PBL 6 Giant Panda bears
How did different organisations come together to conserve the panda? (WWF/ government/ locals).
1979 WWF formed agreement with Chinese government to invest in conservation resources. Local farmers are paid to rewild fields. Locals can be guards/guides/bamboo collection. Profits 20x restoration cost, goes back to local economy.
Do pandas have any natural predators?
No. biggest threat man. Adults large enough to deter predators/defend themselves. Reported that snow leopards, jackels and yellow necked martens will take cubs.
Criteria D for species categorised as endangered on the IUCN redlist?
Population size estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals.
Are there reintroduction programmes?
Yes- Chengdu usually select 2 pandas a year to start training for reintroduction once mothers are pregnant at the centre. Have so far been releasing in to Liziping Nature reserve in SW Sichuan. (source www.pandasinternational.org). started in 2003. Check behaviours correct etc. Taken out of program if extensively ill/vet contact. Have a training reserve at Tiantai mountain.
What is the difference between habitat degradation and deforestation?
Degradation of forest = reduction in capacity of a forest to produce ecosystem services such as carbon storage and wood products (so here less bamboo for pandas)? Deforestation= complete cut down. Fragmentation= may retain quality but have smaller patches.
What are the reasons for poaching pandas?
For their skins and skulls (emperor buried). Selling to western zoos. Warded off spirits, regulating menstrual cycles. $100k per pelt.
Were there any significant socioeconomic events in 1950s China that may have had an impact on panda populations?
From 1953, pandas sent as gifts from people's republic of China (formed 1949, and human population boom, famine) to allies. This gifting didn't stop til the 1990s! Known as panda diplomacy in the 1970s... Korean war in 1950s.
What are the most significant threats to pandas in the wild?
Habitat degradation by far most important. Few pandas now poached due to its conservation status and ban (may be accidentally caught). Climate change- falling off the mountains. Ecotourism to Wolong nature reserve (UNESCO) affected habitat use by pandas, but when earthquake in 2008 hit this halted, allowed rethink of site.
Do pandas migrate?
Have territories and will move within those for food. Bamboo has natural die off every 40-120 years depending on the type so pandas used to migrate to find other food sources, less able to now due to habitat fragmentation and urban sprawl. Some females seen to move 50km from home range to look for mate! Favourites?
How big are the natural ranges of giant pandas?
3.3 square miles (males) and 1.8 square miles (females).
What is the natural diet of giant pandas?
99% bamboo, 1% other plants/occasionally small mammals. Due to inefficient digestive system for this diet, need to eat 12-38kg bamboo a day. Panda cakes. Honey water Like apples..
When did panda populations start to decline and when were they at their smallest?
Declines thought to have occurred historically after quarternary glaciations, human activities important more recently. First bottleneck 0.2 million years ago, related to two largest Pleistocene glaciations (ice age) in China and the second occurred during the last glacial maximum (i.e. ice sheets at their maximum extent) about 20,000 years ago. Nadir in the 70s..... 1930s began declines....Less than 1000 in the 1980s estimated.
Are pandas still suited to their habitat?
Surviving in areas where humans haven't interfered so I would say yes. Are beginning to introduce, need to ensure right amount of bamboo and acclimatisation to not having human contact and care etc...
Are there different subspecies of panda?
Yes- A. melanoleuca qinlingensis: discovered in 1960s but not recognised as a subspecies until 2005. Has a smaller skull and dark/light brown/white colouring. 2-300 left, genetically isolated in the mountains.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qinling_panda A. melanoleuca melanoleuca found in Sichuan province. Typical panda that everyone knows.
Criteria B for species categorised as vulnerable on the IUCN redlist?
1. Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km2 and estimates indicating at least two of a-c: a. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than 10 locations. b. Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals. 2. Area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km2 and estimates indicating at least two of a-c: a. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than 10 locations. b. Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals.
Is there any legislation that protects giant pandas?
1988 government enacted wildlife protection law to protect endangered animal from hunting. Ban on logging panda habitat (existing). 5.94 million hectares protected. UNESCO- panda natural hábitat at Wolong. Different figures: 63 nature reserves covering 85% of habitat protected (67 reserves protecting 66% of wild pandas and 54% of habitat-WWF). The Chinese government initiated protection in 1957 and listed the panda as Category I in the List of Key Protected Wildlife, an appendix within the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife in 1989. The giant panda was listed by the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) as ''Rare'' in 1986 and 1988 and ''Endangered'' in 1990, 1994, and 1996 (Species Survival Commission, 2004).
