Period 3: 1754-1800

Townshend Acts (1767)

*Provisions:* Imposed a tax - to be paid at American ports - on items produced in Britain & sold in the colonies, including paper, glass, lead, paint, & tea. Suspended the New York Assembly for refusing to provide British troops with supplies. Established an American Board of Customs & admiralty courts to hear cases of smuggling. Issued Writs of Assistance, giving British officials the right to search colonists' houses and businesses. While the original intent of the import duties had been to raise revenue, Charles Townshend saw the policies as a way to remodel colonial governments. The Townshend Acts would use the revenue raised by the duties to pay the salaries of colonial governors and judges, ensuring the loyalty of America's governmental officials to the British Crown. *Historical Significance:* Led to a boycott of British goods, the Circular Letters (voiced by Samuel Adams in Massachusetts to other colonies, inviting them to unite in their actions against British government), John Dickinson's "Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer" (a series of essays), and unrest in Boston as street demonstrations and protests sometimes turned violent when British customs officials arrived to collect taxes and prosecute smugglers.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

A French man who believed that Human beings are naturally good & free & can rely on their instincts. Government should exist to protect common good, and be a democracy. Rousseau believed that good government must have the freedom of all its citizens as its most fundamental objective. The Social Contract in particular is Rousseau's attempt to imagine the form of government that best affirms the individual freedom of all its citizens, with certain constraints inherent to a complex, modern, civil society. Rousseau acknowledged that as long as property and laws exist, people can never be as entirely free in modern society as they are in the state of nature. He vehemently criticized Hobbes's conception of a state of nature characterized by social antagonism. The state of nature, Rousseau argued, could only mean a primitive state preceding socialization; it is thus devoid of social traits such as pride, envy, or even fear of others. The state of nature, for Rousseau, is a morally neutral and peaceful condition in which (mainly) solitary individuals act according to their basic urges (for instance, hunger) as well as their natural desire for self-preservation. This latter instinct, however, is tempered by an equally natural sense of compassion. In Rousseau's account, laid out in his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755), individuals leave the state of nature by becoming increasingly civilized—that is to say, dependent on one another. Rousseau also stresses the importance of the general will. Rousseau argues that a citizen cannot pursue his true interest by being an egoist but must instead subordinate himself to the law created by the citizenry acting as a collective. People could only experience true freedom if they lived in a civil society that ensured the rights and well-being of its citizens. Being part of such a society involved a social contract by which people submit to the general will - a force that transcended individuals and aimed to uphold the common good. He argued against the idea that monarchs were divinely empowered to legislate. Rousseau asserts that only the people, who are sovereign, have that all-powerful right.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

After still more deeply divided argument, a proposal put forward by delegates from Connecticut (a small population state ), struck a compromise that narrowly got approved. They suggested that representatives in each house of the proposed bicameral legislature be selected through different means. The upper house (Senate) would reflect the importance of state sovereignty by including two people from each state regardless of size. Meanwhile, the lower house (house of representatives) would have different numbers of representatives from each state determined by population. Representation would be adjusted every ten years through a federal census that counted every person in the country.

Hamilton's Financial Plan

After the end of the Revolutionary War, many states carried debts that they were not repaying. Foreign credit was unavailable. Who would lend to such a young nation? Additionally, not every state had an equal amount of debt. Some states, especially in the South, had already paid their debt and they felt they shouldn't be responsible for the states that still owed. How would our nation be united if we couldn't help each other? He proposed that the federal government repay all of the state debts at their full value. This repayment would be an effective way to legitimize the federal government and its reputation to foreign nations. The means of financing the repayment involved issuing new security bonds to investors. Investors who had purchased these public securities could make enormous profits when the time came for the United States to pay off these new debts. He also intended to bring the rich and influential to the support of the Central Government by this move, as it was primarily them who owned and got returns of these bonds. Hamilton also used taxes as a way to increase revenue to pay off debts, such as a tax on domestic items like whiskey. States like Maryland, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Virginia, which had already paid off their debts, saw no reason why they should be taxed by the federal government to pay off the debts of other states like Massachusetts and South Carolina. Furthermore, Hamilton imposed a tariff on imports in order to protect domestic businesses. Southern states opposed this as farmers depended on foreign trade, and import tariffs which they paid forced them to raise prices on their own goods. There were also direct government subsidies (handouts to businesses) to further help small domestic businesses develop. Hamilton's vision for reshaping the American economy included a federal charter for a national financial institution. He proposed a Bank of the United States. Modeled along the lines of the Bank of England, a central bank would help make the new nation's economy dynamic through a more stable paper currency. There was just one problem: the Constitution said nothing about creating a national bank. However, Hamilton and his followers believed that under the "necessary and proper" clause of Article I, the Constitution gave Congress the right to create the bank to fix the debt problem. This was a "loose interpretation" of the Constitution, which is when the federal government can do what is godo for the country even if the Constitution doesn't explicitly allow it. Jefferson and his followers believed in the strict intrepretation, which is when the government can only do what the Constitution says it can do. The Southern States feared that the bank would favor the economic interests of the industrialized northern states. In exchange for southern votes, Hamilton promised to support locating the national capital on the banks of the Potomac River, the border between two southern states, Virginia and Maryland.

