oceanography final UGH

Cephalopods: (Mollusca) pelagic invertebrates like squids, nautiluses, octopuses

cephalopods are highly evolved molluscs that are marine predators -Mollusca: animal phylum containing bivalves, snails, squid, and octopuses

krill: a keystone species, ocean's most important zooplankton (pelagic)

play a significant ecological role in the structure and function of the ecosystem in antarctic waters (gaze on abundant diatoms and in turn are consumed by squid, fish, seabirds, and whales; schools can collectively exceed the biomass of earth's entire human population0

Coral Reefs: the earth's most densely populated and diverse communities

polyps that are crowded into colonies, only cover 1% of the tropical ocean, yet contain 25% of biodiversity found in the ocean; THREAT to coral reefs: crown of thorns starfish; grow best in brightly lighted water **corals and jellyfish belong to the same animal phylum-Cnidaria

Copepods (pelagic)

(tiny crustaceans), shrimp like animals, includes non planktonic organisms like crabs, lobsters, and some shrimp

Oceanic zone is further divided by depth (EMBAH)

- epipelagic zone: lighted photic zone -mesopelagic -bathypelagic -abyssopelagic -hadalpelagic

Mariculture stock enhancement

hatchery production of fish which are released into the wild as juveniles - Large portion of salmon are reared this way

Marine Mammals (SGMO)

Common features of marine mammals: - Streamlined body shape - Generate and conserve internal body heat - Modified respiratory system to collect and retain large amounts of oxygen - Osmotic adaptations to help free them from freshwater requirements examples: • Porpoises, dolphins, and whales • Seals, sea lions, and walruses • Manatees and dugongs

Fishes: Gills, oxygen exchange

Fish take in water which contains high amounts of dissolved oxygen. Oxygen is extracted using gill membranes *like other ectothermic (cold-blooded) organisms, the majority of fishes are incapable of generating and maintaining a steady internal temperature from metabolic heat, so the internal temperature of the fish is usually the same as its surrounding environment

Large Methane Hydrate Deposits Exist in Shallow Sediments

Largest known reservoir of hydrocarbons on Earth is not oil or coal, but methane hydrate found in sediments of some continental slopes - Require high pressure and low temperatures to form: found on continental slopes and in arctic permafrost - ***May exacerbate climate change if released (methane is a powerful greenhouse gas) - Only stable at high pressures

Toxic "Red Tide" Plagues Florida's Gulf Coast (caused by dinogalgelltas)

Karenia brecis produces a neurotoxin that interrupts the firing of nerve cells and can kill wildlife who ingest or inhale the toxin

Offshore Drilling

Most marine oil deposits are tapped from offshore platforms

Marine Sand and Gravel Are used in Construction

Sand and gravel are the second most valuable resource after oil and natural gas • Palm Jumeirah and The World islands constructed off the coast of Dubai using 430 million cubic meters of sand that was dredged from the Persian Gulf

Marine energy resources

Result from the extraction of energy directly from the heat or motion of ocean water

Climate Change: A positive feedback loop

Rising CO2 levels and temperatures create a positive feedback loop - Oceans are warming: warm water cannot hold as much CO2 as cold water - Ice melting: ice has an albedo affect which reflects the sun, without it more heat is absorbed by dark ocean water or land, heating up the planet more

tropical regions low in surface nutrients and plankton

strong thermocline discourages vertical mixing necessary to bring nutrients from lower depths, so phytoplankton not abundant

Zooplankton consume primary producers

they are planktonic organisms that eat other plankton (heterotrophs), represented by nearly every major phyla of animal, they eat large cyanobacteria, diatoms, and dinoflagellates and other plankton at bottom of pyramid include: copepods, holoplankton, meroplankton, krill, giant jellyfish, forminifera, radiolarians

example of deep sea marine community: hydrothermal vent

this community depends on chemosynthetic producers *1976: scientists discovered previously unknown animals clustered near jets of superheated water blasting from rift vents in a young oceanic ridge -more than 3,000 m below surface -specialized bacteria -tube worms

