Perception, Cognition, and Emotion 7,8,9
. In explanation-based theory, what are ad hoc categories? What is psychological essentialism? (pp. 184-185; lecture)
Ad hoc categories: a purpose for. Psychological Essentialism: Our belief that members of a category have a common property.
What is an amnesia? What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia? What are dissociations and double dissociations? Who was Patient K. C. and why was he important? What is the Hemispheric Encoding / Retrieval Asymmetry (HERA) model? What happens in the left and right frontal lobes? (pp. 206-208)
Amnesia: the catastrophic loss of memory or memory abilities due to brain damage or disease. Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for memories (past experiences) before the brain injury. Anterograde Amnesia: the inability to remember new memories for events occurring after the brain injury. Dissociations: a disruption in one area and not another, double dissociation: one person has a disruption in one area and not another, whereas the other person has a disruption in the opposite area as the other person. Patient K.C.: he had problems with personal experiences (episodic) but not factual knowledge (semantic memory) had retrograde and anterograde amnesia. Hemispheric Encoding: a proposed model of how episodic and semantic memories work in different sides of the frontal lobe. Left frontal lobe: retrieves semantic memory and encodes episodic memory. Right frontal lobe: retrieves episodic memory.
What are semantic networks? who proposed this model? terms to know: network, node, pathways, spreading activation, propositions, property statement. How is the direction of a relationships in a propositions important?
An interrelated set of concepts, Collin and Quillian proposed that semantic memory can be viewed as a network. Node: point or location in the semantic space, Pathway: labeled, directional associations between concepts. Spreading activation: the retrieval (spread) of info from our network by activating or priming concepts that relate to each other. Proposition: a relation between two concepts, property statement: characteristics describing a concept. Example: ROBIN is a BIRD: more spread of activation, BIRD is a ROBIN: less of activation.
What is anomia? What brain area is damaged? What are other aphasias? Terms to know: alexia, agraphia, pure word deafness. (pp. 241-243)
Anomia: an impairment in the normal ability to retrieve a semantic concepts and say its name Known as: anomic aphasia, damage near the left lobe Alexia: a disruption of reading without any disruption in speaking or hearing Agraphia: a disruption in writing ability Pure word deafness: a disruption in understanding spoken language although they can read, write, and speak the language
What are aphasias? (p. 240)
Aphasias: the disruption of language caused by a brain related disorder, usually due to some physical injury to the brain (a blow to the head or stroke)
What is arbitrariness? What is onomatopoeia - why is it an exception to arbitrariness? What are two important consequences of arbitrariness? Terms to know: flexibility, naming (note that these terms have their own sections in the textbook but they fall under arbitrariness). (pp. 214-215)
Arbitrariness: there is no inherent connection between the units (sounds, words) used in a language and their meaning, onomatopoeia:sounds made by something (buzz, hum, zoom, oink), example: whale: short symbol (word) to mean a very big thing . Flexibility - we can change the connections between words and meaning and invent new ones (example: phat). Naming - we assign names to objects based on our environment, feelings, and/ or ideas (example: naming your car)
What is associative interference? What is the fan effect? Provide examples to demonstrate the difference between having a fan effect and no fan effect. (pp. 190-191)
Associative interference: The more words associated with a concept, the slower people are able to retrieve any one of them. Fan Effect: A slow down in forming a situation model (an imagination of described events) due to an associative interference. Ex. The potted palm is in the hotel, the potted palm is in the museum, the potted palm is in the barber shop. It is hard to imagine the same potted plant in three different locations at once.
What is Broca's aphasia? What are other names for it? Where is Broca's area located? (pp. 240-241)
Broca Aphasia (broken speech): serve difficulties in producing speech Known as: expressive or production aphasia They have trouble generating words out loud, they are able to understand spoken and written language Located toward rear of left frontal lobe
What is category-specific deficit? Who was Patient J. B. R.? What is anomia or anomic aphasia? How is anomia different from the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon? (pp. 169-170)
Category-specific deficit:disruption in which the person loses access to one semantic category of words or concepts while not losing others. J.B.R: has difficult time identifying things compared to non living things. Anomia: Deficit in word finding. The difference is that anomic patients cannot eventually retrieve the info compared to those experience TOT.