American Revolution Impact on Women's Rights

After the revolution, the laws of coverture, established during the colonial period, remained in place. In English and American law, coverture refers to women's legal status after marriage: legally, upon marriage, the husband and wife were treated as one entity. In essence, the wife's separate legal existence disappeared as far as property rights and certain other rights were concerned. Women could not own property, control their own money, or sign legal documents. Instead, their husbands, fathers, and brothers were expected to manage these responsibilities. Men were supposed to represent their wives, mothers, and daughters in politics. Even though she could not vote, Abigail Adams advocated for women's rights through her writing. Other women did the same. Enslaved poet Phillis Wheatley's popular 1773 book contested stereotypes that women and Africans had inferior intelligence to white men. In 1790, Massachusetts native Judith Sargent Murray questioned the status of women in her ensay "On the Equality of the Sexes." Despite the fact that the American Revolution had ended, Americans continued to debate the role of women in society.

French and Indian War (1756-1763)

Also known as the Seven Years' War, this New World conflict marked another chapter in the long imperial struggle between Britain and France. When France's expansion into the Ohio River valley brought repeated conflict with the claims of the British colonies, a series of battles led to the official British declaration of war in 1756. During 1754 and 1755, the French won a string of victories including against the young George Washington (his experience in this war would later name him commander of the Continental Army). The tide turned in 1757 because William Pitt, the new British leader and eventual namesake of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, saw the colonial conflicts as the key to building a vast British empire. Borrowing heavily to finance the war, he paid Prussia (an ally) to fight in Europe and reimbursed the colonies for raising troops in North America. The death blow to the French cause was struck in Quebec in 1759 when Commander James Wolfe won a major victory. It would only be a matter of time before Montreal suffered the same fate. With the fall of Montreal in September 1760, the French lost their last foothold in Canada. Soon, Spain joined France against England, and for the rest of the war Britain concentrated on seizing French and Spanish territories in other parts of the world.

Emergence of Political Parties

Although the Constitution does not provide for political parties, two factions quickly emerged. Opponents (Anti-Federalists) and supporters (Federalists) of the new constitution began to coalesce into political factions. Furthermore, Hamilton's policies (national bank, suppression of Whiskey Rebellion, excise tax) seemed to encroach on states' rights. As resentment grew, what was once a personal rivalry between Hamilton and Jefferson gradually evolved into two political parties. One group, led by John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, favored business development, a strong national government, and a loose interpretation of the Constitution. The party had its strongest support among those who favored Hamilton's policies. Merchants, creditors and urban artisans who built the growing commercial economy of the northeast provided its most dedicated supporters and strongest regional support. The followers of Thomas Jefferson, known as Democratic Republicans, called for a society based on small farms, a relatively weak central government, and a strict interpretation of the Constitution. The supporters of the Democratic-Republicans (often referred to as the Republicans) were drawn from many segments of American society and included farmers throughout the country with high popularity among German and Scots-Irish ethnic groups. Although it effectively reached ordinary citizens, its key leaders were wealthy southern tobacco elites like Jefferson and Madison. While the Democratic-Republicans were more diverse, the Federalists were wealthier and carried more prestige, especially by association with the retired Washington. The Election of 1796 was the first election in American history where political candidates at the local, state, and national level began to run for office as members of organized political parties that held strongly opposed political principles. Adams ended up narrowly winning in the electoral college 71 to 68. The Constitution had established that the runner-up in the presidential election would become the vice president. Through a flaw in the Constitution, Thomas Jefferson became Vice President, although an opponent of President Adams.