Criteria A for species categorised as endangered on the IUCN redlist?
A. Reduction in population size based on any of the following: 1. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥70% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased, based on (and specifying) any of the following: (a) direct observation (b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon (c) a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat (d) actual or potential levels of exploitation (e) the effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites. 2. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥50% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1. 3. A population size reduction of ≥50%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years), based on (and specifying) any of (b) to (e) under A1. 4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population size reduction of ≥50% over any 10 year or three generation period, whichever is longer (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future), where the time period must include both the past and the future, AND where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.
How many pandas are in the wild/ in captivity today?
At last census in 2014, wild panda population is at 1864 but thought may be 2-3000. Captive populations across the world: over 300 now in captivity. In 2017 520 in captivity, by 2019 30 extra cubs.
Are there any behaviours that are unique to pandas?
Bamboo consumption! Foraging behaviour related to nutritional content of different types.; Not sure if unique to pandas but on documentary saw footage of male spraying urine as high as possible, to indicate virility. Bleat/honk/growl, can't roar like other bears.
What is the natural habitat of giant pandas?
Bamboo forests: that were once found throughout China but now limited to mountainous parts of Sichuan, Gansu and Shanxi provinces.
Are the captive populations genetically healthy?
Believe so, as research centres use genetic studies to determine matches when mating naturally/using AI to avoid inbreeding depression. " The latest study indicated that the captive panda populations harbor high genetic diversity and low inbreeding level under the effective captive-breeding management (Shan et al. 2014)" Although 60% captive population is derived from 4 male pandas? So inbreeding possible if not managed, but it is well managed
What are the benefits and drawbacks of AI in pandas?
Benefits: Can get twins! Can examine sperm and check for best genetic match Fall back in case natural mating fails. Allows transfer of genetics without flying pandas across the world to different zoos. Prevents killing of mates Drawbacks: Can fail GA needed (risk) Stress on panda Not addressing mating issues.
Describe the life history of giant pandas and how this predisposes them to extinction.
Captive breeding rates slow/poor (applied to wild populations...), unique diet, low genetic diversity and low population (human driven), low new-born birth weight and slow rate of growth/maturity. Have to feed for ages on bamboo. Raise cub alone.
What are the aims of the captive breeding programmes?
Chengdu hope to release to the wild. Aim to have 300 in captivity total (breeding population) so that if reintroduction begins and fails, want to have animals to fall back on.
What is the relationship between pandas and tourism in China?
Chengdu very famous in China. Brings pandas to city dwellers. Mass ecotourism at Wolong nature reserve previously where panda lived (not sure now after earthquake). Many people come to see. National icon. Flagship/umbrella spp. Earthwatch- can volunteer to help panda conservation. 2.1% GDP from tourism.
Where are the breeding bases located in China?
Chengdu- central china: China Conservation and Research Center for the Giant Panda. Beijing zoo. Dujiangyan panda base and centre for disease control- 34 miles from Chengdu. "The Dujiangyan base includes a panda hospital, a medical lab, 10 sets of monitoring enclosures, 30 sets of enclosures, a panda kitchen, an educational center and staff housing. The base is composed of 6 areas: panda rescue and quarantine area panda disease control, prevention and research area panda rehabilitation, training and feeding area public reception and education area natural vegetation area; office and logistics services area"
What is the cultural importance of giant pandas in China?
Chinese blog writer... have qualities of warriors, are as strong as tigers? Symbolise strength, peace and friendship due to gentle temperament. Colour represent yin and yang and how the balance of these bring peace and harmony. Power to combat evil spirits. National geographic: When humans see pandas, we are subconsciously affected by what developmental biologists call neoteny, the retention into adulthood of certain infant characteristics. That cute baby face and toddler-like behavior boost our body's production of oxytocin, a hormone that makes us feel loving and protective.
Is it ethical to invest so much money into the conservation of pandas, as opposed to other species?