What are the three theories of categorization? Know the difference. Terms to know: classic view, probabilistic theory, explanation-based theory. (pp. 180-185)
Classic View: People create and use categories based on system of rules, Ex. we tend to think that apples and oranges are better examples of fruit than tomatoes (which is also a fruit) Probabilistic Theory: People categorize based on the likelihood of how well that item is associated with the category Explanation-based Theory: People create categories to explain why things are the way they are. Ex. Shoe and brick: category for hammering a nail
What is the difference between competence and performance? Who proposed this distinction? (p. 218)
Competence: the internalized knowledge of language and its rules that fluent speakers have performance: the actual language behavior a speaker generates, the string of sounds and words of a speaker utters
What is conduction aphasia? What brain area is damaged? (p. 241)
Conduction Aphasia: the inability to repeat what they have just heard Brain area: less of a connection between Broca's and Wernicke's areas through axons called the arcuate
What is connectionism? What are other names for this model? Explain how connectionism works, such as nodes and weights. How is connectionism different from the semantic network model? (pp. 168-169)
Connectionism: semantic retrieval is slower or faster based on the weights of the nodes; weights can either fire (activates) or inhibit (deactivate) semantic retrieval. Connectionism works with the nodes and weights based on the weight of the nodes. The difference between semantic network and connectionism is that semantic network is faster to slower due to nodes being closer or farther apart, while connectionism is slower or faster based on the weights of the nodes
What is consolidation? What can disrupt consolidation? What could you do to consolidate information in memory? (pp. 188-189; lecture)
Consolidation: A period of time when new memories become more permanent in the brain (hippocampus). Studying and then doing other things can distract your ability to maintain info that you studied. Sleep, fewer distraction when you are not distracted by other info or events.
What is decay? What is interference? (pp. 188-189)
Decay: Older memory traces fade when not in use; also known as law of disuse by Thorndike Interference: memory failure due to distracting or competing information in one's memory
What are disfluencies? (p. 218)
Disfluencies: irregularities or errors in otherwise fluent speech
What is displacement? (p. 215)
Displacement: the ability to talk about something other then the present moment
Who is Elizabeth Loftus? What is memory impairment? What was the Loftus and Palmer (1974) study about? What were the results? (pp. 199-200; lecture)
Elizabeth Loftus: False memory expert memory impairment: a genuine change or alteration in memory of an experienced event as a function of some later event. Loftus and Palmer: people watched a car accident on film (the glass window did not break) a week later they were asked questions. Did the cars hit/smash each other? Did you see broken glass? Result: the word "hit" did not trigger people saying they saw broken glass, the word "smash" caused people to remember seeing broken.
What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory? what brain regions are activated?
Episodic Memory: past events (birthdays) Semantic Memory: factual knowledge Brain Regions : Lateral temporal lobe and posterior prefrontal cortex
What are false memories? What is the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) task? Explain the procedure. What were the results? (pp. 195-196)
False memory: memory of something that did not happen, it is a demonstration task. People saw a list of words related to each other, a recall or recognition test is given, a critical lure is provided: a word that is highly related but did not show up on the list. Result: ten to fall for critical lures with a high degree of confidence, demonstrating false memory
What are feature comparison models? Who proposed this theory? What is the difference between defining features and characteristic features? What are the two stages involved in the feature comparison models? Terms to know: global feature comparison, comparison of defining features. (pp. 162-163; lecture
Feature comparison model:Smith proposed that we create feature lists a group of properties or description associated with a concept. Defining features: description specific to a concept characteristics features: are descriptions that are common to multiple concepts but not necessarily essential. Stage I: global feature comparison: we determine if features of two concepts are obviously similar, faster response to similar concepts. Stage II:comparison of defining features: we rely on this stage if defining features are not obvious based on characteristic, slower response for similar concepts
In the classic view of categorization, what is graded membership? Terms to know: typicality, correlated attributes. (pp. 181-182; lecture)
Graded membership: we based something on how much of an example that thing is to the category. Typicality: the degree to which the items are viewed as central members of a category. Correlated Attributes: how well features relate to the category
What is grammar? What are the five levels of language analysis? Terms to know: phonology, syntax, lexical or semantic, conceptual, belief. (pp. 217-218)
Grammar:a complete set of rules that focuses on acceptable and unacceptable way of speaking, . phonology:sounds, syntax: word order and writing structure (e.g., tenses, plurals),lexical or semantic: meaning conceptual: knowledge from semantic memory Belief: our beliefs of what people mean
What is imagination inflation? What is repression? What are the problems with repression? (pp. 202-204; lecture)
Imagination inflation: imagining that something happened increases later memory reports that it actually did happen. Repression: an intentional forgetting of painful or traumatic, difficult to obtain evidence that memory was lost and found again.
