Organizational Behavior Chapter 6 Finalized
Fundamental characteristics of action plans include:
*focusing on results *specific time limits *being specific about what will be achieved
Managers can support employees' goal achievement by:
*providing needed training *Providing timely and task-specific feedback
Types of Goals
- Performance goals: Target gets a specific end result - Mastery (learning) goals involve enhancing your knowledge or skill.
Performance Management (PM)
-A set of processes and managerial behaviors that involve defining, monitoring, measuring, evaluating, and providing consequences for performance expectations -Defined this way, PM is far more than the simple and common performance appraisal -Appraisals typically refer only to the actual performance review, an event. In contrast, effective PM is a continual process that includes much more
Law of Effect
-Behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear
Role of Exit Interviews
-Can provide feedback that uncovers the true reasons employees quit jobs -Provides insight as to what the organization needs to improve and what it does well -Can uncover serious misconduct that needs to be addressed urgently
Total Rewards
-Compensation ~Base pay, merit pay, incentives, promotions, pay increases -Benefits ~Health and wellness, paid time off, retirement -Personal Growth ~Training, career development, performance management -Involving employees can improve the effectiveness of any reward system
Total rewards perspective therefore include
-Compensation: base pay, incentive, promotions, and pay increases -Benefits: health and wellness, paid time off, and retirement -Personal Growth: training, career development, and performance management
Positive Reinforcement Schedules
-Continuous Reinforcement ~Every instance of a target behavior is reinforced -Intermittent Reinforcement ~Involves reinforcement of some but not all instances
Outcomes from rewards
-Desired Outcome: more of what you intended and for which you are rewarded -Nothing: the reward can have no effect -Undesired side-effects: rewards reinforce or motivate the wrong behaviors.
Outcomes of the Reward System
-Desired Outcomes ~More of what you intended rewarded -Nothing ~The reward can have no effect -Undesired Side-Effects ~Rewards reinforce or motivate the wrong behaviors
Role of Senior Managers and Leaders
-Difficult for senior managers to get feedback -Senior Managers can: ~Seek feedback from others by creating an open and honest environment ~Separate feedback from the performance review process ~Create a mechanism to collect feedback anonymously
Why is Feedback Important?
-Feedback has the potential to boost performance -People do not receive feedback as often an as well as they would like -Feedback is dramatically underutilized -Most people agree that feedback—both giving and receiving—has the potential to boost performance. However, most people also admit that they neither receive nor provide feedback as often and as well as they would like.
Perception and Negative Feedback
-Feedback itself is information and only becomes positive or negative when compared to a goal or expectations -Positive Feedback-->Perceived More Accurately-->Recalled more accurately -Negative Feedback-->Can have a Positive Motivational Effect-->Can be seen as a challenge and cause higher goals to be set
Contingent Consequences
-Figure 6.3 -Slide 37
Integrative Framework for Understanding and Applying OB
-Figure 6.5 -Slide 40
Two Functions of Feedback
1. Instructional: clarifies roles or teaches new behaviors 2. Motivational: serves as a reward or promise of a reward *Feedback motivated when it serves as a reward or promises a reward.
Sources of Feedback
1. Others: Peers, Supervisors, Lower-level employees, Outsiders 2. Task: Many tasks provide a steady stream of feedback about how well or poorly one is doing 3. Self: Self-serving bias may contaminate this source. Those high in self-confidence tend to rely on personal feedback molre than those with low self-confidence
Components of organizational reward system
1. Types of rewards 2. Distribution criteria 3. Desired outcomes
Tips for increasing goal commitment and success
1. Write your goal down 2. Identify key obstacles and sources of support 3. What's in it for YOU? 4. Break it Down 5. Organize 6. Reward Yourself
Primary Managerial Responsibility is to set and align goals across levels of Organizational Behavior
1. individual 2. department 3. organizational
Managers who practice effective performance management generate:
50% less turnover 10%-30% higher customer satisfaction ratings 40% higher employee commitment Double the net profits
According to a survey by Franklin Covey published in Psychology Today in 2010:
56% don't understand their organization's goals
An important function of goal setting is: a. reducing role stress associated with conflicting and/or confusing expectations b. reducing the mental effort required in employee jobs c. minimizing performance evaluations d. simplifying supervision
A
Performance feedback is more likely to lead to increased job performance when it is: a. constructive and specific b. provided in written form only c. not recorded d. one-way communication
A
they often conflict with supervisory evaluations.
A key criticism of self-evaluations is:
extinction
A non-response approach that weakens a behavior is known as:
Factors that affect your perceptions of feedback
Accuracy, Credibility of the sources, fairness of the system, performance-reward expectancies, reasonableness of the goals or standards.
moderately difficult
All of the following are generally considered to be good characteristics of work goals EXCEPT:
recording
All of the following are problems that contribute to the inaccuracy of performance appraisals EXCEPT:
Negative Reinforcement
Also strengthens a desired behavior by contingently withdrawing something displeasing
The colleague is using extinction and positive reinforcement.
An employee does not respond to the sarcastic comments of a coworker but compliments him for constructive comments. Which of the following statements is true of this scenario?
coaching and counseling
An important aspect of a mentoring relationship is:
reducing role stress by clarifying the task-role expectations.
An important function of goal setting is:
goal commitment
An important intermediate step between goal acceptance and goal accomplishment is:
task-specific self-efficacy
An individual's internal expectancy to perform a particular assignment successfully known as:
no response or feedback when employee fails to complete task on time.
As a supervisor you decide to use positive reinforcement to increase the probability that desired job performance will be repeated. All of the following are appropriate as positive reinforcement except:
allowing them to participate in goal setting.