Chris Packham view point guardian article (mentioned in evo cul-de-sac review also): https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/sep/23/panda-extinction-chris-packham- he prefers ecosystem protection approach. Panda conservation most costly in the world, but is this due to lack of knowledge? We have duty to protect as we are responsible for their decline. But panda recognised as umbrella spp, by protecting it we are protecting red pandas, monkeys, ibises as it requires so much habitat conservation automatically benefits whole community. (investment gain graph-paper!!) Not doing enough to reintroduce?
What do the breeding bases do and are they interlinked (follow same protocol)?
Couldn't find anything! Shared goal for reintroduction. Tourism pays for panda conservation. Research bases. Chinese governmental department owns them all. Shared AI bank.
Do pandas possess arboreal qualities?
Cubs can climb from 6 months old. Yes apparently can climb and swim!
How does IUCN define 'endangered' and 'vulnerable' species?
ENDANGERED (EN): A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. VULNERABLE (VU): A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. For criteria A-E see page 16 onwards of IUCN doc (kakapo pbl 3 folder). Growing wild numbers made change from endangered to vulnerable in 2016.
Describe the basic taxonomy of the giant panda.
Family: Ursidae (previously debated until molecular studies confirmed this) bear family; caniforms i.e. have long snout and non-retractable claws. Genus: Ailuropoda Species: melanoleuca. Split 90 million years ago from other bears.
What is an 'evolutionary cul-de-sac'?
Evolutionary dead end, an animal evolves/adapts to have such specific requirements that it is prone to extinction? (overspecialises so much inability to adapt to change)
Describe the economics of China's Gansu, Sichuan and Shanxi provinces.
Gansu: agricultural products include cotton, linseed oil, maize, melons, millet and wheat. Gansu well known for wild traditional Chinese medicine herbs. Agriculture affected by heavy metal poisoning (from mining of minerals and rare earth elements, long list e.g. mercury, lead, iron...). Despite booming economy and its growth, still one of the poorest provinces in China. GDP was around $113 billion dollars in 2017. Tourism key to this. Sichuan: known historically as 'province of abundance'. Rice and wheat major output as well as sugar cane, sweet potatoes, peaches and grapes. Silk and pork. Natural gas reserves, Chengdu has centres for textiles and electronics. One of the largest economies in western China, in 2017 GDP was around $550billion dollars. Lowest minimum wage though! Shanxi: due to geographic location, less developed economy and limits international trade. Crops: wheat, maize, millet, legumes and potatoes. Climate and limited water limit agriculture. Lots of coal deposits (leading producer), bauxite (aluminium ore). GDP in 2011 was nearly $177 billion dollars.(historically animal skin exporting, alcohol, musk deer).
Criteria B for species categorised as endangered on the IUCN redlist?
Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) OR B2 (area of occupancy) OR both: 1. Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 5,000 km2 and estimates indicating at least two of a-c: a. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations. b. Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals. 2. Area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km2and estimates indicating at least two of a-c: a. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations. b. Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals.
Are there conservation efforts to reduce habitat fragmentation?
Government schemes planting bamboo corridors. Paying farmers to re-wild fields. Existing habitat protected.
Are there any behavioural issues associated with the captive breeding programmes after release?
If kept in captivity too long after naturally leave mother, can develop more dependence on humans. Not adapting to survive in the wild (eating right food, moving enough to find etc)
What is the relationship between WWF and giant pandas?
In 1979 WWF and Chinese government made agreement to cooperate to conserve pandas. Piloted operation. WWF logo inspired by Chi Chi panda at London zoo from 1961. First sketches done by Gerald Watterson, first design by founder of WWF Sir Peter Scott. Wanted something black and white to save on printing cost. Established WWF coincided with creation of pandas' reserves.
Why is it so difficult to breed pandas in captivity? How were these issues overcome?
Initially hard because so little was known about it. Preferred females (to males). Male mating behaviour- need to be strong enough (train pandas to take food from a stick at Chengdu to strengthen leg muscles). Now using enrichment to improve behaviour all year round, not just breeding season. Stress of captivity affects reproductive ability. Before the mating season, animals of age moved to large outdoor natural enclosures to enhance wellbeing, moved adjacent to males so they can get used to smell etc. swap between pens, Chengdu put urine on bamboo stick and presented to males. Vaginal swelling, cytology monitored as well as behaviour. Wolong reserves allows all females to mate if interactions look promising. At Wolong, AI only done after a few unsuccessful natural mating attempts. Mounting without copulation (due to short penis?) most inferred reason for copulatory failure. Weak behavioural oestrus can coincide with concurrent disease e.g. diarrhoea. Age. One panda previously used to perform tricks for human entertainment shows high rates of stereotypic behaviours such as pacing, swaying shows no interest in females. Responds poorly to enrichment attempts. May reflect developmental history.