What is integration? Explain the Bransford and Franks (1971) study. What did they find? (pp. 196-199)
Integration: creating false memory by inappropriately combining info from different source or events. Bransford and Franks (1971) study: participants saw sentences, given a recognition test, must determine whether sentence was originally there. People tend to get the general idea of something by combining info into a meaningful way in memory.
What is language? What are the two approaches to language? (p. 212)
Language: a shared symbolic system for communication linguistic: the study of language based on characteristics, functions, structures, and form, psycholinguistics: the study of language as it is learned and used by people.
How are the left and right hemispheres related to language? (lecture)
Left Hemisphere: analytical side of language, focuses on meaning (context) of a sentence Right Hemisphere: holistic side of language, associates words together (tiger and strips)
What are linguistic universals? Who proposed them and how many are there? Know the following linguistic universals discussed in class: semanticity, arbitrariness, displacement, and productivity. (pp. 213-215)
Linguistic universals: features or characteristics that are common to all language, Proposed by Hockett in the 1960s. Semanticity: language provides meaning, arbitrariness: there is no inherent connection between the units (sounds, words) used in a language and their meaning displacement: the ability to talk about something other the present moment productivity:we create new ways of saying something: they are typically not repetitive unless it is memorized in a certain way. There are four.
What happens if the right hemisphere is damaged? (p. 243-244)
May cause disruption in the ability to infer things
What is the misinformation effect? What is source misattribution? What is misinformation acceptance? What are implanted memories? (pp. 199-201; lecture)
Misinformation effect: people incorrectly claiming to remember the wrong info. Source misattribution: the inability to distinguish the original event or some event was the true source of the info. Misinformation acceptance: accepting additional info as being part of an earlier experience without actually remembering that info. Implanted memories: a possible cause of misinformation acceptance people remembering suggest pseudo-event (fake event)
What is nondeclarative memory? What are other names for it? What is repetition priming? What is procedural memory? How does implicit memory affect conscious experience? Term to know: déjà vu experience. (pp. 208-210; lecture)
Nondeclarative memory:remembering something without much effort. Repetition Priming:a previous encounter with info that facilitates later processing on the same info, even unconsciously. Procedural memory:they can often involve motor task. Implicit memory can have an effect on your conscious experience. Deja vu experience:a feeling of familiarity when you enter a place you know you've never been there before.
What is semantic memory? What is it also referred?
Our Permanent Memory stored of general knowledge like an encyclopedia, also known as generic memory
What is paired-associate learning? What is a cue-overload? (pp. 189-190; lecture)
Paired-associate learning: A list paired items are memorized, consisting of stimulus and response. Cue-overload: response related to a stimulus (cue) causes the response to compete in memory, resulting in interference
Who was Patient H. M.? Why was he important? What happened to H. M. during a star tracing task (see Figure 8.11 on p. 209)? (pp. 207-209; lecture)
Patient H.M.: he had brain surgery to reduce his epileptic seizures, unfortunately, his hippocampus was also severed (cut). He did certain performances improved even without him knowing that he practiced the tasks. he continued to make fewer error on different without knowing he practiced it.
What are perceptual symbols? What two factors speed up people's responses for certain concepts? (lecture)
Perceptual symbols: knowledge that can affect our sensory and motor experiences. Embodied semantics and amount of knowledge.
What is phonology? What is a phoneme? How many phonemes are there in English? What are the critical ideas of sounds? (pp. 219-222)
Phonology: the sounds of language and the rule system for combining them Phonemes: the basic sound that composes a language English=46 phonemes Categorical Perception: sounds are perceived as the same even though they are physically different Phonemes: are perceived differently by different speakers of language
What is polysemy? What are garden path sentences? (p. 233; lecture)
Polysemy: many words in a language may have multiple meanings Garden Path Sentences: an early part of the sentence that sets you up so that later phrases in the sentence do not make sense given the way you assigned the meaning in the first part
What is productivity? What is it also called? (p. 215)
Productivity:we create new ways of saying something: they are typically not repetitive unless it is memorized in a certain, it is also called generativity
In probabilistic theory, what are prototypes and exemplars? (pp. 183-184; lecture)
Prototypes: We created an ideal average example of a category. Examplar: We stored multiple examples of a category in memory and compare other items to that stored category
What are retrieval cues? How can cuing disrupt retrieval? Term to know: part-set cuing effect. (pp. 192-194)
Retrieval Cues: the effectiveness of retrieval cues depends on how well those cues are associated with the item being encoded. Part-set cuing effect: the difficulty of recalling items of a list you are cued come off the list.
