor destroyed --Can undergo transformations ---e.g., chemical energy can transform into heat energy -Human cells obtain energy by releasing chemical energy stored in *__________ and alcohol -__________ pathways: specific chemical reactions that occur in sequences --Used to access and use energy stored in "biological fuels"
cortisol, stress, epinephrine
-________: catabolic hormone made in the adrenal cortex of the adrenal glands --Called "______ hormone" because: --Promotes protein catabolism --Stimulates the liver to increase use of amino acids for gluconeogenesis -____________ is also produced by the adrenal glands. --Stimulates catabolism by increasing glycogenolysis and lipolysis --Called adrenaline- secreted in response to:
alcohol, acetaldehyde
-_________ dehydrogenase pathway: catabolic pathway that metabolizes alcohol in the liver -_____________: highly toxic substance formed during the first step of the alcohol dehydrogenase pathway -Aldehyde dehydrogenase: enzyme that reacts with acetaldehyde to form acetate, a less toxic substance that is converted to acetyl CoA
ethanol, fuel
-_________: a simple two-carbon molecule that is more commonly called "alcohol" --Recreational drug --Can be used as a _____ source
aerobic, anaerobic
-__________ metabolism: ATP production that occurs in the presence of oxygen -__________ metabolism: metabolic pathways that do not require oxygen --Much less energy is made under low-oxygen conditions
cirrhosis, scar
-__________ of the liver: condition characterized by the accumulation of ______ tissue in the liver, which permanently damages the organ
phosphorylation, ATP
-___________ is the anabolic reaction that results in the attachment of a Pi group to ADP, reforming ___
metabolism, energy, catabolic, anabolic
-___________ is the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living cells -________ metabolism involves the chemical pathways that enable the human body to obtain and use energy from macronutrients and alcohol -Metabolic reactions may be either _______ or _________
catabolism, break down, anabolism, build
-___________ refers to metabolic pathways that ____ _____ larger molecules into smaller ones. "Downhill" -_________ refers to metabolic pathways that _____ larger molecules from smaller ones. "Uphill"
beta-oxidation, citric
-___________: chemical pathway involved in the catabolism of an activated fatty acid --Fatty acid molecules are cleaved into two-carbon segments that are converted into acetyl CoA that enters the _______ acid cycle
lipogenesis, energy
-____________: synthesis of fatty acids --Two-carbon acetyl CoA units are bound together to form the hydrocarbon chain of the fatty acid --The fatty acid elongates and stores ________
ketoacidosis, 250, fruity
-_____________: condition that occurs when excess acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate in the bloodstream lower the blood's pH (poorly controlled diabetes) --Potentially life-threatening --Excessive thirst --Frequent urination --Blood glucose greater than ____ mg/dL --"_______" odor to breath --If untreated can lead to coma and death --GI issues, confusion, fatigue
adenosine triphosphate, energy
-______________ (ATP) is a high-energy phosphate compound -______ released by the break down of macronutrients is captured here
gluconeogenesis, reverse
-_______________ is the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors: --Glycerol --Lactate --Pyruvate --Most amino acids -Not _________ of glycolysis