Committees of Correspondence

American patriots of the 1770s did not have modern means of communication at their disposal. To spread the power of the written word from town to town and colony to colony, Committees of Correspondence were established. The first such committee was organized by none other than Samuel Adams. As the revolution drew nearer, the committees became the spine of colonial interaction. The Virginia House of Burgesses followed Adams' lead and established a Committee of Correspondence as a standing committee in 1773. Within a year, nearly all had joined the network, and more committees were formed at the town and county levels. The exchanges that followed helped build a sense of solidarity, as common grievances were discussed and common responses agreed upon. The exchanges that followed built solidarity during the turbulent times and helped bring about the formation of the First Continental Congress in 1774.

Ratification of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights

As dictated by Article VII, the Constitution would not become binding until it was ratified by nine of the 13 states. five states—Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut—ratified it in quick succession. However, other states, especially Massachusetts, opposed the document, as it failed to reserve undelegated powers to the states and lacked constitutional protection of basic political rights, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press. Federalists argued that the Constitution did not need a bill of rights, because the people and the states kept any powers not given to the federal government. Anti-Federalists held that a bill of rights was necessary to safeguard individual liberty. In February 1788, a compromise was reached under which Massachusetts and other states would agree to ratify the document with the assurance that amendments would be immediately proposed. The Constitution was thus narrowly ratified in Massachusetts, followed by Maryland and South Carolina. On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the document, and it was subsequently agreed that government under the U.S. Constitution would begin on March 4, 1789. On September 25, 1789, the first Congress of the United States adopted 12 amendments to the U.S. Constitution—the Bill of Rights—and sent them to the states for ratification. Ten of these amendments were ratified in 1791, and so the first 10 Amendments became known as the Bill of Rights. In November 1789, North Carolina became the 12th state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. Rhode Island, which opposed federal control of currency and was critical of compromise on the issue of slavery, resisted ratifying the Constitution until the U.S. government threatened to sever commercial relations with the state. On May 29, 1790, Rhode Island voted by two votes to ratify the document, and the last of the original 13 colonies joined the United States.

The Great Awakening

At its core, the Awakening changed the way that people experienced God. Instead of receiving religious instruction from their ministers, ordinary men and women unleashed their emotions to make an immediate, intense and personal connection with the divine. The movement came at a time when the idea of secular rationalism was being emphasized, and passion for religion had grown stale. Enlightenment thinkers emphasized a scientific and logical view of the world, while downplaying religion. The result was a renewed dedication toward religion. In the late 1720s, a revival began to take root as preachers altered their messages and reemphasized concepts of Calvinism. (Calvinism is a theology that was introduced by John Calvin in the 16th century that stressed the importance of scripture, faith, predestination and the grace of God.) Some of the major themes included: - All people are born sinners - Sin without salvation will send a person to hell - All people can be saved if they confess their sins to God, seek forgiveness and accept God's grace - All people can have a direct and emotional connection with God - Religion shouldn't be formal and institutionalized, but rather casual and personal

Immigration leading to Revolution

At the time of the American Revolution, English citizens made up less than two thirds of the colonial population, excluding Native Americans. Nearly one fifth of the population was of African descent. Of the white population, there was still tremendous diversity, particularly in Pennsylvania, America's first melting pot. Most numerous of the non-English settler population were the Germans and the Scots-Irish. Germans came to Pennsylvania at the turn of the 18th century in answer to advertisements in Germany placed by William Penn. The promise of religious freedom, economic opportunity and freedom from war accelerated the arrival of Germans in the 1700s. The Scots-Irish fled Ireland to escape poverty. African immigration to North America dates back to the time of the first European arrivals. During the entire period of American colonial history, involuntary immigrants arrived as slaves from Africa, mainly West Africa. Between 1700 and 1775, an estimated 278,400 Africans reached the original thirteen colonies that became the United States. Soon these cultures began to blend. Americans became culturally distinct from the English. Their language, culture, and religions differed greatly from those of mother England. Most Americans were born here and never even visited England during their lives. The Germans were never loyal to England. The Scots-Irish had great resentment toward Great Britain. The ties that bound them to the British Crown were weakening fast.

Commerce Compromise

At the time of the Constitutional Convention, the North was industrialized and produced many finished goods. The South still had an agricultural economy, and still imported/bought many finished goods from Britain. Northern states wanted the government to be able to impose import tariffs on finished products to protect against foreign competition and encourage the South to buy goods made in the North instead. They also wanted export taxes on raw goods to increase revenue. However, the Southern states feared that export tariffs on their own raw goods would hurt them since the extra cost on tariffs would be passed on to their foreign consumers. The commerce compromise permitted tariffs only on imports from foreign countries and not on exports from the U.S. to other countries. Most significantly, this commerce compromise made the regulation of interstate commerce the responsibility of the federal government.