What is retrieval-induced forgetting? What is active inhibition? What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon? (p.192-193)
Retrieval-induced forgetting: the temporary forgetting of info because of having recently retrieved info. Active inhibition: trying to actively forget unwanted info. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: momentarily forgetting a word (ex. A name) that you know in long term memory
What are schemas and scripts? What is reconstructive memory? (pp. 175-180)
Schema: A mental framework or body of knowledge about some topic. Script: The semantic knowledge that guide our understanding of ordered events. Reconstructive Memory: recreating memories by combining elements from the original source with our prior knowledge
What is semantic priming? What are the basic principles of priming? Describe the priming task. Terms to know: prime, target, response times, stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). How is the priming task used in sentence verification and lexical decision tasks? What is implicit memory? (pp. 171-175)
Semantic Priming: The activation of concepts in semantic memory. Basic Principles of priming, 1. Priming takes time, 2. Activation of a prime is smaller if concepts are more removed from the original concepts, 3. Priming effect does fade over time. Individual is given a prime ( an item that may possibility influence later processing of another item). They are given trials unrelated to the prime and then are given trials with a target (the item that may be influenced by the prime). Processing is recorded based on repose times or stimulus onset asynchrony:the length of time between the onset of the prime and the onset of the target. Sentence verification: to determine if a sentence is true or not, lexical decision: to determine if a word is true
What is the semantic relatedness effect? How have event-related potentials (ERPs) supported this effect? What is N400? When does N400 show a larger and smaller peak in an ERP recording? (pp. 165-166)
Semantic Relatedness effect: concepts that are more higher interrelated are retrieved faster. Example: recalling the 12 months of a calendar in chronological vs. alphabetical order. Can be supported by event related potentials (ERPs are recorded through an electroencephalogram). N400:Negative ERP. Tree-gem: larger peak of N400, Ruby-gem: smaller peak of N400.
What is semanticity? What is paralinguistic? (p. 214)
Semanticity: language provides meaning, paralinguistic:expression produced to convey meaning
What is the sentence verification task? Describe the process. What results have been found using this task? (pp. 163-165; lecture)
Sentence Verification task: Reading through a simple sentence, (ex. A robin is a bird) a person must decide whether the sentence is true (a yes/no response). Results:People tend to be accurate in determining if a sentence is true. RT tends to be slower when spread of activation of concepts are farther apart (ROBIN IS AN ANIMAL). RTs tend to be faster when spread of activation of concepts are closer together (ROBIN IS A BIRD)
Why can we sometimes be overconfident with inaccurate memories? Know the two factors: source memory and processing fluency. (p. 201)
Source memory: we assume where the memory of the exact source of info is Processing fluency: ease of something coming to mind
What is syntax? Is the order of words the only important component of understanding sentences - what else is important? What is a mental lexicon? What are morphemes? (pp. 226; 232)
Syntax: the arrangement of words as elements in a sentence to show their relationship to one another there are different ways of ordering the words or phrases of a sentence Mental Lexicon: the mental dictionary of the words or a sentence Morphemes: the smallest unit of language
What is the difference between availability and accessibility? (p. 187)
The difference between availability and accessibility is that available stores info permanently in long term memory, while accessible is able to retrieve info from long term memory.
. How do knowledge and semantic relatedness affect activation and retrieval in memory? (p. 165-167)
The more the knowledge and the greater semantic relatedness would lead to more activation in memory, allowing rapid retrieval.
What are the seven sins of memory? See Table 8.1, p. 188. Terms to know: transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence. (pp. 187-188; lecture)
Transience: unable to access info across time due to forgetting, interference, or retrieval failure Absent-mindedness: not paying attention to certain info, causing you not to remember Blocking: loss of access due to semantic or episodic disruption Misattribution: remembering info from the wrong source Suggestibility: incorporating false info into your memory Bias: distorting based on one's experience Persistence: remembering something that you want to forget
How is animal communication different from humans? What do animals rely on? (pp. 215-217)
Unlike humans, animal communication is neither flexible nor productive, they may rely more on certain sound signals to communicate with each other.
What is Wernicke's aphasia? What are other names for it? Term to know: neologism. Where is Wernicke's area located? (p. 241
Wernicke's Aphasia: comprehension is impaired, as are repetition, naming, reading and writing, but the syntactic aspects of speech are preserved called: receptive or comprehension aphasia Neologism: people with this type of aphasia tend to invent new nonsense words (ex. Green eggs and ham) location: near the top of the left temporal lobe (near the auditory cortex)
What is the motor theory of speech perception? (p. 225)
people perceived language, at least in part, by comparing the sounds made mentally with the movement made through their voice
