Patho 606 Week 3 Quiz Study Guide
Protooncogenes
Normal cellular genes that regulate cell proliferation and differentiation that can become oncogenes.
What conditions can least to metabolic acidosis?
Shock Diabetic ketoacidosis Renal failure Diarrhea (Hubert, 122017, p. 32)
What conditions can lead to Respiratory Acidosis?
Slow shallow respirations (eg, drugs) Respiratory congestion (Hubert, 122017, p. 32)
Cancer
any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division
What is milk-alkali syndrome and what electrolyte imbalance can result?
associated with increased milk and antacid intake, which may also elevate serum calcium levels (Hubert, 122017, p. 27)
Oncogenes
genes that cause cancer by blocking the normal controls on cell reproduction
What two ions are most important for acid-base balance in the body?
hydrogen and bicarbonate
Pathogenesis
the manner in which a disease develops
Etiology
the study of the causes of diseases
atrophy
(n.) the wasting away of a body organ or tissue; any progressive decline or failure; (v.) to waste away
What are risk factors for cancer?
Older age A personal or family history of cancer Using tobacco Obesity Alcohol Some types of viral infections, such as human papillomavirus (HPV) Specific chemicals Exposure to radiation, including ultraviolet radiation from the sun
Explain the transmission pattern for Autosomal dominant?
One mutated copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient for a person to be affected by an autosomal dominant disorder. In some cases, an affected person inherits the condition from an affected parent. In others, the condition may result from a new mutation in the gene and occur in people with no history of the disorder in their family.
What are the benefits of palliative treatment?
Palliative treatment is designed to relieve symptoms, and improve your quality of life. It can be used at any stage of an illness if there are troubling symptoms, such as pain or sickness. It can also be used to reduce or control the side effects of cancer treatments.
Metaplasia
Mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type
What is meant by an iatrogenic disease?
Medical Error Negligence Disease/symptoms induced in a patient by the treatment or comments of a physician For example, radiation therapy and chemotherapy — necessarily aggressive for therapeutic effect - frequently produce such iatrogenic effects as hair loss, hemolytic anemia, diabetes insipidus, vomiting, nausea, brain damage, lymphedema, infertility, etc.
Acute
New, usually of rapid onset and of concern, opposite of chronic
What are the different types of necrosis?
-Ischemia, a decreased supply of oxygenated blood to a tissue or organ, due to circulatory obstruction • Physical agents, excessive heat or cold, or radiation exposure • Mechanical damage such as pressure or tearing of tissue • Chemical toxins • Microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites • Abnormal metabolites accumulating in cells • Nutritional deficits • Imbalance of fluids or electrolytes
Syndrome
A group of symptoms typical of a particular disease or condition
What is parathyroid hormone?
A hormone that is secreted if Ca+2 levels fall. PTH gene is turned on and more is secreted from the gland. Osteoblast activity also increases and the kidneys produce calcitriol. -attached to thyroid hormone -calcium balance of the blood -produces parathormone (PTH) -^ free Ca2+ circulation
What is pectus excavatum?
A markedly sunken sternum and adjacent cartilages (also called a funnel breast). Depression begins at second intercostal space, becoming depressed most at junction of xiphoid with body of sternum. More noticeable on inspiration. Congenital, usually not symptomatic. A condition in which the breastbone sinks into the chest. Pectus excavatum is often noticeable shortly after birth and typically worsens during the adolescent growth spurt. It's more common in boys. It may be associated with genetic or connective tissue diseases. In severe cases, pectus excavatum can look as if the center of the chest has been scooped out, leaving a deep dent. Pectus excavatum doesn't usually require treatment, though physical therapy may help if symptoms develop. Rarely, surgery is needed to correct the condition.
What are the consequences of prolonged diarrhea?
A person with severe diarrhea may become so dehydrated that the kidneys receive little blood and cannot function adequately, causing decompensation (Hubert, 122017, p. 35) Hypokalemia Excessive loss of bicarbonate ions Metabolic acidosis
What are the risk factors for Down syndrome?
Advancing maternal age. A woman's chances of giving birth to a child with Down syndrome increase with age because older eggs have a greater risk of improper chromosome division. A woman's risk of conceiving a child with Down syndrome increases after 35 years of age
What are different things that can impact serum potassium levels in the body?