Phytoplankton: autotrophic plankton (diatoms, dinoflagellatas) **** note that the term "plankton" does not refer to a collective natural category like molluscus or algae... refers to a basic ecological connection

thought to bind at least 50% of the food made by photosynthesis on earth, tend to be the most abundant in high nutrients concentrated areas (coastal upwelling and land runoff provides lots of nutrients so plankton abundant near shore and continents, temperate cont. shelves and southern subpolar zones- while topics have little nutrients) **not abundant off of South America

famous fishhhhh

• Sailfish - Regarded as the fastest fish on earth - Clocked at over 68mph • Deep Blue - One of the largest recorded great white sharks spotted in Hawaii this January - Over 20 ft long and at least 50 years old!

Seaweed and Marine Plant Communities Shelter Organisms

• Seaweeds aka multicellular algae - Carry out between 2 and 5% of ocean's primary productivity - Largest can reach 62 meters in length - Provide shelter for benthic animals

Meroplankton

some organisms only spend part of their life cycle as planktonic organisms but later adopt a different lifestyle; Ex. Juvenile crabs, clams, sea stars, tuna, etc.

Holoplankton

spend their whole lives in the plankton community

Bycatch

- Animals unintentionally killed while collecting desirable organisms - Sometimes greatly exceeds target catch

Rocky intertidal zone (b/w highest & lowest tide; great diversity & success, lots of nutrients-food, high concentration of dissolved gases, at risk of wave shock, changing tides, temp changes, osmotic shock, predators from land & ocean)

- Band between the highest high-tide and lowest low-tide marks on a rocky shore - Impacted by rising and falling tide, and wave shock - Large quantity of available food - Great diversity and success of organisms in this area ***challenges ▪ Wave shock ▪ Changing tides (drying out or drowning) ▪ Temperature Changes ▪ Freshwater runoff (osmotic shock) ▪ Predators from ocean and land *** benefits ▪ Lots of available nutrients (food) ▪ High concentration of dissolved gasses ▪ Runoff from coast provides nutrients

Climate Change: A rate problem

- By burning fossil fuels we release excess CO2 into the atmosphere at much larger and faster rates than is natural - CO2 being produced faster than it can be absorbed by the ocean - Is causing global surface temperature and sea temperature to rise

challenges facing deep sea creatures

- Cold temperatures - High Pressure - Scarce food *Most creatures have special adaptations to cope with these challenges

symbiotic relationship: Coral and Zooxanthellae

- Coral provide safe stable environment, CO2, phosphorus, and nitrogen - Zooxanthellae provide oxygen, carbohydrates, and alkaline pH necessary to enhance rate of calcium carbonate deposition *zoo and polyp work together to produce oxygen and do photosynthesis; coral provides stable environment and zoo provide oxygen

Bottom trawling

- Devastates bottom communities -habitat is disturbed when nets are dragged along ocean floor, damaging corals and other important habitat -ex: collapse of the Atlantic cod; canadian gov had to step in and cease all fishing after populations exploited fell to less than 1% of their original pop (due to large trawling vessels and radar allowed for larger catch, caused lots of bycatch

Organisms Can Be Grown in Controlled Environments: MARICULTURE

- Farming marine organisms, usually in estuaries, bays, or nearshore environments, or in specially designed structures using circulated seawater

Mariculture challenges and concerns

- Fish escape pens: low genetic diversity and outcompete wild fish - Inefficient to grow large carnivorous fish - Close quarters: fish more susceptible to disease and waste can pollute coastal areas near the holding pens - Habitat destruction: 1/3 of Ecuador's mangroves converted to shrimp ponds

Earth's climate usually in balance

- Greenhouse gasses are natural and keep the planet warm (without them Earth would be 0°F) - Greenhouse gasses released from volcanic and geothermal processes, decay and burning of organic matter, respiration of organism - Greenhouse gasses are absorbed by photosynthesis and the ocean which keep the planet from overheating