As a supervisor, you can enhance the performance of your employees by:
Desired Outcomes
Attract Motivate Retain Develop Engage
13. Reinforcement and punishment are administered through: a. extinction b. positive or/and negative consequences c. ignoring the behavior d. withholding a positive consequence
B
4. Modifying behavior so that a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits an unconditioned response defines: a. operant conditioning b. classical conditioning c. reinforcement d. learning
B
52. Kelley proposed thaT individuals make attributions based on information gathered in the form of: a. consensus, distinctiveness, and attractiveness b. consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency c. attractiveness, distinctiveness, and consistency d. attractiveness, consensus, and consistency
B
The notion of entitlement at work is considered: a. to engender active, responsible, adult behavior b. to engender passive, irresponsible behavior c. to be necessary for developing expectations for high performance and appropriate rewards d. to define the consequence of rewarding high performance and developing achievement oriented behavior
C
The process of defining, measuring, appraising, providing feedback on, and improving performance is called: a. MBO (Management by Objectives) b. a control system c. performance management d. performance appraisal
C
The reliability of an effective performance appraisal system comes from: a. insuring the appropriate dimensions of performance are appraised b. insuring that the dimensions of performance that are measured are constructed in a valid way c. insuring that evaluations from multiple sources and at different times are captured over the course of the evaluation period d. insuring that when evaluations are conducted employees clearly understand what dimensions are being evaluated
C
The schedule of reinforcement that provides the least impact or incentive for performing well is known as: a. fixed ratio b. variable ratio c. fixed interval d. variable interval
C
8. Operant conditioning is based on the notion that behavior is a function of: a. seated beliefs b. perception and thinking c. unconscious drives d. its consequences
D
A prerequisite for successful goal-setting programs, such as management by objectives (MBO), is: a. a relatively benign or stable environment b. supervisory goal commitment c. the connection between goals/outcomes/rewards d. organizational commitment
D
As a supervisor you decide to use positive reinforcement to increase the probability that desired job performance will be repeated. All of the following are appropriate as positive reinforcement except: a. salary increase after evaluation b. promotion after several outstanding performance reviews c. releasing employee to go home early but providing full pay d. no response or feedback when employee fails to complete task on t
D
Management by objectives involves: a. setting objectives for employees b. formulating corporate strategy c. superior control of subordinate behavior d. interaction between a superior and an employee for setting employees' goals and later evaluating performance and progress toward goal accomplishment
D
Management by objectives is a goal-setting and performance-planning program originated by: a. Albert Bandura b. B.F. Skinner c. J. Willard Marriott d. Peter Drucker
D
Reward allocation decisions involve: a. sequential decisions about which outcomes will be rewarded b. simultaneous decisions about which people to reward, how to reward them, and when to reward them c. a process of considering individual perceptions regarding instrumentalities and whether reward levels will be perceived equitable d. sequential decisions about which people to reward, how to reward them, and when to reward them
D
Social learning theory is based on the belief that: a. learning occurs because of behavioral consequences b. learning occurs based on group norms c. learning is strongly connected to need based drives d. learning occurs through the observation of other people and the modeling of their behavior
D
The notion of entitlement at work is considered: a. to engender active, responsible, adult behavior b. to engender passive, irresponsible behavior c. to be necessary for developing expectations for high performance and appropriate rewards d. to define the consequence of rewarding high performance and developing achievement oriented behavior
D
Traditional organizational reward systems in the United States place value on: a. entitlement b. group performance c. non-specific performance standards d. individual performance
D
Which of the following is NOT a major function served by goal setting? a. It can increase work motivation and task performance. b. It can reduce the role stress that is associated with conflicting or confusing expectations. c. It can improve the accuracy and validity performance evaluation. d. It can result in a restriction of focus that leads to a lack of creativity, spontaneity, and flexibility.
D
Which of the following is a form of operant conditioning? a. expectancy theory b. the expectation-performance-reward-satisfaction chain c. the attempt by a supervisor to satisfy higher order needs of employees through participation d. organizational behavior modification
D
respondent behavior
He labeled unlearned reflexes or stimulus-response (S-R) connections.
law of effect
Hence, Thorndike formulated his famous... which says behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear. 60 This was a dramatic departure from previous notions that behavior was the product
Continuous Reinforcement
If every instance of target is reinforced then a continuous reinforcement schedule is in effect
conditioned stimulus.
In the animal learning research by Pavlov, the sound of the bell was the:
Exemplifies a performance goal
Increasing sales by 10% in a period
theoretical frameworks
Intuitors, in terms of learning, prefer:
Intermittent Reinforcement
Involves reinforcement of some but not all instances of a target behavior
Feedback
Is the exchange of information about individual or collective performance shared with those in a position to improve the situation. It is used to motivate, support, direct, correct and regulate work efforts and outcomes. It ensures that the manager and employees are in sync and agree on the standards and expectations of the work to be performed.
consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.
Kelly proposed that individuals make attributions based on information gathered in the form of:
Performance Management processes have three primary functions
Make employee-related decisions: performance can be justified by a pay raise or promo Guide Employee Development: by assisting in identifying your strengths and weaknesses Send Strong Signals to employees: about what they are supposed to do and how to advance their careers
Peter Drucker
Management by objectives is a goal-setting and performance-planning program developed by:
are internal attributions for poor performance.
Minimal effort, last of commitment, lack of motivation, and personal problems:
ignore the worker's undesirable actions for a while.
One of your employees periodically fails to clean up his work area at the end of the work shift. Instead of issuing punishment or discipline, you decide to try an extinction approach to the situation. Accordingly, you might:
quantitative goals
Outcome (or performance) feedback is greatly facilitated by:
selecting people from a pool of job applicants.