Aldosterone levels (appropriate levels needed for appropriate urination) Insulin (movement in and out of cells) Gastric secretions acid-base balance in the body; acidosis tends to shift potassium ions out of the cells into the extracellular fluids, and alkalosis tends to move more potassium into the cells (Fig. 2.7). With acidosis, many hydrogen ions diffuse from the blood into the interstitial fluid because of the high hydrogen ion concentration in the blood. When these hydrogen ions move into the cell, they displace potassium out of the cell to maintain electrochemical neutrality. Then the excess potassium ions in the interstitial fluid diffuse into the blood, leading to hyperkalemia. The reverse process occurs with alkalosis. Acidosis also promotes hydrogen ion excretion by the kidneys and retention of potassium in the body. Potassium assists in the regulation of intracellular fluid volume and has a role in many metabolic processes in the cell. It is also important in nerve conduction and contraction of all muscle types, determining the membrane potential (Hubert, 122017, p. 24)
What is meant by synergistic effects of drugs?
An interaction between two or more drugs that causes the total effect of the drugs to be greater than the sum of the individual effects of each drug. A synergistic effect can be beneficial or harmful.
What is meant by Antagonistic effects of drugs?
An interaction between two or more drugs that have opposite effects on the body. Drug antagonism may block or reduce the effectiveness of one or more of the drugs.
What is the process of Rh incompatibility?
Blood incompatibility can develop when the Rh factor antigens on fetal red blood cells differ from those on maternal red blood cells. Rh incompatibility can be more serious when it leads to hemolytic disease of the newborn (erythroblastosis fetalis). Rh incompatibility results when the mother is Rh negative and the fetus is Rh positive (Fig. 22.2). During the first pregnancy there are usually no problems unless the mother has been exposed to Rh-positive blood at some prior time through a blood product or abortion. At the end of the first pregnancy, when the placenta tears during delivery, some Rh-positive fetal blood enters the maternal circulation, stimulating the formation of antibodies to Rh-positive cells in the mother. During subsequent pregnancies, the maternal Rh antibodies cross the placenta to the fetus. The resulting antigen-antibody reaction in the fetus destroys the fetal red blood cells. Hemolysis of red blood cells leads to severe anemia or low hemoglobin and possible heart failure and death in the child. Hemolysis also causes high serum bilirubin levels in the child, resulting in jaundice (yellow color in the eyes and skin; see Chapter 17) and potential neurologic damage (kernicterus) as bilirubin enters brain tissue. (Hubert, 122017, p. 584)
What are the different ways the body compensates for acid/base imbalances? Which ones are most effective? Fastest? Slowest?
CHEMICAL BUFFERS -On the scene in seconds -Already present in tissue and can manage minor changes RESPIRATORY -Retention or elimination of CO2 in minutes -Can handle mild to moderate acid base shift RENAL -Regulate bicarb to handle hydrogen loss/gain -Starts after hours, but is more sustaining/permanent -Once the other two systems fail the renal system starts to work slowly and can take up to 5 days to complete
What are warning signs for cancer?
Change in bowel or bladder habits A sore that does not heal Unusual bleeding or discharge Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere Indigestion or difficulty swallowing Obvious change in wart or mole Nagging cough or hoarseness
What are the manifestations of Down syndrome?
Decreased or poor muscle tone. Short neck, with excess skin at the back of the neck. Flattened facial profile and nose.
What is ultrasound used for in pregnancy?
Diagnostic ultrasound examination may be employed in a variety of specific circumstances during pregnancy, such as: after clinical complications (e.g. bleeding in early pregnancy); where the fetus is perceived to be at particularly high risk of malformation; and where there are concerns regarding fetal growth
What is a complication of abruptio placenta that is indicated by low levels of serum clotting factors?
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
What are preventative measures of cancer?
Don't use tobacco. Using any type of tobacco puts you on a collision course with cancer. ... Eat a healthy diet. ... Maintain a healthy weight and be physically active. ... Protect yourself from the sun. ... Get vaccinated. ... Avoid risky behaviors. ... Get regular medical care.
What are common causes of hyponatremia?
Excess of water relative to solute. Common causes include diuretic use, diarrhea, heart failure, liver disease, renal disease, and the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH).
What occurs with eclampsia?
Factors may include poorly developed uterine placental spiral arterioles (which decrease uteroplacental blood flow during late pregnancy), a genetic abnormality on chromosome 13, immunologic abnormalities, and placental ischemia or infarction.
What is the pathophysiological process of edema?
Fluid excess occurs in the extracellular compartment and may be referred to as isotonic/iso-osmolar, hypotonic/hypo-osmolar, or hypertonic/hyper-osmolar, depending on the cause. The osmolarity or the concentration of solute in the fluid affects fluid shifts between compartments, including the cells. Edema refers to an excessive amount of fluid in the interstitial compartment, which causes a swelling or enlargement of the tissues. Edema may be localized in one area or generalized throughout the body. Depending on the type of tissue and the area of the body, edema may be highly visible or relatively invisible, or it may not accurately reflect the amount of fluid hidden in the area; for example, facial edema is usually visible but edema of the liver or a limb may not be. Edema is usually more severe in dependent areas of the body, where the force of gravity is greatest, such as the buttocks, ankles, or feet of a person in a wheelchair. Prolonged edema interferes with venous return, arterial circulation, and cell function in the affected area. (Hubert, 122017, pp. 16-18) Causes of edema. A, Normal capillary filtration without edema. B, Edema due to increased capillary hydrostatic pressure. C, Edema due to increased interstitial fluid osmotic pressure from increased capillary permeability. D, Edema due to blocked lymphatic drainage. E, Edema due to decreased capillary osmotic pressure from hypoalbuminemia (Hubert, 122017, p. 18)
How does low calcium impact cardiac contractions (the process, not just the effect)?