Sand and cobble beach communities

- Hostile environment for smaller organisms - Rough sand particles get into soft tissue and wear away protective shells - Difficulty separating food from sand particles and keeping away from predators and waves - Rounded rocks on cobble beaches crush small organisms ***main challenges -harsh -> -erosion -> -destruction -> -burial ->

marine resources: BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

- Living animals and plants collected for human use and animal feed -marine sources: 17% of the total animal protein consumed by humans -sea will not be able to provide substantially more wild food to prevent malnutrition and starvation

marine resources: RENEWABLE RESOURCES

- Naturally replaced by the growth of marine organisms or by natural physical processes

marine resources: NONRENEWABLE (oil, gas, solid mineral deposits)

- Present in the ocean in fixed amounts and cannot be replenished over short time spans - Examples: oil, gas, and solid mineral deposits

Mariculture improvements and strategies

- Raise fish in submerged pens: dilutes waste and pens are more protected from wind and wave energy - Moderate number of fish in each pen: lowers amount of waste and risk of disease

marine resources: PHYSICAL RESOURCES

- Result from the deposition, precipitation, or accumulation of useful substances in the ocean or seabed o Petroleum o Natural Gas o Freshwater ** petroleum and natural gas are ocean's most valuable resources and global demand for oil is growing; a third of oil reserves lie along cont. margins (s. cali, texas and Louisiana gulf coast, north slope of alaska)

oil spills

- Spills of crude oil are large in volume but are ultimately biodegradable and most marine life will recover in 5 years - Spills of refined oil are more disruptive over longer periods of time ▪ Components added to oil during refinement make it more deadly

fishes

-Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays) >800 species *whale shark 47k lbs -Osteichthyes (bony fishes) >32,000 species *ocean sunfish 2200 lbs

Cleaning a Spill Always Involves Trade-Offs

-Detergents used to disperse oil sometimes cause more damage than oil itself (toxic) -Oil mixed with dispersant lingered far below the surface instead of floating on top and is harmful to the organisms that would metabolize the oil naturally -Ironically the best treatment may be to do nothing (ex. deepwater horizon oil largest oil spill in US, 206 gallons of oil released, tried to treat w various chemicals including Corexit which may have done more harm than good: devastating impacts of gulf coast ecosystems, dolphin populations decreased, mutations and sores on marine wildlife, 11 workers killed)

Organisms Can Be Grown in Controlled Environments: AQUACULTURE

-Growing or farming plants or animals in a water environment under controlled conditions - Accounts for half of all fish consumed by humans

Blue Whales: Largest of them all

-Largest animal on earth (198 tons and 38ft) feeds on one of the smallest organisms: krill -Needs to consume 4 tons of krill each day ~40 million krill

Fishes Are the Most Abundant and Successful Vertebrates (more than 33,000 species)

-More species of fishes, and more individuals, than species and individuals of all other vertebrates combined • Fish live in a wide variety of watery habitats • Fish extract oxygen with gill membranes • One-quarter of all bony fish exhibit schooling behavior during their lives

marine resources: NONEXTRACTIVE RESOURCES

-Uses of the ocean in place - Examples: transportation of people and commodities by sea, recreation, and waste disposal

divisions based on the ocean floor (benthic zone, littoral zone, sublittoral zone, bathyal zone, abyssal zone, hadal zone) LSBAH

-benthic zone: bottom -littoral zone: intertidal, coast covered and uncovered by the tide -sublittoral zone: beyond the littoral zone (inner sublittoral: ocean bottom nearshore, outer sublittoral: ocean floor out to the edge of continental shelf) -bathyal zone: continental slope to great depths -abyssal zone: below bathyal zone -Hadal zone: deepest (trenches)

petroleum and natural gas

-ocean's most valuable resources *how oil is made: - Large quantities of planktonic organisms and masses of bacteria accumulate on the ocean floor - In anaerobic conditions bacteria convert original material into insoluble organic compounds - Compounds are buried by sediment and experience high temperatures from burial and pressure which allows them to be converted to oil - Takes 3 million years to produce 1 years worth of oil at current consumption rates

pelagic communities split into two groups (pegalic organisms live suspended in water)

-plankton: drift with ocean currents -nekton: organisms that actively swim

Toothed whales

Actively hunt prey using echolocation (cold-blooded?)