Performance appraisal is used for all of the following EXCEPT:
constructive and specific
Performance feedback is more likely to lead to increased job performance when it is:
Monitoring performance involves measuring:
Progress toward ultimate goals Measuring achievement of the ultimate goal
intrinsic rewards
Psychic rewards, however, are ... because they are self-granted.
Intrinsic Rewards
Psychic rewards, however, are intrinsic rewards because they are self-granted.
sequential decisions about which people to reward, how to reward them, and when to reward them.
Reward allocation decisions involve:
operant behavior
Skinner attached the label ... to behavior that is learned when one "operates on" the environment to produce desired consequences. Some call this the response-stimulus (R-S) model.
The theory that there is a purposeful if-then link between a target behavior and a consequence is:
Skinner's operant theory
learning occurs through the observation of other people and the modeling of their behavior.
Social learning theory is based on the belief that:
SMART goals are those that include:
Specific Measurable Attainable Results Oriented Time Bound
SMART
Specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound
Writing Goals
Specific: Goals should be stated in precise rather than vague terms. Measureable: A measurement device is needed to assess the extent to which a goal is accomplished. Goals thus need to be measurable. Attainable: Goals should be realistic, challenging, and attainable. Impossible goals reduce motivation because people do not like to fail. Results oriented: Corporate goals should focus on desired end results that support the organization's vision. Time bound: Goals specify target dates for completion.
Practical implications for using the strongest schedule
Spot Rewards Variable Rewards/Bonuses Celebrations
realistic
Starbucks' board goal of recycling 100% of their cups by 2012 meets all the following of the SMART criteria EXCEPT:
Steps in the Performance Management Process
Step 1 - Define performance outcomes for company division and department Step 2 - Develop employee goals, behavior, and actions to achieve outcomes Step 3 - Provide support and ongoing performance discussions Step 4 - Evaluate performance Step 5 - Identify improvements needed Step 6 - Provide consequences for performance results
Effective Performance management steps:
Step 1: Define Performance Step 2: Monitor and Evaluate performance Step 3: Review Performance Step 4: Provide Consequences
Managing the Goal-setting process
Step 1: Set Goals Step 2: Promote goal commitment Step 3: Provide Support and feedback Step 4: Create action plan
The 3 common sources of feedback include self, ___ and ___
Tasks Others
Perceptual Error: Central Tendency
Tendency: To avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral. Example: Rating an employee as average on all dimensions of performance regardless of actual performance. Recommended Solution: Keep Performance Notes To define an accurate profile, with high and low points, so you can help the employee improve. Remember that it is normal to provide feedback that contains both positive and negative information.
Perceptual Error: Leniency
Tendency: To consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion. Example: Rating an employee high on all dimensions of performance regardless of actual performance....to make him feel good Recommended Solution: Keep Performance Notes To provide specific examples of both good and bad so you can help the employee improve. Remember that it does not help employees when they are given positive, inaccurate feedback. Be fair and realistic in evaluations.
Perceptual Error: Contrast Effects
Tendency: To evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects. Example: Rating an employee as average, from a a comparison of the employee's performance with the notable performance with the notable performance with the notable performance of a few top performers.
Perceptual Error: Recency Effects
Tendency: To rely on most recent information. If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively. Example: Rating an employee based on the last portion of the review period. Recommended Solution: Keep Performance Notes To accumulate examples of performance over the entire rating period. Remember to look for trends but accept some variance as normal.
the multidimensional nature of performance is most work setting.
The evaluation of medical doctor's performance on interpersonal skills to complement necessary technical diagnostic and treatment skills reflect which characteristic of performance?
defining performance in behavioral terms.
The first step in the performance measurement process is:
to engender passive irresponsible behavior.
The notion of entitlement at work is considered:
goal setting
The process of establishing desired results that guide and direct behavior is known as:
classical conditioning.
The process of modifying behavior so that a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits and unconditioned response is known as:
succeed at a challenging task.
The strongest way for an employee to develop self-efficacy is to:
Perceptual Error: Halo effect
The tendency: to form an overall impression about a person or object and then use that impression to bias ratings about same. Example: Rating an employee positive across all dimensions of performance because the employee is so likable....because they dress well Recommended Solution: Keep Performance Notes To record examples of positive and negative employee performance throughout the near. Remember that an employee's behavior tends to vary across different dimensions of performance.
Leniency
To consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion
Contrast Effects
To evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characters of recently observed people or objects
Halo
To form an overall impression about a person or object and then use that impression to bias ratings about same
Recency Effects
To rely on most recent information. If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively
Extinction
Weakening a behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced
extinction
Weakening a behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced is referred to as .
Low self-monitor
Which of the following has NOT been shown to moderate the relationship between goal difficulty and task performance?
organizational behavior modification.
Which of the following is a form of pedant conditioning?
Law of Effect
Which says behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear
classical conditioning.
a person working at a computer terminal may get lower back tension as a result of poor posture. If the person becomes aware of that tension only when the manager enters the work area, then the person may develop lower back tension as a response to the appearance of the manage. This scenario would be an example of:
The important last step in the goal-setting process is to create ___ ___.
action plans
It is a primary responsibility of management at all levels to:
align goals across all levels of the organization.
Negative reinforcement
also strengthens a desired behavior by contingently withdrawing something displeasing.
SMART
applied to goals is an acronym for specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound.