Tea Act and Boston Tea Party (1773)

Britain eventually repealed the taxes it had imposed on the colonists except the tea tax. It wasn't about to give up tax revenue on the nearly 1.2 million pounds of tea the colonists drank each year. In protest, the colonists boycotted tea sold by British East India Company and smuggled in Dutch tea, leaving British East India Company with millions of pounds of surplus tea and facing bankruptcy. In 1773, the government gave the company the exclusive right to sell tea in America through the Tea Act. A tax on tea would be maintained. A monopoly doesn't allow for competition. As such the British East India Company could lower its prices. The colonists, Lord North hoped, would be happy to receive cheaper tea (at this point, it was cheaper than smuggling tea) and willing to pay the tax. This would have the dual result of saving the tea company and securing compliance from Americans on the tax issue. The colonists saw through this thinly veiled plot to encourage tax payment. They believed that England was just trying to get them to pay a tax to prove a point. Furthermore, they wondered how long the monopoly would keep prices low. That night, a large group of men - many reportedly members of the Sons of Liberty - disguised themselves in Native American garb, boarded the docked ships and threw 342 chests of tea into the water.

Virtual Representation

British governmental theory that Parliament spoke for all British subjects, including the colonists, even if they did not vote for its members in Parliament. This was used by the British in response to the colonists' mantra "no taxation without representation." Virtual rerepsentation argued that colonists didn't need direct representation in Parliament despite it being prevalent in the colonies. Instead, as British citizens, they were already represented by parliament's current members. There was massive backlash to "virtual representation" in Britian and the colonies. Colonists firmly held that they had to have direct representation to be taxed as they were already accustomed to such a government in the colonies.

Boston Massacre (1770) and Repeal of Townshend Act

By 1769, more than 2,000 British troops had arrived in Boston to restore order—a large number considering only about 16,000 people lived in Boston at the time. Ever since the Townshend Acts, Boston existed in a state of virtual British military occupation. Radical townspeople and idle young men harassed the soldiers, leading to numerous skirmishes and scuffles. On March 5, 1770, the inevitable happened. A mob of about 60 angry townspeople descended upon the guard. When reinforcements were called, the crowd became more unruly, hurling rocks and snowballs at the guard and reinforcements. In the heat of the confusing melee, the British fired without Captain Thomas' Preston's command. Imperial bullets took the lives of five men, including Crispus Attucks, a free sailor of African and Native American descent who has gone down in history as the first casualty of the American Revolution. Others were injured. Local newspapers eulogized Attucks and the others as martyrs to British tyranny. Paul Revere and Samuel Adams, two of Boston's most influential revolutionaries, proved adept propagandists. The famous image of the massacre by Paul Revere was published in the Boston Gazette and circulated widely, stoking the flames of anti-British anger and revolutionary righteousness. Pro-British Loyalists promoted an alternate narrative, accusing agitators in the crowd of deliberately provoking the incident. Nevertheless, the radical narrative proved far more influential. Little did the colonists or British soldiers know that across the ocean on the same day as the Boston Massacre, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, Lord North, had asked Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts. All of the Townshend Acts—except for the tax on tea—were repealed in April 1770. The tax on tea would remain a flashpoint and a contributing factor to the Boston Tea Party of 1773.

Articles of Confederation

By 1777 members of Congress realized that they should have some clearly written rules for how they were organized. As a result the AOC were drafted and passed by the Congress in November. This first national "constitution" for the United States was not particularly innovative, and mostly put into written form how the Congress had operated since 1775. Even though the Articles were rather modest in their proposals, they would not be ratified by all the states until 1781. A big reason for this was that states had to relinquish claims of the Northwest Territory before the AOC was ratified. States are not allowed to conduct relationships with foreign nations without the permission of congress, which was divided between the House and the Senate. They cannot wage war, negotiate peace, raise an army or navy, conduct diplomacy, or make an alliance with another state. States must keep a local militia, and they may wage war if they need to quickly defend themselves. The Congress had control over diplomacy, printing money, resolving controversies between different states, run post offices, and, most importantly, coordinating the war effort. The most important action of the Continental Congress was probably the creation and maintenance of the Continental Army. Even in this area, however, the central government's power was quite limited. While Congress could call on states to contribute specific resources and numbers of men for the army, it was not allowed to force states to obey the central government's request for aid. The central government lacked the ability to levy taxes (unable to pay back debts), regulate commerce, and enforce its laws. Under the Articles of Confederation, the United States had no executive branch. The President of Congress was a position within the Confederation Congress. Although the office required John Hanson to deal with correspondence and sign official documents, it wasn't the sort of work that any President of the United States under the Constitution would have done. Each state gets one vote in the congress and can send between 2 and 7 people to participate in the congress. The national government had only one branch, the Confederation Congress, in which each state had one vote. Populous Virginia had no more political power than tiny Delaware. The requirements for passing measures were quite high: nine of the thirteen states had to approve a measure for it to pass. Amending the Articles themselves was even harder: all thirteen had to vote in favor of a change.