How have wild populations of pandas been increased since the 1970s?
Less than 1000 thought in 1980s. 1596 individuals in 2004 census, 1864 individuals in 2014 census (latest). Genetic studies at Wanglang reserve may have underestimated population. IUCN vulnerable from 2016. Captive populations increased from 1995 onwards.
If all pandas are owned by China, how do other countries procure a lease to keep them in zoos?
Loaned to zoos on the agreement that half the money generated from the pandas will go back to panda conservation in China. 10 year loan. $1 million dollars a year. Any cubs belong to china- Baby tax $400,000. Limits zoos to ones that can afford to be a part of conservation.
What are the main drivers of habitat loss for pandas?
Logging for fuel, clearance of forest for agriculture, urban sprawl.
Describe the procedure used to artificially inseminate pandas.
Male first anaesthetised to get semen (catheterise)? Then anaesthetise female and insert semen into womb via catheter. Freeze remaining semen for sperm bank. Rehearsed and female is only under GA for 5 minutes.
How does habitat fragmentation affect pandas in the wild?
Means the populations now restricted to 20 isolated patches of bamboo forest in 6 mountain ranges across the Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu provinces. Most of these are in Minshan and Qiinling mountains.
Is it ethical to keep some pandas in zoos across the world to fundraise for conservation efforts?
Obviously consider welfare of translocation (see documentary) but they do get over it! Great educational opportunity (I hadn't seen a panda until going to Madrid, and only place in UK to see them is Edinburgh zoo!). Purpose is to breed also! China agreement means that half proceeds must go to conservation, so by going to see them you know the money is going directly to them, not just into the black hole where it could go to any project/marketing etc.
How is the giant panda distinct from other species of bear?
Only member of its genus surviving. Broad, wide molars for grinding bamboo. Enlarged wrist bone that acts as opposable thumb (pseudothumb) unique (red panda has?). (enlarged radial sesamoid bone). Distant relative of red panda despite 'shared' name. Herbivorous/folivorous (eats only leaves) despite having a digestive system of a carnivore. Does not hibernate. Loss of umami receptor.
Are there any significant zoonoses between pandas and humans?
Only one found: Enterocytozoon bieneusi (E. bieneusi) can contaminate water and spread to humans. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-25096-2., Toxoplasmosis, attacks, Leptospira.
Criteria C for species categorised as vulnerable on the IUCN redlist?
Population size estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and either: 1. An estimated continuing decline of at least 10% within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer, (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future) OR 2. A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals AND at least one of the following (a-b): a. Population structure in the form of one of the following: (i) no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 1,000 mature individuals, OR (ii) all mature individuals in one subpopulation. b. Extreme fluctuations in number of mature individuals.
Criteria C for species categorised as endangered on the IUCN redlist?
Population size estimated to number fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and either: 1. An estimated continuing decline of at least 20% within five years or two generations, whichever is longer, (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future) OR 2. A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals AND at least one of the following (a-b): a. Population structure in the form of one of the following: (i) no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 250 mature individuals, OR (ii) at least 95% of mature individuals in one subpopulation. b. Extreme fluctuations in number of mature individuals.
Criteria D for species categorised as vulnerable on the IUCN redlist?
Population very small or restricted in the form of either of the following: 1. Population size estimated to number fewer than 1,000 mature individuals. 2. Population with a very restricted area of occupancy (typically less than 20 km2) or number of locations (typically five or fewer) such that it is prone to the effects of human activities or stochastic events within a very short time period in an uncertain future, and is thus capable of becoming Critically Endangered or even Extinct in a very short time period
Criteria E for species categorised as vulnerable on the IUCN redlist?
Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10% within 100 years. 22
Criteria E for species categorised as endangered on the IUCN redlist?
Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years).
How are giant pandas monitored (in the wild)?
Radiocollars/GPS. (although Chinese government banned this at one point). CCTV in soft release to monitor eating habits, faeces and movement patterns.