Writing them down and rewarding yourself for achieving intermediate steps helps promote ____ to achieving goals.
commitment
Performance management is a processes that include setting objectives, monitoring and evaluating performance, and providing ____.
consequences
Two common schedules used to change behavior are the ___ reinforcement and ___ reinforcement schedules.
continuous intermittent
If every instance of a target behavior is reinforced, a _________ schedule is in effect.
continuous reinforcement
Total rewards
encompass not only compensation and benefits, but also personal and professional growth opportunities and a motivating work environment that includes recognition, job design (Chapter 5), and work-life balance.
Total Rewards
encompass not only compensation and benefits, but also personal and professional growth opportunities and a motivating work environment that includes recognition, job design, and work-life balance.
According to Jim Boomer, a professional service firm consultant, employees will go through the motions, but won't buy into a firm's performance management system:
if senior managers don't hold themselves accountable for their goals
Exemplifies a perfomance goals
increasing sales by 10% in a period
360-Degree feedback
individuals compare perceptions of their own performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonyomous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers.
learning goal
involves enhancing your knowledge or skill
Monitoring performance
involves measuring, tracking, or otherwise verifying progress and ultimate performance.
intermittent reinforcement
involves reinforcement of some but not all instances of a target behavior.
Coaching
is a customized process between two or more people with the intent of enhancing learning and motivating change.
Pay for performance
is the popular term for monetary incentives linking at least some portion of one's pay directly to results or accomplishments.
Evaluating performance
is the process of comparing performance at some point in time to a previously established expectation or goal.
Positive Reinforcement
is the process of strengthening a behavior by contingently presenting something pleasing
Punishment
is the process of weakening behavior through either the contingent presentation of something displeasing or the contingent withdrawal of something positive.
Research has found it is important to use two-way communication and to follow up after disciplinary acts because:
it is perceived differently based on the cultural characteristics of the person delivering it it is affected by the supervisor's use of apologies and explanations it is perceived differently based on the sex of the person delivering it
Traditional Appraisals
Discourage two-way communication and treat employee involvement as a bad thing. Employees are discouraged from participating in a performance review, and when they do, their responses are often considered "rebuttals"
Effective Feedback Programs
Effective feedback is only information--it is not an evaluation. Hard data such as units sold, days absent, dollars saved, projects completed, customers satisfied, and quality rejects.
Extrinsic Rewards
Financial, material, and social rewards qualify as extrinsic rewards because they come from the environment.
subjective assessment
"you're lazy" or "you have a bad attitude"--- does not qualify as effective feedback
Types of Rewards
-Extrinsic Rewards: ~Financial, material, social ~Come from the environment -Intrinsic Rewards: ~Psychic rewards ~Are self-granted
Three common sources of feedback:
-Others -Task -Self
Other types of measures
-timeliness -Quality -Quantity -Financial metrics
task-specific self-efficacy
Central to Bandura's social learning theory is the concept of:
24. An individual's beliefs and expectations about his or her ability to accomplish a specific task successfully is known as: a. self-esteem b. external locus of control c. self monitoring behavior d. self-efficacy
D
41. Performance appraisal is used for all of the following except: a. evaluating employee work behavior b. making promotion and other reward decisions c. identifying employee developmental needs d. selecting persons from a pool of job applicants
D
Respondent Behavior
Ex: shedding tears while peeling onions and reflexively withdrawing ones hand from a hot stove
True or false: Goal-setting is most effective when it is general and open ended enough for flexibility.
False: Effective goals are SMART goals that are specific and time bound.
True or False: Goal-setting is most effective when it is general and open ended enough for flexibility
False; Effective goals are SMART goals that are specific and time bound
Instructional Feedback
Feedback instructs when it clarifies roles or teaches new behavior
Motivational Feedback
Feedback motivates when it serves as a reward or promises a reward
Extrinsic Rewards
Financial, material, and social rewards are ...because they come from the environment.
"There were no errors on the financial audits for this quarter" is an example of this type of goal measurement?
Quality
the positive and negative consequences of behavior.
Reinforcement and punishment represents:
operant conditioning.
The process of modifying behavior through the use of positive or negative consequences following specific behaviors is known as:
that evaluations from multiple sources and at different times are captured over the course of the evaluation period.
The reliability of an effective performance appraisal system comes from ensuring:
fixed interval
The schedule of reinforcement that produces an uneven response pattern varying from a very slow, un-energetic response immediately following reinforcement to a very fast, vigorous response immediately preceding reinforcement is known as:
Types of Measures
Timeliness: Was the work completed on time? Quality: How well was the work done? Quantity: How much? Financial metrics: What were the profits, returns, or other relevant accounting financial outcomes?
Central tendency
To avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral
Feedback
as information about (individual or collective) performance shared with those in a position to improve the situation
feedback
as information about (individual or collective) performance shared with those in a position to improve the situation.
Although most employers rely on fixed interval reinforcement schedules, some examples of effective variable rewards include:
celebrations of milestones variable bonuses for achieving major goals spot rewards
Writing them down and rewarding yourself for achieving intermediate steps helps promote ___ to achieving goals.
commitment
In performance management, comparing actual outcomes to a previously established goal is ___ performance
evaluating
Effective ___ serves as a separate function from evaluation
feedback
Information about how to improve performance is called
feedback
The functions of ___ for those who receive it in organizations are instructional and motivational.
feedbacl
Some examples of extrinsic rewards include:
financial, material and social rewards qualify Pay raise Promotion
Among the reasons that research has found performance management systems to be unsuccessful are:
focusing on only one part of the process a disconnect between the day-to-day job and the elements of the review
Feedback is more likely to be acted upon when it is seen as instrumental to achieving an ___ or ___ outcome.
important valued
Performance Management
is a set of processes and managerial behaviors that involve defining, monitoring, measuring, evaluating, and providing consequences for performance expectations
Pay for Performance
is the popular term for monetary incentives linking at least some portion of one's pay directly to results or accomplishments.