Heart contractions become weak owing to insufficient calcium for muscle action, conduction is delayed, arrhythmias develop, and blood pressure drops. (Hubert, 122017, p. 27) Note that the effects of hypocalcemia on skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle differ. Skeletal muscle spasms result from the increased irritability of the nerves associated with the muscle fibers, whereas the weaker contraction of cardiac muscle (which lacks nerves) is directly related to the calcium deficit. Also, adequate calcium is stored in the skeletal muscle cells to provide for contractions, whereas contraction of cardiac muscle relies on available extracellular calcium ions passing through the calcium channels. This is the basis for action of one group of cardiac drugs. (Hubert, 122017, p. 27) Calcium enters the cell through "doors" called ion channels, and interacts with various components of the cell. For example, calcium regulates the opening and closing of sodium and potassium doors and ryanodine receptors, and it binds to the troponin complex to make the heart cell squeeze together ("contract"), which produces the pumping function of the heart. In heart muscle cells, most of the calcium is stored inside a chamber named the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The calcium in the sarcoplasmic reticulum is released during heart muscle contraction and transported back inside the sarcoplasmic reticulum during relaxation. abnormal calcium movement may directly impair contraction or relaxation of the heart, hindering the normal pump function. Under these conditions, the heart cells can eventually become "tired" and fail. Heart failure A condition in which the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood through the body can cause a wide range of problems, from mild (coughing and tiredness) to severe (shortness of breath and organ swelling). This, of course, will reduce a person's productivity. Recently, scientists found that calcium is strongly associated with the progression of heart failure. Heart failure also makes the occurrence of potentially deadly heart rhythm disorders more likely.
What indicates development of pregnancy induced hypertension?
High blood pressure. Too much protein in your urine (called proteinuria) Swelling in your face and hands Headache that does not go away. Vision problems, including blurred vision or seeing spots. Pain in your upper right abdomen. Trouble breathing.
Why do infants have a higher need for water in the body? (Not referring to feeding and infant water, but body composition).
High body surface area kidneys are not as efficient greater proportion of body water in general More sensitive to fluid and electrolyte changes (cannot compensate well) Water balance for adequate nutrition and cell growth must provide sufficient volume for appropriate urine output, stool formation, insensible water losses due to respiration and thermoregulation, and formation of new tissue
What happens when parathyroid hormone increases?
Hyperparathyroidism may be caused by an adenoma, hyperplasia, or secondary to renal failure. It causes hypercalcemia, or high serum calcium levels. Hypercalcemia leads to forceful cardiac contractions (see Table 2.7 for signs of calcium imbalance). The most serious effects of hyperparathyroidism occur in the bone tissue. Increased parathyroid hormone (PTH) causes calcium to leave the bone, leading to osteoporosis, weakening the bone so that it fractures easily (see Chapter 9). Hypercalcemia also increases one's predisposition to kidney stones (see Chapter 18). (Hubert, 122017, p. 414)
What conditions can lead to respiratory alkalosis?
Hyperventilation (anxiety, aspirin overdose)
What happens when parathyroid hormone decreases?
Hypoparathyroidism - Decreased intestinal calcium absorption
Explain the transmission pattern of Autosomal recessive?
In autosomal recessive inheritance, both copies of the gene in each cell have mutations. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive condition each carry one copy of the mutated gene, but they typically do not show signs and symptoms of the condition. Autosomal recessive disorders are typically not seen in every generation of an affected family.
Where are acupoints typically located?
Large intestine 4 (LI 4): This is in the soft, fleshy web between your thumb and forefinger. Liver 3 (LR-3): Located on the top of your foot up from the space between your big toe and next toe. Spleen 6 (SP-6): This is about three finger widths above your inner anklebone.
Chronic
Long-standing, constant.
How can calcium levels lead to tetany in the body?
Low ionized calcium levels in the extracellular fluid increase the permeability of neuronal membranes to sodium ion, causing a progressive depolarization, which increases the possibility of action potentials.
glandular tissue
Produces substances such as enzymes and hormones
What does the TORCH acronym stand for?