Plastics and Other Forms of Solid Waste Can be Especially Hazardous to Marine Life

Eight million metric tons of plastic ends up in the ocean each year - More hazardous than oil spill - Some synthetic materials can take 400 years to break down - Kill hundreds of marine mammals and thousands of sea birds each year - Some estimates say that by the year 2050 there will be more plastic in the ocean than fish ** MICROBEADS

Nekton dominate open ocean communities (may not have to know this)

Nektonic animals - Most are vertebrates ▪ Fishes, reptiles, and marine birds and mammals - Some are invertebrates ▪ Squid and nautiluses

New concerns over fish hatcheries

New film just released by Patagonia focuses on how fish hatcheries are affecting wild populations of salmon and their ecosystems

Great Pacific Garbage Patch

North Pacific subtropical gyre concentrates garbage due to currents - Area about twice the size of Texas - Plastics are broken into smaller pieces overtime which tend to attract toxic residues such as PCB's - Microscopic plastic particles outweigh zooplankton 6:1 in the garbage patch

Oil Enters the Ocean from many Sources **intertidal and shallow-water subtidal communities are most sensitive to effects of an oil spill

Oil does naturally seep into the ocean, however we have added much more: largest source of oil pollution is runoff from city streets, waste oil dumped down drains, or thrown away in trash (much more hazardous than crude oil: carcinogenic and metallic components from combustion ALSO -offshore drilling -nearshore refining

Sea Otters: Guardians of the Kelp Forests

Sea otters have a voracious appetite for sea urchins which help to keep sea urchin populations in check, preventing them from overpopulating and destroying the kelp forests

Largest Ocean Cleanup has begun

The ocean cleanup project was designed by a 17 year old, Boyan Slat, purpose to remove plastic from garbage patch

microbal loop (might not have to know this)

a trophic pathway in which heterotrophic bacteria manufacture and consume dissolved organic carbon -More productive than the larger visible food chain - Larger organisms unable to separate these microorganisms from the water thus they have a separate food chain

Biomagnification

ability of some organisms at higher levels in the food chain to concentrate toxic substances in their flesh

Pollutants Interfere with an Organism's Biochemical Processes: MARINE POLLUTION

adding substances or energy into the ocean which changes water quality or affects the physical and biological environment

Niche (an organisms role in it's habitat)

an organism's relationship to food and enemies (habitat= an organisms physical location) think of the organism's habitat as its address and the nice as its job

zone (scientists divide marine environments into zones, they are based on location)

area with homogeneous physical features (Divisions can be made based on light, temperature, salinity, depth, latitude, water density, etc.)

oceanic zone

beyond the continental shelf

Diatoms

earth's most abundant, successful, and efficient single-celled phytoplankton

Picoplankton: very small producers

forms of cyanobacteria (most)

Members of plankton community interact with one another

grazing, pedation, parasitism

Population

group of organisms of the same species in the same location

the effects of sand dredging

habitat disturbance, crushing trenches and holes, bottom dust plume, surface dust plume, nutrient release, poisons release, bottom blanketing

Community

many populations of organisms that interact in a particular location

Dinoglagellates

microscopic single-celled flagellates, most of which are autotrophic; responsible for "red tides" producing harmful algal blooms; another species causes breaking waves to glow blue due to bioluminescence

ocean's most valuable biological resources: FISH, CRUSTACEANS, AND MOLLUSKS

most valuable living marine resources, harvests declining despite attempts to increase yields

neritic zone

near shore over the continental shelf

pelagic zone

open water (divided into two zones): neritic zone and oceanic zone

Ecology levels of organization

organisms -> population -> community -> ecosystem -> biome -> biosphere

Pollutants Interfere with an Organism's Biochemical Processes: POLLUTANTS

substance that causes damage by interfering directly or indirectly with an organisms biochemical process - Quantity, toxicity, and persistence factors - Some pollutants are biodegradable

Chemosynthesis

synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic compounds by using energy stored in inorganic substance like sulfur, ammonia, and hydrogen (energy released when these substances are oxidized)