Performance ___ is a set of processes that include setting objectives, monitoring, and evaluating performance and providing consequences.
management
A ____ goal targets a specific end result.
performance
Information about individual or group ____ shared with those in a position to improve the situation is feedback.
performance
A process that defines expectations, evaluates performance against the expectations, and provides consequences is ___ ___.
performance management
The process of weakening an undesired behavior by the contingent presentation of something displeasing or the withdrawal of something positive is:
punishment
Drivers of Employee Engagement
setting clear expectations helping employees accomplish work providing regular feedback finding new opportunities for employees to succeed and develop
performance goal
targets a specific end result
performance goal
targets a specific end result, and a learning goal involves enhancing your knowledge or skill.
all of these
the major functions of performance appraisal include:
contingent
there is a purposeful if-then linkage between the target behavior and the consequence.
Operant Behavior
to behavior that is learned when one "operates on" the environment to produce desired consequences.
Feedback is only positive or negative when:
you compare it to a goal or exxpectation. Such comparisons are the basis for improvement. *Note negative feedback is not negative reinforcement
current financial status
Which of the following is NOT considered to be one of the four sources of task-specific self-efficacy critical to the local learning theory of Albert Bandura?
when combined with self-evaluations, there is a high level of agreement with supervisory evaluations.
Which of the following is NOT true of the characteristics of 360-degree feedback?
Perceptual Errors
*Halo Effect- tendency to allow one personality trait to influence our perceptions of other traits *Selective Perception- process of systematically screening out information we dont wish to hear *Implicit Personality Theories- creation of our own system of personality profiles used to categorize new acquaintances rapidly *Projection- the tendency to attribute our own feelings and characteristics to others *First Impressions *Stereotyping- categorizing individuals based on one or two traits
Reinforcement Schedules
-Fixed Ratio: piece-rate pay, bonuses tied to the sale of a fixed number of units. *****Advantages: Clear and predictable link between the behavior and the reinforcer. *****Disadvantage: Costly to monitor performance and administer reinforcers (e.g., money); reinforcers lose effect over time -Variable Ratio: slot machines that pay after a variable number of pulls *****Advantages:Strong motivation to continue until reinforcer is receive; less costly than fixed ratio. *****Disadvantages:Some desired behaviors will be rewarded; potentially long periods between reinforcers (e.g.,payouts) -Fixed Interval: paychecks (every two weeks), annual bonuses *****Advantages:Clear and predictable link between the behavior and the reinforcer; less costly than fixed ratio. *****Disadvantages: Inconsistent effort and performance over the interval (majority of effort/performance occurs near reinforcer) -Variable Interval: random supervisor "pats on the back", drug tests, pop quiz *****Advantages: Consistent and strong motivation to perform over time; least costly schedule due to relatively little monitoring and administration *****Disadvantages: Some desired behaviors will not be reinforced; potentially long periods between reinforcers (e.g.,payouts)
Step B: Promote Goal Commitment
-Goal commitment is important because employees are more motivate to pursue goals they view as personally relevant, obtainable, and fair
Common Perceptual Errors
-Halo -Leniency -Central Tendency -Recency effects -Contrast effects -Attributions and perceptions can greatly influence how you evaluate the information gathered via monitoring. Table 6.4 lists common perceptual errors and recommended solutions around the need to accurately monitor employee performance -The best-laid goals from Step 1 can be completely undermined if performance toward those goals is not measured appropriately, of if performance is evaluated with bias.
Overcoming Bias with 360-Degree Feedback
-Individual compares perceptions of their own performance with ~Manager ~Subordinates ~Peers ~Customers and suppliers -In 360-degree feedback individuals compare perceptions of their own performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers. -Collecting performance information from multiple sources helps a person being evaluated to get a broad view of his/her performance. -The comparison of ratings across different raters also enables one to see if any potential biases and perceptual errors are occurring. -Finally, it also makes it much more difficult for managers to unfairly favor or punish particular employees.
What is Feedback?
-Information about individual or collective performance shared with those in a position to improve the situation -Effective feedback is only information, not an evaluation ~Subjective assessments such as, "You're lazy" or "You have a bad attitude," do not qualify as effective feedback. But hard data such as units sold, days absent, dollars saved, projects completed, customers satisfied, and quality rejects are all candidates for effective feedback programs. -Feedback is an important, but not always present, cousin of goal setting. Feedback enables you to learn how your performance compares to the goal, which you can then use to modify your behaviors and efforts.
Functions of Feedback
-Instructional -Motivational -Feedback instructs when it clarifies roles or teaches new behavior. -Feedback motivates when it serves as a reward or promises a reward. Hearing the boss say, "You've completed the project ahead of schedule, take the rest of the day off," is a pleasant reward for hard work, but many employees also appreciate the attention and interest expressed by the very act of providing feedback, regardless of content.
Monitoring Performance
-Involves measuring, tracking, or otherwise verifying progress and ultimate performance -Monitoring Performance-->Identify problems and successes-->Identify opportunities to enhance performance -You use the information gathered through monitoring to identify problems (and successes) and opportunities to enhance performance during the pursuit of a goal, and your final outcomes.
Using a Contingency Approach to Defining Performance
-It is important to do what the situation requires, rather than a one-size fits all approach -Slide 11 -Table 6.3 -It is important to do what the situation requires, rather than applying a one-size-fits-all approach and simply doing what has always been done, or only following your personal preferences. Fit the behavior, policy, or practice to the situation. You are well served to remember and apply this same wisdom to goal setting. -To be clear, learning and performance goals have their place, and setting SMART goals can give you a significant advantage over your competitors. However, you can be more effective still if you define performance goals in ways that match the situation —not all performance can or should be measured in dollars and cents.