Refers to infection of a developing fetus or newborn by any of a group of infectious agents. "TORCH" is an acronym meaning (T)oxoplasmosis, (O)ther Agents, (R)ubella (also known as German Measles), (C)ytomegalovirus, and (H)erpes Simplex.
What type of imbalance can hyperventilation lead to and how?
Respiratory Alkalosis due to too much removal of H+ ions from the body
What is the most common tumor suppressor gene defect?
The nuclear phosphoprotein gene TP53 has also been recognized as an important tumor suppressor gene, perhaps the most commonly altered gene in all human cancers. Inactivating mutations of the TP53 gene also cause the TP53 protein to lose its ability to regulate the cell cycle.
What conditions can leader to Metabolic alkalosis?
Vomiting (early stage) Excessive antacid intake (Hubert, 122017, p. 32)
What should be included when taking a medication history on a patient?
What medications do you take at home? What is each medicine for? What is the dose? What medications do you take for your ____ (identify each medical condition the patient is known to have)? What medications do you take every day? What medications do you occasionally take? When do you take your medications? Have you recently started, stopped, or changed the medications you take? How so? What medications are prescribed by any specialists you may see? Do you use an inhaler (or other medications that are not available as pills, such as eye drops, creams, injections, nasal sprays, patches, and so on)? What medications do you take that do not require a prescription? When was the last time you took each of your medicines?
Adenoma
a benign tumor that arises in or resembles glandular tissue
Lipoma
a benign, slow-growing fatty tumor located between the skin and the muscle layer
Anaplasia
a change in the structure of cells and in their orientation to each other; loss of differentiation of cells; reversion to a more primitive cell type
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
abnormal blood clotting in small vessels throughout the body that cuts off the supply of oxygen to distal tissues, resulting in damage to body organs
Manifestation
an indication or sign of a condition
Complication
an undesired problem that is the result of some other event
Adenocarcinoma
cancerous tumor of glandular tissue
Explain the transmission patters for X linked recessive disorders? Autosomal dominant? Autosomal recessive?
caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. In males (who have only one X chromosome), one altered copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the condition. In females (who have two X chromosomes), a mutation would have to occur in both copies of the gene to cause the disorder. Because it is unlikely that females will have two altered copies of this gene, males are affected by X-linked recessive disorders much more frequently than females. A characteristic of X-linked inheritance is that fathers cannot pass X-linked traits to their sons (no male-to-male transmission).
What are the sex chromosomes?
chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism Male XY, Female XX
hypertrophy
excessive development, increase in cell size
How does Alkalosis impact nerves?
increases the irritability of the nervous system, causing restlessness, muscle twitching, tingling and numbness of the fingers, and eventually tetany, seizures, and coma. (Hubert, 122017, p. 36). Moves more potassium into the cell which displaces H+ ions into the serum causing hypokalemia.
What are local effects of an expanding tumor mass?
obstruction of a tube or duct, cell necrosis and ulceration
Fibrosarcoma
malignant tumor composed of fiber (fibrous tissue)
Why are glucocorticoids often prescribed with chemotherapy?
may be prescribed for pain control, and administered either orally or as intraarticular injections. Patients like the effects of glucocorticoids because the drug does promote a feeling of well-being and improves the appetite. (Hubert, 122017, p. 180)
Sign
objective indicators of disease that are obvious to someone other than the affected individual. Signs can be either local, found at the site of the problem (such as a skin rash) or systemic, which are general indicators (such as a fever).
How does cocaine impact pregnancy?
premature birth, a high risk of further illness in the infant (low birthweight or increased respiratory problems), and increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome. (Hubert, 122017, p. 573)
What does dry gangrene look like and present like?
refers to an area of necrotic tissue, usually associated with a lack or loss of blood supply that is followed by invasion of bacteria (see Fig. 1.3D). Necrotic tissue can provide a good medium for infection by microorganisms. Such an infection frequently occurs after an infarction in the intestines or in a limb in which blood supply is deficient and bacteria are normally present. Depending on its location, gangrene may be described as wet or dry. Dry gangrene is often caused by coagulative necrosis in which the tissue dries, shrinks, and blackens. Wet gangrene is a result of liquefaction causing the tissue to become cold, swollen, and black. Gas gangrene is caused by the buildup of gases within tissue and further reduces blood supply. Gangrenous tissue frequently must be removed surgically (eg, by amputation) to prevent the spread of infection to other parts of the body. (Hubert, 122017, pp. 10-12)
What is meant by toxic effects of a drug?
refers to the level of damage that a compound can cause to an organism. The toxic effects of a drug are dose-dependent and can affect an entire system as in the CNS or a specific organ such as the liver.
Symptom
subjective feelings, such as pain or nausea
fibrous tissue
tissue that binds structures together