Deep Sea Marine Communities

usually composed of strange organisms that have unique adaptions to help them survive in the deep -gigantism: individuals of representative families in deep water often tend to be much larger than relative individuals in the shallow water (giant isopod: lower temp lead to increased cell size and longer life span) -fragility: some animals have slender legs to raise them above the sand

"Things are Changing" -not important

we have used more natural resources since 1955 than in all of recorded human history... Our Consumption Of Earth's Natural Resources Has More Than Tripled In 40 Years • World economies depend on oceanic materials • Prices of goods and services do not reflect harm to the environment - Fishing methods can degrade seafloor habitat and continue to kill organisms in discarded nets - Fishing methods often catch nontarget species - These unincorporated costs are known as externalities

Specialized Communities Form around Whale Falls

• "Stepping stone" theory - Whale carcasses may provide "stepping stones" for organisms to drift from one carcass to the next until a new or newly active vent is reached

Marine Birds: Penguins (they have lost the ability to fly, but are excellent swimmers

• 17 species of Penguins • Largest is the Emperor penguin ~1.3m tall • Like marine iguanas they have a specialized gland to concentrate salt and excrete it out of their bodies by sneezing • Most penguins live in southern hemisphere - Only Galapagos penguins venture north of equator (no penguins at the north pole!)

Manatees and Dugongs

• 3 Species of Manatees and only one species of dugong • Large herbivorous mammals whose diets consist primarily of seagrass • Threats include pollution and boat strikes

Green Turtle (eats sea grass and algae, finely serated jaws)

• Adults average ~400lbs • Green color from part of their diet (sea grass, algae) which colors their body fat • Finely serrated jaws great for munching on sea grass and algae

Marine Botanical Resources Have Many Uses

• Algin: made from mucus of seaweed - Most important commercial product - From brown algae (kelp) - Used as a thickening and stabilizing agent - Used in variety of products including printing ink and beer! • Seaweeds also harvested for food

seaweed: technically not plants

• Although they are photosynthetic, they are structurally and biochemically different from vascular plants - Classified as protists - Are a group of algae **giant kelp: a brown algae, the largest algae, most kelp are in temperate or polar climate zones

Organisms Cannot Prosper If Their Habitats Are Disturbed

• Bays and estuaries especially sensitive - Pollution from rivers - Filling of estuaries reduces acreage ****As severe a threat as toxic wastes • Rising ocean acidity - Due to CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere - Affects many organisms, including corals and organisms with calcium carbonate shells

A note about edible seaweed

• Carrageenan extracted from red seaweed used as a thickening agent - Some studies suggest it could lead to gastrointestinal issues and inflammation

benthic organisms live on or in the seafloor

• Diversity of benthic habitats - Kelp forests - Rocky intertidal zones - Sand beaches - Salt marshes - Areas around deep vents and seeps - Coral reefs

New Drugs and Bioproducts of Oceanic Origin Are Being Discovered *ex: medical use of horseshoe crab blood

• Estimate: 10% of all marine organisms likely to yield clinically useful compounds - Derivatives from tunicates promising in treating skin cancer, and in shrinking tumors • At least 25 drugs derived from marine life are currently in clinical trials or have been approved for use • Enzymes from primitive deep-ocean organisms used in green detergents

Eutrophication Stimulates the Growth of Some Species to the Detriment of Others

• Eutrophication: a set of physical, chemical, and biological changes that take place when excessive nutrients are released into the water - Nutrients release from wastewater, factories, and fertilizer runoff - Spark algal blooms which can lead to areas of hypoxia (low oxygen)

Shallow Benthic Marine Communities

• Found in submerged sunlit regions of continental shelves • Often characterized by high diversity and 3-D structures formed by: - Coral Reefs - Seaweeds - Marine Plants

Baleen Whales

• Generally larger and filter out plankton or small fish • Baleen is like bristles and is made of keratin (like your hair and fingernails)

Earth's Climate is Changing

• Greenhouse effect: trapping of heat by the atmosphere • Greenhouse gases: heat is absorbed and trapped by these gasses causing surface temperatures to rise - carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, water vapor • Mathematical models predict future climate change