Feedback Do's
-Keep feedback relevant -Deliver feedback as soon as possible to the time of behavior was performed -Provide specific and descriptive feedback -focus on things employees can control -Be honest, developmental, and constructive.
Feedback Do's
-Keep feedback relevant by relating it to existing goals -Deliver feedback as soon as possible to the time the behavior was performed -Provide specific and descriptive feedback -Focus the feedback on things employees can control -Be honest, developmental, and constructive
Uses of Performance Management
-Make Employee-Related Decisions: For instance, your performance can be used to justify a pay raise, a promotion, and new assignments. PM can also generate documentation and help justify termination and reduce the chances of a wrongful dismissal lawsuit -Guide Employee Development: By assisting in identifying your strengths and weaknesses and highlighting your training and development needs. In fact, a PM expert said that PM "is one of the most powerful talent management practices we have as HR professionals" -Send Strong Signals to Employees: About what they are supposed to do and how to advance their careers within a given organization
Why Performance Monitoring and Evaluation is Important
-Managers need to monitor and evaluate both progress toward the final goal and the ultimate achievement of the goal: ~Otherwise it may be too late to take corrective action ~Also the final evaluation may not capture all relevant aspects of performance
Sources of Feedback
-Others: ~Peers ~Supervisors ~Lower-level employees ~Outsiders -Task: ~Many tasks provide a steady stream of feedback about how well or poorly one is doing -Self: ~Self-serving bias may contaminate this source
2 Types of Goals
-Performance Goal: Targets a specific end result -Learning Goal: Enhances your knowledge or skill -Managers typically emphasize the former and ignore the latter as they try to "motivate" greater effort and achieve final results. But if you lack necessary skills, experience, or direction from your supervisor, then performance goals can be more frustrating than motivating. When skills are lacking, it is often helpful to set learning goals first and then performance goals once you've developed some level of proficiency.
Pay for Performance
-Popular term for monetary incentives linking at least some portion of pay directly to results or accomplishments: ~Above and beyond basic wages and salary ~Incentive or variable pay ~Merit pay, bonuses, and profit sharing
Step C: Provide Support and Feedback
-Practical guidelines include: ~Make sure each employee has the necessary skills and information to reach their goals ~Pay attention to employee expectations about the movement from effort to performance, their perceived self-efficacy, and their reward preferences, and adjust accordingly ~Be supportive and helpful. Empower employees as they grow ~Give timely and task-specific feedback about what is done right and wrong ~Provide monetary and non-monetary incentives and reward meaningful progress too, not just goal accomplishment
General Criteria for Distributing Rewards
-Results -Behavior and Actions -Nonperformance Considerations
Distribution Criteria
-Results: tangible outcomes such as group, individual, or organizational performance. -Behaviors and actions: such as teamwork, cooperation, risk taking, and creativity -Nonperformance factors: customary or contractual, where the type of job is rewarded
Factors Affecting Perceptions of Feedback
-Self-serving Bias -Fundamental Attribution Bias -Accuracy -Credibility of the Sources -Fairness of the System -Performance-Reward Expectancies -Reasonableness of Goals and Standards
Managing the Goal-Setting Process
-Set goals -Promote goal commitment -Provide feedback and support -Create action plans
Performance Management Process
-Step 1- Define Performance: Set goals and communicate performance expectations -Step 2- Monitor and Evaluate Performance: Measure and evaluate progress and outcomes -Step 3- Review Performance: Deliver feedback and coaching -Step 4- Provide Consequences: Administer valued rewards and appropriate punishment -Effective PM generally influences important outcomes such as greater employee engagement and better organizational performance -Managers who practice effective PM generate exceptional results compare to those who don't
What goes wrong with PM
-The majority of managers and organizations do a poor job of managing employee performance due to: ~PM practices are impractical. They don't fit the situation and don't motivate the appropriate behaviors and outcomes. Such PM practices therefore are reduced to "chores" that involve little more than checking boxes ~Second, many argue the pitfalls of PM are due to focusing on one part of the process, and only using measures that are available rather than what is appropriate
Evaluating Performance
-The process of comparing performance at some point in time to a previously established expectation or goal -Needs to be relevant and accurate -Performance at a point in time--><--Established goals Was performance as expected?
Types of Measurements Used to Measure Performance
-Timeliness: Was the work completed on time? -Quality: How well was the work done? -Quantity: How much? -Financial metrics: What were the profits, returns, or other relevant accounting-financial outcomes?
Coaching
-Turning feedback into Change -Coaching is a customized process between two or more people with the intent of enhancing learning and motivating change. -Effective coaching is developmental, has specific performance goals, and typically involves considerable self-reflection, self-assessment, and feedback
Common components of performance management system
-Types of rewards -Distribution criteria -Desired outcomes
Feedback Dont's
-Use feedback to punish, embarrass, or put somebody down -Provide feedback that is irrelevant to the person's work -Provide feedback that is too late to do any good -Provide feedback about something that is beyond the individual's control -Provide feedback that is overly complex or difficult to understand
Step D: Create Action Plans
-What good is a goal without a plan for realizing it
Why are goals important?
