Nutrition Module 2

After moving through the pyloric sphincter, partially denatured proteins trigger which organ and hormone?

(stomach --> small intestine) the proteins trigger the small intestine to release cholecystokinin (CKK), which moves to the PANCREAS.

What is the daily percentage of protein intake?

10-35%

How long does food normally stay in the stomach?

2-3 hours or longer

What is the recommended daily range of carbs in a diet (based on 2000 calories)

45-65%

How many Kcal/g in fat?

9 kcal/g

The composition of a fatty acid includes

A fat (Carbon and Hydrogen), an acid (COOH) and a methyl group (CH3)

What type of substance is gastrin categorized as?

A hormone

What are the four components of amino acid structure?

A hydrogen, amino group (NH3+), carboxyl group (COO-) and R-group (20 variants)

Describe the structure of a phospholipid

A phosphate head, fatty acid chains (x2) and a glycerol that binds them (charged head and uncharged tail)

Where do all other nutrients besides fat-soluble nutrients go after processing in the small intestine?

Absorbed into the blood stream

What does gastrin control in the stomach?

Acid levels

Why is a saturated FA named the way it is?

All carbons are "saturated" with hydrogens (they have the max amount of hydrogens bonded to them)

Salivary amylase (mouth) and pancreatic amylase (pancreas to small intestine) are considered:

Amylases (break poly-sacc to di-sacc)

How is the anabolic state related to protein intake?

Anabolism is the creation of muscle (growth) and can happen when there is more protein gained than lost

Which food source is best for obtaining essential AA's?

Animal sources have complete protein, which contains all essential AA's.

What role do proteins play in immune functions?

Antibodies are made of proteins and combat infection by attacking viruses and bacteria.

There are four sections to the colon; name them in order.

Ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid: looking at an image of the colon makes this easier to visualize.

Criteria for metabolic syndrome

At least THREE characteristics must be present to diagnose metabolic syndrome (ATP III): ■ Waist CIRCUMFRENCE (>35 Woman, >40 MEN) Obese ■ HDL (<40) Low HDL (good cholesterol) ■ TRIGLYCERIDE (>150) ■ B/P (HTN) ■ High blood glucose

What role does intrinsic factor; a glycoprotein, play in the stomach?

B-12 absorption

What are some causes of ulcers and peptic ulcers?

Bacteria (H. Pylori), NSAID medications (erode protective mucus lining), stress, smoking.

What two types of good bacteria are in probiotics?

Bifidobacterial and lactobacilli

What is the sole source of energy for RBC's and muscles?

Blood glucose

What is the difference between blood glucose and glycogen?

Blood glucose is free in the blood for breakdown into energy; glycogen is the storage form of glucose and is kept in the muscle or liver

How is edema related to blood proteins?

Blood proteins will attract fluids to prevent excess standalone liquid in tissues (edema = swelling)

How is the pyloric sphincter similar to the sphincter muscle of the esophagus?

Both act as final muscles of their respective components/organs of the digestive process; the pyloric sphincter controls how much chyme is released to the small intestine.

What is common between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes?

Both have high blood sugar levels and low insulin.

How is the ileocecal sphincter similar to the pyloric sphincter?

Both prevent backwards flow of digested materials, and the ileocecal sphincter separates the small from the large intestine.

What is the chemical compound for glucose?

C6 H12 O6

How does cholecystokinin (CKK) act on the pancreas?

CKK is released in response to proteins entering the small intestine, which triggers the pancreas to release the hormone trypsin, which breaks unraveled AA chains into small units.

How do the brain, nervous system and RBC's benefit from carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are their main energy source

What is the primary method of mechanical digestion?

Chewing

What would happen if the epiglottis was removed from the esophagus?

Choking; this flap-like tissue blocks food from entering the trachea (windpipe), which connects the lungs.

What is the most common sterol, and what is another commonly found sterol?