Second Continental Congress

By the time the Second Continental Congress met, the American Revolutionary War was already underway. On June 14, 1775, Congress voted to create the Continental Army from Boston militia units. Congressman George Washington of Virginia was appointed commanding general of the Continental Army. On July 6, 1775, Congress approved a Declaration of Causes outlining the rationale and necessity for taking up arms in the 13 colonies. The Congress assumed all the functions of a national government, such as appointing ambassadors, signing treaties, raising armies, appointing generals, obtaining loans from Europe, and disbursing funds. Still, in May of 1775 the majority of delegates were not seeking independence from Britain. Only radicals like John Adams were of this mindset. In fact, that July Congress approved the Olive Branch Petition, a direct appeal to the king. The American delegates pleaded with George III to attempt peaceful resolution and declared their loyalty to the Crown. The King refused to receive this petition and instead declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion in August. Insult turned to injury when George ordered the hiring of Hessian mercenaries to bring the colonists under control. As the seasons changed and hostilities continued, cries for independence grew stronger. The men in Philadelphia were now wanted for treason. They continued to govern and hope against hope that all would end well. For them, the summer of 1776 brought the point of no return — a formal declaration of independence.

Common Sense

Common Sense is the title of a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine that was published anonymously at the beginning of the American Revolution in 1776, advocating for colonial independence from Great Britain in plain language that made the message accessible to the common people of America. This work presented the American colonists with an argument for freedom from British rule at a time when the question of independence was still undecided. To escape governmental censure for its treasonous content, Paine published Common Sense anonymously. This pamphlet was responsible for broadly disseminating the idea of republicanism, bolstering enthusiasm for separation from Britain, and encouraging recruitment for the Continental Army.

Johnathan Edwards and George Whitefield

Edwards' message centered on the idea that humans were sinners, God was an angry judge and individuals needed to ask for forgiveness. This was clear in "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God." The sermon featured a frightening central image: the hand of all-powerful God dangling a terrified believer over a fiery pit, ready on a moment's notice to drop him into the flames of eternal damnation. Edwards hoped his sermon would wake up the faithful and remind them of the terrible fate that awaited them if they failed to confess their sins and to seek God's mercy. Edwards was known for his passion and energy. He generally preached in his home parish, unlike other revival preachers who traveled throughout the colonies. George Whitefield, a minister from Britain, had a significant impact during the Great Awakening. Whitefield toured the colonies up and down the Atlantic coast, preaching his message. In 15 months, as much as a quarter of the country had heard his message. His style was charismatic, theatrical and expressive. His central theme -- what must I do to be saved? -- was not new. His preaching style was. Ministers traditionally wrote sermons in longhand and read the text out loud in a dull monotone. Whitefield would often shout the word of God and tremble during his sermons. People gathered by the thousands to hear him speak.

Impact of Enlightenment on Europe

Enlightenment thinkers in Britain, in France and throughout Europe questioned traditional authority and embraced the notion that humanity could be improved through rational change. The Enlightenment produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. Scientists like Newton and writers like Locke were challenging the old order. Newton's laws of gravity and motion described the world in terms of natural laws beyond any spiritual force. Locke asserted the right of a people to change a government that did not protect natural rights of life, liberty and property. Locke defended the displacement of a monarch who would not protect the lives, liberties, and property of the English people. Jean-Jacques Rousseau stated that society should be ruled by the "general will" of the people. Baron De Montesquieu declared that power should not be concentrated in the hands of any one individual. He recommended separating power among executive, legislative, judicial branches of government. American intellectuals began to absorb these ideas. The delegates who declared independence from Britain used many of these arguments. People were beginning to doubt the existence of a God who could predestine human beings and empower a tyrant for a king. Europe would be forever changed by these ideas. In America, enlightened ideas of liberty and progress had a chance to flourish without the shackles of Old Europe. Religious leaders began to change their old dogmatic positions. They began to emphasize the similarities between the Anglican Church and the Puritan Congregationalists rather than the differences. Even Cotton Maher, the Massachusetts minister who wrote and spoke so convincingly about the existence of witches advocated science to immunize citizens against smallpaa