-When people have goals to guide them, they are happier and achieve more -Goals provide focus -Goals enhance productivity -Goals bolster self-esteem -Goals increase commitment
Step A: Set Goals
-Whether goals are imposed or set participatively, via a free exchange with your manager, they should be "SMART". SMART applied to goals is an acronym for specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and timely
Contingency approach to defining performance
-best for jobs with clear and readily measured outcomes -measures what matters, not just what can be measured -examples: sales quotas, production rates, error rates
Component of Performance Management Process include:
-defining expectations -providing consequences -monitoring performance
Types of rewards
-extrinsic-financial and nonfinancial -Intrinsic-meaningfulness and achievement
Step 3: Provide support and feedback
-make sure employee has necessary skills and information to reach his or her goals -pay attention to employee expectations -be supportive and helpful
The primary functions of performance management include:
-making employee related decisions such as pay raises -guiding employee training and development -clarifying expectations for advancement
Feedback Don'ts
-use feedback to punish -provide irrelevant feedback -provide feedback that is too late
Step 2: Tips for increasing goal commitment and success
-write down your goals -identify key obstacles and sources of support -What's in it for you -Break it down -Organize -Reward yourself
All of the following are characteristics of 360-degree feedback except: a. It is a tactic to improve the accuracy of performance appraisals. b. When combined with self-evaluations, there is a high level of agreement with supervisory evaluations. c. It provides a well-rounded view of performance from superiors, peers, followers, and customers. d. High levels of agreement may not necessarily be desirable if the intent of the 360-degree evaluation is to provide a full picture of an individual's performance.
B
An important aspect of a mentoring relationship is: a. disciplining the subordinate b. coaching and counseling c. peer feedback d. formal training
B
Contingency Approach to Defining Performance
Behavioral Goals: *Can be used in most jobs *Most relevant for knowledge work *Example: Treat others with professionalism and repect: communicate clearly Objective Goals *Best for jobs with clear and readily measured outcomes *Measured what matters, not just what can be measured. Examples: sales quotas, production rates, error rates Task or Project Goals *Best for jobs that are dynamic, but in which nearer-term activities and milestones can be defined. *Similar to SMART goals *Example: Complete your portion of the team project by Tuesday
31. Which of the following has not been shown to moderate the relationship between goal difficulty and task performance?
C
32. An important intermediate step between goal acceptance and goal accomplishment is: a. behavior/reward contingencies b. goal clarity c. goal commitment d. goal specificity
C
35. As a supervisor, you can enhance the performance of your employees by: a. setting their goals b. closely controlling their behavior c. allowing employees to participate in goal setting d. giving workers easy goals
C
36. A supervisor who wants to reduce the stress associated with work within the goal-setting guidelines would: a. tie rewards more closely to expected outcomes b. clearly or specifically identify the goal(s) c. clarify task-role expectations d. develop or apply a personality test in order to better match the individual/task fit
C
40. The first step in the performance measurement process is: a. rewarding positive performance behaviors b. measuring performance c. defining performance in behavioral terms d. assessing the impact of performance behaviors
C
A key criticism of self-evaluations is: a. the decrease in commitment to organizational goals b. they have not been shown to lead to more satisfying and constructive evaluation interviews c. they have a low level of agreement with supervisory evaluations d. they have been shown to have no relationship to improving job performance
C
An effective performance appraisal system will contain or display all of the following except: a. reliability b. validity c. self-correcting behavior d. responsiveness
C
Minimal effort, lack of commitment, lack of motivation, and personal problems: a. are external attributions for poor performance b. are unresolveable and usually result in employee termination c. are internal attributions for poor performance d. can usually be solved with negative reinforcement
C
Executives and high-level managers are able to get more accurate feedback about their own performance if they:
Collect feedback anonymously Seperate feedback from the performance review process Seek it by creating an open, honest environment
Contingent consequences in operant conditioning
Contingent consequences, according to Skinner, control behavior by responding to a target behavior in 1 of 4 ways: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. (Contingent means there is a purposeful if-then linkage between the target behavior and the consequence.) It's helpful for you first to think of the target behavior - whether you want to increase or decrease it - and then the consequence you will provide. Positive reinforcement: Target behavior occurs more often. Strengthening a behavior by contingently presenting something pleasing. (A behavior is strengthened when it increases in frequency and weakened when it decreases in frequency.) Negative reinforcement: Target behavior occurs more often. strengthens a desired behavior by withdrawing something displeasing. Example, during probation periods ( first 30, 60, or 90 days on a new job) you have weekly meetings with your boss or have somebody sign off on your work. Once you've demonstrated your skill, these requirements are removed. Negative reinforcement, as the word reinforcement indicates, strengthens a behavior because it provides relief from something undesirable (e.g., paperwork, meetings, and yelling). Punishment: Target behavior occurs less often. Weakening behavior by presenting something displeasing or the withdrawal of something positive. For example, the US Department of Transportation now fines airlines up to $27,500 per passenger for planes left on the tarmac for more than three hours. This reduced the reported cases to 12 from 535 from one year to the next. Weakening: a behavior by ignoring it or not reinforcing it is referred to as extinction. Getting rid of a former boyfriend or girlfriend by refusing to return his/her phone calls or texts, or unfriending him/her on Facebook, is an extinction strategy. Like a plant without water, a behavior without occasional reinforcement eventually dies.
Skinner's Operant Theory
Control behavior by responding to a target behavior in one of four ways: 1. Positive reinforcement 2. Negative reinforcement 3. Punishment 4. Extinction
42. The major function(s) of performance appraisal include: a. to provide feedback on performance b. to identify developmental needs c. to make promotion and reward decisions d. all of these
D
55. The successful consequences of tri-mentoring, a formalized peer mentoring system, is based upon the recognition and importance of: a. explicit or formal knowledge b. 360 degree feedback c. the specificity of feedback d. tacit knowledge
D
As an outcome for exceptional performance, Jeffery was provided the opportunity to make a highly visible presentation to the board of directors. However, Jeffery was extremely nervous and upset about the presentation. This consequence was viewed by Jeffery as: a. negative b. positive c. extinction d. punishment
A
organizational behavior modification.