Cholesterol (chole-STEROL); hormones (STER-oids)

What is a specific difference between circular and longitudinal muscles?

Circular muscles are at junctions of the GI tract, where they are connected to one another; they act like valves to control the flow of food.

The large intestine is also called the:

Colon

When two incomplete proteins are consumed to ensure proper protein consumption, what is this referred to as?

Complementary proteins

Hard, dry and infrequent stools are a sign of which GI malfunction?

Constipation

How does a Lacto vegetarian diet meet protein needs?

Consumption of dairy products but NO eggs or any meats

How does a pesco vegetarian diet meet protein needs?

Consumption of fish but NO OTHER animal flesh

How does denaturation impact protein structure?

Denaturation disrupts and destroys a protein's structure, and this can be done using heat, enzymes, acid or agitation.

How would gastrin levels impact the stomach if mucus was not produced?

Deterioration of the stomach lining; mucus protects the stomach from the high acidity lvl

What do we call the process of transforming food into basic nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body?

Digestion

Lactase, maltase and sucrase are considered:

Disaccharidases (break down disaccharides to mono)

Describe the functions of soluble (viscous) fiber.

Dissolves in water Is broken down by intestinal bacteria Shows glucose absorption and can lower cholesterol Provides satiety to a meal Related to diseases like obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and metabolic syndrome X

Describe the functions of insoluble (nonfermentable fiber).

Does not dissolve in water Not broken down by intestinal bacteria Increases the stool mass Speeds passage through the large intestine Related to diseases like diverticulitis, cancer and constipation

What are the three sections of the small intestine?

Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum

Name 4 means of chemical digestion in the body.

Enzymes, acid, bile and mucus

Passive, facilitated and active transport all require energy: true or false?

False; active transport is the only nutrient transport that requires energy, because it goes against the gradient (low to high concentrations)

The bile which the liver secretes is stored in the pancreas: true or false?

False; bile from the liver is stored in the gallbladder

Passive and facilitated diffusion both require the use of a protein carrier: true or false?

False; facilitated diffusion is the only nutrient-moving process that requires a protein carrier.

IBS (irritable bowel syndrome) is more common in males than females: true or false.

False; it is more common in females

Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids are non-essential: true or false?

False; these are essential and are required in one's diet because they cannot be made in the body

The four organs involved in digestion are considered a part of the GI tract: true or false?

False; they (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas) are involved in substance secretion to digest food items, but they are not part of the 6 structures of the GI tract.

Proteins are classified as a micronutrient: true or false?

False; they are a macronutrient.

The only role of proteins is to provide body structure: true or false?

False; they regulate body functions and provide body structure and can be used to provide energy if necessary (gluconeogenesis)

The small intestine is the only site of lipid digestion: true or false?

False; though it is the primary site of lipid absorption, some (minimal) digestion occurs in the mouth and stomach.

Which macronutrient does the stomach's gastric lipase begin to break down?

Fats (gastric = stomach, lipase = lipids (fats))

Without the anal sphincters, what would be prevented in digestion?

Final excretion of feces; these are muscles that contract

How is peristalsis related to mechanical digestion?

Food is moved by involuntary muscle contractions (peristalsis) down the esophageal tract.

How is the esophageal sphincter involved with heartburn and gastroesophageal reflux disease?

GERD = chronic heartburn = occurs a few times a week; the esophageal sphincter is meant to close to prevent stomach contents from refluxing into the esophagus, which can cause nausea, coughing, gagging, etc.

Which organ aids in the digestion of fat, but secretes a unique substance to do so?

Gallbladder; secretes bile to emulsify fat

What is another term used for specialized carrier proteins during facilitated diffusion?

Gatekeeper proteins

What is sucrose comprised of?

Glucose and fructose (table sugar, honey, syrup)

What is lactose comprised of?

Glucose and galactose (milk sugar)

What is maltose comprised of?