Toxic Synthetic Organic Chemicals May Be Biologically Amplified (US limit considered hazardous to animals is 50ppm, for human 5ppm) (toxic synthetic organic chemicals + metals may be biologically amplified)

• Halogenated hydrocarbons (DDT, Dioxins) • Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) - Can disrupt immune system, hormone production, reproductive success, neural function • Biomagnification: ability of some organisms at higher levels in the food chain to concentrate toxic substances in their flesh - Trophic levels concentrate toxic substances

examples of shallow benthic marine communities

• Individual coral animal called a polyp - Feeds by capturing and eating plankton that drift within reach of tentacles • Zooxanthellae - Tiny, symbiotic dinoflagellates - works with polyp to provide oxygen, carbohydrates, and necessary pH to enhance calcium deposition • Algae help cement reef together

Introduced Species Can Disrupt Established Ecosystems

• Introduced species: Foreign organisms - introduced by ships or natural events (tsunami) - Can prove destructive in ecosystems not adapted to them: no predators or outcompete local organisms - Examples: brown kelp and Chinese mitten crab EX: Organism-laden debris arrived in the U.S. Pacific Northwest after 2011 Japan Tsunami - Debris washed ashore in Oregon had 30 non-native species EX2: Chinese mitten crab - Native to Eastern Asia but has been introduced to Europe and North America - Spend most of their life in freshwater but return to the sea to reproduce, breed in estuaries

Killer Whales: FYI they are actually dolphins

• Killer whale is the largest known species of dolphin • Has the second largest brain on the planet

Alaskan Pollock Fishery

• Largest fishery in the United States, one of the most valuable in the world • Alaskan pollock commonly used for commercial products like fish sticks

Leatherback Turtle (largest, lacks outershell, weak jaw)

• Largest sea turtles growing up to 6.5 ft and 2,000lbs • Can live in colder waters compared to most other species and dives deeper than any other species • Weaker jaws: feed on jellyfish and salps (gelatinous plankton) • Only species to lack a hard outer shell

example of deep sea marine community: Cold Seeps

• Locations where hydrocarbon-rich fluid seeps up from below the sea floor often as methane or hydrogen sulfide - Supports chemosynthetic communities -depends on chemosynthetic producers - Not really cold (cold relative to hydrothermal vents) - Some result in deep-sea lakes called brine pools on the ocean floor

Sea Turtles and Seabirds Are Well-Adapted for Coastal Environments

• Many sea turtle species live near coral reefs and seagrass meadows • Ectothermic •Salt glands concentrate and secrete excess salts from body fluids • Sea turtles return to lay eggs on beach where they hatched • Seven recognized living species of sea turtles

Many of Today's Fisheries Are Not Sustainable **removal of top predators has devastating effects on whole ecosystem

• Maximum sustainable yield - Maximum amount of each type of fish, crustacean, and mollusc that can be harvested without impairing future populations - Commonly exceeded in many fisheries • Overfishing - Excessive fish harvesting resulting in not enough breeding stock left to replenish the species - In 2012 US National Marine Fisheries Service estimates 19% of fish stocks suffer from overfishing

Flatback Turtle (only found in N australia, papa NG and indonesia)

• Medium: Adults can weight up to ~198lbs • Very Limited range: Northern Australia and Papua New Guinea/Indonesia

Methane Hydrate

• Methane trapped in crystal lattice of interlocking water molecules • Methane escapes when brought to the surface and is highly flammable

sea birds

• Most seabirds live in southern hemisphere • Also contain salt-excreting glands to get ride of excess salt taken in with their diet - Gulls - Pelicans - Albatrosses - Petrels - Penguins

salt marshes and estuaries: often act as marine nurseries

• Muddy-bottomed salt marshes among the most active benthic communities - Sea grasses, mangroves, and vascular plants • Primary productivity high because of high nutrient availability • Wave shock usually reduced • Many pelagic species spend larval lives in estuaries - Acts as a nursery for many species