A form of operant conditioning that has been used successfully to shape organizational behavior is known as:
negatively reinforced the employee's on-time behavior.
A manager who reduces an employee's pay if the employees come to work late and refrains from doing so when the employee is on time has:
distinctiveness.
An informational cue that indicates the degree to which a person behaves the same way in other situations is known.
a negative consequence
As an outcome for exceptional performance, Jeffery was provided the opportunity to make an important presentation to the board of directors. However, Jeffery was extremely nervous and upset about the presentation. This consequence was viewed by jeffery as:
coaching and counseling
As part of a performance appraisal, companies develop employees and enhance careers through:
15. A manager who reduces an employee's pay if the employee comes to work late and refrains from doing so when the employee is on time has: a. positively reinforced the employee's on time behavior b. negatively reinforced the employee's on time behavior c. utilized extinction to reduce the undesirable behavior d. none of these
B
5. A person working at a computer terminal may get lower back tension as a result of poor posture. If the person becomes aware of that tension only when the manager enters the work area, then the person may develop lower back tension at the appearance of the manager. This scenario would be an example of: a. operant conditioning b. classical conditioning c. paired reinforcement d. behavior modification
B
The process of establishing desired results that guide and direct behavior is known as: a. motivation b. goal setting c. outcome instrumentality d. establishing input/output equity perceptions
B
2. The behaviorist approach to learning assumes observable behavior is a function of: a. both the person and the environment b. external cues c. its consequences d. the interaction between the affect and cognitive components of an individual
C
21. Central to Bandura's social learning theory is the concept of: a. self-monitoring b. a needs hierarchy c. self-efficacy d. continuous reinforcement
C
25. Which of the following is NOT considered to be one of the four sources of task-specific self-efficacy critical to the social learning theory of Albert Bandura? a. prior experiences b. witnessing the success of others c. intelligence quotient d. assessment of current physical and emotional capabilities
C
3. In the animal learning research of Pavlov, the sound of the bell was the: a. conditioned response b. unconditional stimulus c. conditioned stimulus d. consequence of the dog's salvation
C
6. Which of the following is NOT a limitation of classical conditioning? a. Humans are more complex and less amenable to simple cause-and-effect conditioning. b. Behavioral environments in organizations are complex and not very amenable to single stimulus-response manipulations. c. Unconditioned responses and unconditioned stimulus have not been connected in humans. d. Complex human decision making makes it possible to override simple conditioning
C
All of the following are generally considered to be good characteristics of work goals except: a. specific b. time-bound c. measurable d. moderately difficult
C
Outcome (or performance) feedback is greatly facilitated by: a. qualitative goals b. open-ended goals c. quantitative goals d. peer competitive goals
C
1. In terms of the work environment, learning: a. takes place through formal training programs b. is primarily the cognitive activity of acquiring knowledge c. is ad hoc and accidental d. is a change in behavior acquired through experience and knowledge acquisition
D
10. The process of modifying behavior through the use of positive or negative consequences following specific behaviors is called: a. classical conditioning b. Pavlovian conditioning c. Skinners Integrated Model of conditioning d. operant conditioning
D
11. Which of the following reinforcement consequences would have the most effect under OBM? a. routine pay for performance b. social recognition c. performance feedback d. money-based reinforcement
D
14. All of the following are strategies used to influence the consequences of behavior except: a. extinction b. punishment c. positive consequences d. neutral consequences
D
18. A colleague does not respond to the sarcastic comments of a coworker but compliments the sarcastic colleague for constructive comments. Which of the following statements are true? a. The colleague was using extinction and negative reinforcement. b. The colleague was using positive and negative consequences.. The colleague used only positive consequences. d. The colleague used extinction and positive reinforcement.
D
19. A non-response approach that weakens a behavior is known as: a. punishment b. negative reinforcement c. intermittent reinforcement d. extinction
D
20. If a random number of responses must be emitted before reinforcement occurs, it is a: a. fixed interval schedule b. fixed ratio schedule c. variable interval schedule d. variable ratio schedule
D
23. The strongest way for an employee to develop self-efficacy is to: a. develop a strong internal source of control b. develop a high degree of self-monitoring c. pick easier tasks in order to become more successful d. succeed at a challenging task
D
7. A form of operant conditioning that has been used successfully to shape organizational behavior is known as: a. job enrichment b. organization development c. employee empowerment d. organizational behavior modification
D
Intuitors, in terms of learning, prefer: a. to search for practical applications b. interpersonal involvement c. specific, empirical data d. theoretical frameworks
D
continuous reinforcement (CRF)
If every instance of a target behavior is reinforced then a... schedule is in effect.
unreliable
If two supervisors evaluated an employee's performance using the same set of rating scales but arrived at different conclusions or results, the evaluation instrument is:
is primarily a change in behavior acquired through experience.
In context of the work environment, learning:
variable ratio.
In the context of schedules of reinforcement, if a random number of responses must be emitted before reinforcement occurs, it is a ____schedule.
Unconditioned responses and unconditioned stimulus have not been connected in humans.
Which of the following is NOT a limitation of classical conditioning?
termnation.
The appropriate consequence for an employee who steals company property is:
its consequences.
The behaviorist approach to learning assumes that observable behavior is a function of:
performance management
The process of defining, measuring, appraising, providing feedback on, and improving performance is known as:
individual performance
Traditional organizational reward system in the United States place value on:
360-degree feedback
individuals compare perceptions of their own performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers.
Performance management (PM)
is a set of processes and managerial behaviors that involve defining, monitoring, measuring, evaluating, and providing consequences for performance expectations.
Positive reinforcement
is the process of strengthening a behavior by contingently presenting something pleasing.