Criteria A for species categorised as vulnerable on the IUCN redlist?
Reduction in population size based on any of the following: 1. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥50% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased, based on (and specifying) any of the following: (a) direct observation (b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon (c) a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat (d) actual or potential levels of exploitation (e) the effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites. 2. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥30% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1. 3. A population size reduction of ≥30% projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years), based on (and specifying) any of (b) to (e) under A1. 4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population size reduction of ≥30% over any 10 year or three generation period, whichever is longer (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future), where the time period must include both the past and the future, AND where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.
Are there any diseases that threaten pandas in the wild/ in captivity?
Reintroduced panda died of disease (caught from bamboo rat)?; Visceral larval migrans (VLM) caused by the nematode Baylisascaris schroederi most important cause of death in study data from 1971-2005. VLM typically occurs when nematodes infect hosts they wouldn't normally. Found in liver, heart, lungs and brain. Can cause intestinal inflammation and hence metabolic disorders. Faeco-oral route of transmission. Canine distemper outbreak at Shanxi rescue and research centre: spreads via exudate and respiratory aerosolisation. Clinical signs include convulsions and death if not vaccinated. "Over the ensuing fourteen weeks, four additional giant pandas housed in the same room or adjacent rooms began to display clinical signs including mucopurulent ocular discharge, nasal and footpad hyperkeratosis, and violent convulsions of the limbs" Sunstroke/GI/pancreatitis. Captive introduced individuals susceptible to wild disease: deficiency, haemorrhagic fever, toxoplasmosis.
Describe the changing distribution of pandas since conservation efforts began.
See picture. 67 reserves now.
What is the ecological niche of the giant panda?
Seed dispersers (must be for bamboo as that's almost the only thing they eat), by eating bamboo controls vegetation and must help others grow by reducing bamboo cover.
Describe the reproductive cyclicity of pandas.
Sexually mature between 5.5-6.5 years old (maybe 4.5). Multiple matings in March-May. Females only in heat for 72 hours and only 12-24 of these in which can conceive. 95-160d gestation (3-5 month gestation) (11wk/11months documentary- due to delayed implantation?). diapause = fertilised embryo, delayed implantation. Depends on food availability? Conflicting sources: 1 cub in wild, 2 often in captivity (especially when AI used) but mum will often reject one and leave it to die, thought not enough resources to care for both. Cubs weigh 90-130g, 1/900th the size of mum, one of the largest difference between mum-baby size. One study over 10 years in Changqing reserve in Shaanxi province showed annual reproductive rate of 65.4% and high cub survival rate. Hard to tell if pregnant, as females that have come into heat show same signs as pregnant females, right down to hormonal profile! (pseudopregnancy). No competition in captivity? Drive to 'get' the females?
Describe the social structure of panda populations in the wild?
Solitary except in breeding season. Do communicate via scent and vocalisation. Females will not often tolerate other females/sub adults in her territory.
How do experts determine when female pandas are able to conceive?
Specific ELISA test developed for giant pandas from this study! LH peak- best impregnation success if mating occurs 10 hours after this peak. Behaviour such as walking backwards, lordosis (curvature of spine), interest in male, scent marking, tail up. Measure hormones (LH) from urine samples taken from enclosure floor. Faecal sample analysis.
Briefly describe the digestive system of giant pandas - is it distinct from that of other bears?
Sterile GIT when born- needs to eat mother's faeces? Same as other bears- i.e. carnivorous microbiota also. BUT review states: Thought to have shifted diet due to lack of prey, have lost gene for 'umami' taste (savoury) therefore less motivation to eat meat. Only digest 17% of bamboo eaten. From the guardian: "The panda lacked plant-digesting bacteria such as Ruminococcaceae and Bacteroides and instead had guts dominated by Escherichia/Shigella and Streptococcus, which are efficient at processing proteins.". Often experience IBS/Colic like symptoms (study at Edinburgh zoo) perhaps due to gut microbiota changes. GIT can cope with large amounts of material a day and with no natural predators they are able to sit around and eat! Enlarged zygomatic arches and well developed mandible structure which useful for chomping on tough bamboo! Papers couldn't find genetics for ability to digest small amount of cellulose (8%), so coadaptation of gut microbiota proposed. Throats lined with membrane that prevents splinters of bamboo harming them.