Glucose and glucose (rare in food; used to convert sugars to alcohol)

Name the three monosaccharides

Glucose, fructose, galactose

How would glycogen levels change in relation to low blood sugar?

Glycogen would be converted to glucose for breakdown to energy

How does appearance play a role in the start of digestion?

Good looking food is something we want to eat.

In which parts of the body do proteins uphold BODY STRUCTURE?

Hair, skin, nails, muscles, connective tissue

What food choices can be made to lead to a healthier life?

High fiber foods, vegetables and fruits, and whole grains

How does starch content in food relate to fiber?

Higher starch content usually means a good source of fiber

How does taste play a role in the start of digestion?

If it tastes good, we eat it. Simple

Probiotics help in which ways?

Improve gut health and digestion

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by

Insulin resistance (can be produced but might not be enough to convert the very high blood sugar to glycogen)

How does insulin secretion regulate blood sugar lvl?

Insulin will signal the liver to store blood glucose as glycogen for later use while also signaling muscles, adipose tissue and cells to absorb glucose themselves. This returns blood sugar lvl to a normal range

If the colon is not an area of mass nutrient absorption, why is it necessary in the GI tract?

It acts as a final "collector" and dispenser of semi-solid waste (feces) but also plays some roll in last-minute water and mineral absorption.

What is the purpose of salivary lipase, a chemical digestive enzyme in the mouth?

It breaks down fats (lipids)

What is the purpose of salivary amylase, a chemical digestive enzyme in the mouth?

It breaks down starches (starch in latin is amylum)

Any undigested food passes through the ileocecal sphincter for what single reason?

It cannot be digested, so it is excreted as waste from the large intestine.

How is insoluble fiber helpful for constipation?

It increases stool frequencies (and mass)

Is fructose actively or passively absorbed?

It is passively absorbed using facilitated absorption, which means there is no need for energy use, but a carrier protein is required)

How is the anatomy of the duodenum unique in the small intestine?

It is wider than the rest of the small intestine

Mucus is a part of chemical digestion in the mouth: what is it's purpose as a part of saliva?

It lubricates food particles to make it easier to swallow

How does pancreatic juice function with chyme in the intestinal wall?

It neutralizes the acidity in the small intestine to protect the wall, and therefore preventing ulcers

How is soluble fiber linked to cholesterol?

It slows glucose absorption and can lower cholesterol/provide satiety to a meal

The small intestine secretes lactase to digest (1) to (2) and (3)

Lactose; glucose and galactose

How can esophageal sphincter malfunction be mediated?

Limit meal size, chew foods well, and limit coffee, tea, alcohol, and some spices. Do not lay down immediately after eating.

Where do fat-soluble nutrients go after processing in the small intestine?

Lymph system

Describe an overview of carbohydrates.

Made of C,H and O; an organic nutrient; provide 4kcal/gram

The small intestine secretes maltase to digest (1) to (2) and (3)

Maltose; glucose and glucose

Determine the two methods by which food is broken down.

Mechanical and chemical

How are monosaccharides different from disaccharides?

Mono includes a single sugar, and di contains two sugars

The GI tract is composed of which six main parts?

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small AND large intestine, rectum

What is the portal vein responsible for?

Moving absorbed AA's from the small intestine to the liver for transport to the bloodstream.

How does the mucosa function for nutrient absorption?

Mucosa is the inner-most layer of the GI tract and is composed of absorptive cells and glands.

Does insoluble fiber dissolve in water?

No

What main differences exist between sterols and phospholipids?

No glycerol backbone in sterols; both can be found in membranes, but not always the case for cholesterol; cholesterol is necessary for hormone and bile acid production

Is gluconeogenesis the preferred method of energy production?

No, but it is used if necessary. Sufficient carbohydrate intake is still necessary in order to promote protein sparing (aka save proteins for intended uses like building and maintaining muscles instead of conversion to glucose)

Is functional fiber inherent in foods?