Marine Protected Areas Offer a Glimmer of Hope

• National Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) - U.S. has over 1,600 MPA's - Only three percent of these are fully protected, in which all extractive use is prohibited • 2014: Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument - World's largest marine reserve • Britain, Chile, and New Zealand have also set aside areas • Less than 1% of ocean is in fully protected marine reserves

Climate Change Consequences

• Ocean acidification: higher CO2 taken up by ocean lowers the pH of ocean - Causes damage to corals and organisms with CaCO3 shells • Water expands when heated and also the volume of the ocean is increasing with melting of ice caps - Sea level rise will put millions of people and development at risk - Higher temperatures also influence organism that live there: coral bleaching

Kemp's Ridley Turtle (2nd smallest, limited to GoM, most endangered)

• One of the smallest sea turtles (~100lbs) • Prefer sandy or muddy bottom habitats • Feed on crabs, clams, mussels and shrimp • Limited to Gulf of Mexico • Most endangered species of sea turtle population estimate ~8000 breeding females

Freshwater is Obtained by Desalination

• Potable water: water suitable for drinking - Only .017% of Earth's water is surface freshwater - 0.6% of Earth's water trapped as groundwater • Desalination: separation of pure freshwater from seawater - Currently produce 22.9 billion gallons worldwide every day - Produce by either freezing, boiling, or reverse osmosis

shoreline marine communities

• Rocky intertidal communities • Sand and Cobble Communities • Estuary Communities

Heavy Metals Can Be Toxic in Very Small Quantities

• Small quantities of heavy metals can cause damage to organisms - Mercury, lead, copper, and tin • Sources of heavy metal pollution - Industrial wastes, landfills, gasoline residue, mining operations, coal smoke, and industrial production • Mercury can cause neurodevelopmental issues to children if exposed in the womb or during infancy - Pregnant women advised to avoid top predators such as tuna, swordfish, shark, mackerel, and crab

Hawk's Bill Turtle (critically endangered, live in coral reef comm, bill used to read food among crevice of coral)

• Small-medium: Adults can weight up to~200lbs • Typically found living around coral reef communities • Bill used to read food amongst the crevice of coral • Listed as critically endangered

Loggerhead Turtle (most common species, large heads & small jaws)

• Small-medium: Adults can weight up to~375lbs • Named for large heads and strong jaws which allow them to feed on shelled organisms like snails • Most common species (only one listed as threatened not endangered)

Olive Ridley Turtle (smallest, arribas, 150k eggs)

• Smallest marine turtle: Average 80lbs • Nest at synchronized nesting sites called arribadas (Spanish for "arrival") with up to 150,000 turtles coming onto shore in one night to lay eggs!

What Can Be Done?

• The solution to environmental problems, if one exists, lies in education and action • Each of us is obliged to become informed on issues that affect Earth, its ocean, and its air—to learn the arguments and weigh the evidence • We need to start now

Nonextractive Resources Use the Ocean in Place

• Transportation and recreation • Global transportation fleet doubled in size since 2001 - Container and passenger ships - 80% of global trade is transported via maritime trade • Melting of arctic ice enabling new trade routes • Public aquariums and marine parks • Coastal real estate

Albatross (largest wingspan)

• Wandering albatross have the largest wingspan of any bird reaching almost 12ft • Amazing gliders: Can cover 1000km/day without flapping its wings • Can travel 15,000km without returning to land

Salts are Gathered from Evaporation Basins (evaporate extraction)

• When seawater evaporates you are left with various salts including: - Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) - Gypsum (CaSO4) - Table salt (NaCl) ~78% - Magnesium and Potassium salts • About 1/3 of worlds table salt is produced from seawater by evaporation • Sea Salt leaves all the other residual solids

Renewable Sources of Marine Energy

• Wind is world's fastest growing power source - High, steady winds near ocean • Oceanic energy used to generate power - Waves - Currents - Tides ***CHALLENGES of renewable sources of marine energy: - Expensive - Corrosion: saltwater - Too much energy - Potential impacts to marine life and environments

Coral Bleaching

•Higher temperatures cause corals to expel the symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) and turn completely white • Coral can recover from bleaching but are under higher stress and may die without the algae - Lower nutrient intake and more vulnerable to disease