No, it is added to products to promote intestinal health (like Miralax)

Is blood glucose the only source of energy for the brain and CNS?

No, it is preferred, but if it is unavailable, the brain and CNS can rely on fat digestion (ketones) as a source of fuel (ties in with a ketogenic diet)

Are animal sources the only way to get protein?

No, plants are also viable sources of protein.

How is protein calorie malnutrition detrimental to the body?

Not enough consumption of protein and calories in general can cause muscle wasting, which can lead to a compromised immune system.

Pepsin is released in response to which hormone during digestion?

Once food is consumed and begins digestion (or if you think about food), GASTRIN is produced in the stomach and triggers the release of pepsin to break down peptide bonds (proteins) and UNRAVELS them

When the amount of protein intake is equal to daily protein loss, what is this called?

Protein equilibrium

Cells contain vast amounts of proteins; how does the body reuse them?

Protein turnover is the constant breakdown and repair of proteins for continued use.

Which macronutrient does the stomach's pepsin begin to break down?

Proteins (made of peptide bonds)

How does the mouth chemically digest food?

Salivary glands secrete saliva (mucus and digestive enzymes) to prepare food for the next part of the GI tract

Which four organs are involved in digestion?

Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

Name the five flavors the tongue identifies.

Salty, sweet, sour, bitter, umami

What is the physical difference between a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid?

Saturated fatty acids are straight and without a "kink" due to a lack of a double bond

What are the 4 categories of fatty acids?

Saturated, mono-unsaturated, poly-unsaturated, trans-unsaturated

Which fiber is broken down by bacteria?

Soluble ("viscous") fiber

How are starch and fiber different from one another?

Starch can be digested; fiber cannot

Name the organ that connects the esophagus to the small intestine.

Stomach

The small intestine secretes Sucrase to digest (1) to (2) and (3)

Sucrose; glucose and fructose

How does the mouth mechanically digest food?

Teeth (chewing) breaks down food into smaller, more manageable pieces

What is done with excess protein?

The body can convert it into fat for long-term storage.

How are proteins used in response to a low carbohydrate intake?

The body will convert muscle-derived protein into glucose (gluconeogenesis)

How is diverticulosis related to diverticulitis in the colon?

The colon, with age and depending on diet, can form pockets (diverticulosis) that may accumulate or trap digested food stuffs over time. It is possible for an infection to occur because of this (diverticulitis), which can be minimized with increased fiber intake.

What role do bile, the gallbladder and the small intestine play together?

The gallbladder stores liver-produced bile until it receives a hormonal signal from the small intestine that fat has entered it; bile is then released from the GB to the SI, where it breaks down (emulsifies) fat to a size that can be mixed with water.

Which organ group is involved in nutrient absorption?

The gastrointestinal tract (GI)

Which component of the small intestine links the small to large intestines?

The ileum

How does the liver play a role in sterol consumption?

The liver is capable of making all cholesterol (a sterol) the body requires

Which organ/body location is the first point of carbohydrate digestion?

The mouth (salivary amylase) breaks starch into disaccharides

Which two structures does the esophagus connect?

The mouth and the stomach

Without colon-produced mucus, how would this organ be impacted?

The mucus helps hold fecal matter together and it acts as a shield for the intestines against bacteria

Type 1 diabetes is characterized by:

The pancreas not producing any insulin

During hyperglycemia, which hormone is secreted?

The pancreas secretes insulin in response to high blood sugar lvls

During hypoglycemia, which hormone is secreted?

The pancreas will secrete glucagon, which converts liver-stored glycogen to blood glucose for energy.

How is the nervous system stimulated when food is in the esophagus?

The presence of food triggers the NS to send signals to GI-muscles to propel food further (peristalsis).

Feces is stored in which part of the large intestine?

The rectum

Which organs secrete lipase in triglyceride (and other fat) digestion?

The salivary glands (mouth), the stomach, the pancreas.

Which organ does the watery substance, chyme, enter into?

The small intestine

The portal vein connects which two organs?

The small intestine and the liver.

How does odor play a role in the start of digestion?

The smell stimulates our hunger response and influences taste.

What is the purpose of the organ that connects the esophagus to the small intestine?

The stomach stores, mixes and dissolves food continuously using chemical digestive enzymes and gastric juice.

How is a catabolic state related to protein intake?

There is a lack of protein and loss or breakdown of muscle occurring

Describe the relationship between non-essential AA's and the body.

These are made in the body and do not need to be derived from foods we consume.

Describe the relation between enzymes and chemical reactions.

These are proteins that speed up chemical reactions and prepare nutrients for absorption

How are plant-based foods in comparison to complete protein sources?

These do not contain the nine essential AA's and must be closely monitored in a diet to ensure people get the nutrients (e.g. protein) they need

How do proteins impact acidity/base levels?

They act as buffers to maintain pH.

How are osmosis and simple diffusion related?

They are both considered passive transport.

What is the fate of fats digested in the body (i.e. how are they digested structurally?)

They are digested with lipase and bile acids to monoglycerides, absorbed in Small-Int, then reformed as triglycerides (IF STORED); if TRANSFERRED in the blood/lymph, they require lipoprotein carriers (fat-protein)

In which ways do triglycerides act as resources to the body?

They are found as energy stores in adipose (fat) tissue; Provide insulation and protection, serve as a carrier of fat-soluble vitamins (makes sense if capable of being stored in adipose tissue)

What is the current situation with protein-rich diets in underdeveloped countries?

They are not readily available, like they are in developed countries.

How do the circular and longitudinal muscles of the GI tract function in digestion?

They are responsible for mixing and moving food along the GI tract.

How are amino acids related to proteins?

They are the building block of proteins and form peptide bonds to make protein chains.

How are enzymes and hormones related to body processes.

They help regulate body processes (hormones) and catalyze reactions (enzymes).

Without the help of pancreatic glucagon and insulin, how would blood sugar levels be regulated?

They wouldn't. It is extremely necessary for these two hormones to function as they do.

Gastrin is produced in response to what?

Thinking about eating food AND the actual digestion of food.

How does stimulation of anal sphincters aid in constipation, and how is it achieved?

This helps activate the muscles to push fecal matter out properly, and this can be achieved by changing diet and medications; Calcium and iron have the potential to cause constipation, but eating high fiber foods (and drinking more water) can alleviate this.

How does a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet meet protein needs?

This includes NO animal flesh at all (no fish, meat, poultry) but includes MILK and EGGS

How does a semi-vegetarian diet meet protein needs?

This includes NO red meat, but you can eat fish and poultry to meet protein requirements

Describe the impacts of Marasmus on the body.

This is a childhood protein deficiency and overall calorie deficiency (Greek for "wasting away", children usually die from the following): **severe weight loss/growth impairment **wasting of muscle fat **skin and bones appearance MALNUTRITION WITHOUT edema

Describe the impacts of Kwashiorkor malnutrition on the body.

This is a severe childhood protein deficiency that can cause the following: **impair growth **reduce weight **cause edema (less protein to absorb water from tissues) **induce fatty liver (more fats and little protein) This is MALNUTRITION with EDEMA

How is endocytosis related to nutrient absorption?

This is active transport of LARGE quantities of molecules into a cell

What would happen to partially digested food if the sphincter muscle was not present?

This is the final muscle at the end of the esophagus, which closes promptly in order to prevent backflow of food from the stomach (can cause gastroesophageal reflux disease or GERD, which is chronic "heartburn" aka acid reflux)

How would nutrient absorption be impacted without the small intestine.

This is the largest site of nutrient absorption and digestion; these processes would be largely diminished without it

Why is it necessary to drink more water when having diarrhea?

This is the opposite of constipation, so the body is losing lots of liquids; drink fluids to combat this loss; eat low fiber foods to prevent more frequent stools

Triglycerides are composed of

Three fatty acids bound together with a glycerol molecule

From the liver, which two routes can absorbed monosaccharides be transported?

To the blood, as glucose; OR to the muscles and remaining in the liver, as glycogen OR for fat production

Fighting infections is a function of nutrients. True or False?

True

Fueling cellular growth is a function of nutrients. True or False?

True

Providing energy to the muscles and brain is one function of nutrients. True or False?

True

The jejunum is the middle portion of the small intestine: true or false?

True

The nervous system and hormones trigger the full events of digestion. True or False?

True

True or False: the GI tract is a single tube connecting the mouth and anus and traverses the body.

True

Ulcers or peptic ulcers can occur in the stomach, lower esophagus or small intestine: true or false?

True

Essential amino acids are not produced in the body and are therefore necessary in the foods we eat: true or false?

True; essential AA's are not produced in the body and are therefore essential in the foods we consume.

Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport: true or false?

True; facilitated diffusion requires no energy use and is therefore a type of passive diffusion

The three macronutrients (besides water) are broken down using pancreatic juice: true or false?

True; this is water, bicarbonate and enzymes.

How would protein absorption be impacted if trypsin levels were negligible?

Trypsin breaks protein chains into small and manageable sizes for absorption in the small intestine.

What kind of fatty acid (saturated or unsaturated) is Omega 3, and what is its categorization, if any?

Unsaturated (poly); the first double bond is on the 3rd carbon from the methyl group e.g. if Omega 6: double bond on the 6th carbon from the methyl group

How does the pancreas regulate glucose?

Using glucagon and insulin

Without the folds of the small intestines and _______, food particles could not be captured easily and nutrient absorption would diminish.

Villi (finger-like projections)

How does cognition play a role in the start of digestion?

We begin to think about food, which starts the flow of saliva.

How does sound play a role in the start of digestion?

We hear a description of the meal. "Dinner is ready!"

Why is the process of digestion useful and necessary?

We wouldn't be able to extract nutrients from the food items we consume.

Define negative protein balance

When we lose more protein than is consumed in a day

Define positive protein balance

When we take in more protein than we lose in a day

Which steps are necessary for a plant-based diet to meet protein needs?

Whole grains/unrefined foods Eggs! Vary fruits and veg (more colors are better) Low fat dairy B12 and D supplements (B12 is only in animal foods) Vary foods in general

Does soluble fiber dissolve in water?

Yes

Do proteins provide feelings of satiety, and can they provide energy?

Yes and Yes

Does any digestion happen in the large intestine?

Yes; bacteria in the colon will help break down remnants of food from the small intestine and break down some fiber.

Glucose is often referred to as

blood sugar

The simplest form of a fat is a

fatty acid

Chyme is composed of what?

food particles and stomach acids/enzymes

Fructose is also known as

fruit sugar (the sweetest tasting)

Fruitarian diets involve

fruits, nuts, honey and vegetable oil (not recommended for lack of nutrients)

Galactose is usually bound to

glucose; it is the primary sugar in milk

Lactose intolerance is caused by

inadequate production of the enzyme lactase.

What does the small intestine break disaccharides into?

monosaccharides

Vegan diets involve

plant foods only

Starch, glycogen and fiber are

polysaccharides

Prebiotics differ from probiotics in that they

stimulate bacterial GROWTH in the large intestine

How are unsaturated fats named? (mono, poly)

the number of double bonds in the structure

Which structure connects the stomach to the small intestine?

the pyloric sphincter

Which organ connects the stomach to the large instestine?

the small intestine

Most monosaccharides are actively absorbed, which means:

they require a specialized carrier/transporter and energy to be absorbed into the cells of the small intestine

Complex carbohydrates are also called polysaccharides: true or false?

true