Citizen Genet Affair

Following the overthrow of the monarchy in 1792, the revolutionary French Government clashed with the monarchies of Spain and Great Britain. French policymakers needed the United States to help defend France's colonies in the Caribbean - either as a neutral supplier or as a military ally, and so they dispatched Edmond Charles Genêt, an experienced diplomat, as minister to the United States. The French assigned Genêt several additional duties: to obtain advance payments on debts that the U.S. owed to France, to negotiate a commercial treaty between the United States and France, and to implement portions of the 1778 Franco-American treaty which allowed attacks on British merchant shipping using ships based in American ports. Genêt's attempt to carry out his instructions would bring him into direct conflict with the U.S. Government. Rather than proceed immediately to Philadelphia, then the capital of the United States, and present himself to Washington right away, Genet lingered in Charleston and encouraged American citizens to outfit privateer ships that could attack British merchants in the Caribbean. Genet believed that his actions were in accordance with the Treaty of Alliance signed between the United States and France in 1778. He did not however, bother to check with President Washington before involving American citizens in a war. Genet continued to make public appearances in favor of France and encouraged U.S. citizens to violate Washington's proclamation. While Americans debated the course their government should take, Genet continued to fund privateers, despite an 8,000-word formal complaint from Washington. Eventually, even the pro-French Jefferson could not stand such open condescension of U.S. laws, and worked with Washington to get Genet recalled. Aware that Genêt's return to France would almost certainly result in his execution, President Washington and Attorney General Edmund Randolph allowed him to remain in the United States. The Citizen Genêt affair came to a peaceful end, with Genêt himself continuing to reside in the United States until his death in 1834.

Embroilments with Britain and Jay's Treaty

For years, the British had retained the frontier posts on U.S. soil, all in defiance of the peace treaty of 1783. The London government did not want to abandon the valuable fur trade in the Great Lakes region, and British agents openly sold firearms to the Miami Confederacy, an alliance of 8 Indian nations who terrorized Americans. The British also seized American ships that they suspected of carrying French goods. The Jeffersonians felt that American should again fight Britain in defense of America's liberties. The Federalists opposed this action because Hamilton's hopes for economic development depended on trade with Britain. Fearing the repercussions of a war with Britain, President George Washington sided with Hamilton and sent pro-British Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British Government. Jay looked to Hamilton for specific instructions for the treaty. Hamilton recommended an approach that would both stabilize relations with Great Britain and guarantee increased trade between the United States and Great Britain. Jay's only significant bargaining chip in the negotiations was the threat that the United States would join the Danish and the Swedish governments in defending their neutral status and resisting British seizure of their goods by force of arms. In an attempt to guarantee good relations with Britain, Hamilton independently informed the British leadership that the United States had no intention of joining an international group ready to fight over neutral rights. Hamilton's actions left Jay with little leverage to force the British to comply with U.S. demands. Jay returned to the United States with a treaty that removed some British outposts from the Northwest (posts that the British had already promised to abandon in the Treaty of 1783 that ended the Revolution), but did relatively nothing to confirm the neutral rights of American ships. Jay even conceded that the British could seize U.S. goods bound for France if they paid for them and could confiscate without payment French goods on American ships. The reaction to Jay's Treaty was severe. Democratic-Republicans cried foul, arguing that the pro-British Federalists had caved to the British and undermined American sovereignty. Hamilton and others responded that while the treaty was not perfect, it did avert a war that would have been costly and may have led to defeat. Once news of the terms became public after a razor-thin ratification in the Senate, there were a series of mass demonstrations against Jay and the treaty.

French Alliance During Revolution

France's interest in the American fight for independence stemmed from France's humiliating defeat during the Seven Years War at the hands of its ancient enemy, England. After Congress formally declared independence from Great Britain in 1776, it dispatched a group of several commissioners led by Benjamin Franklin (who was popular in foreign countries) to negotiate an alliance with France. When news of the Declaration of Independence and the subsequent British evacuation of Boston reached France, French Foreign Minister Comte de Vergennes decided in favor of an alliance. However, once news of General George Washington's defeats in New York reached Europe in August of 1776, Vergennes wavered, questioning the wisdom of committing to a full alliance. A rage for all things Franklin and American swept France, assisting American diplomats and Vergennes in pushing for an alliance. In the meantime, Vergennes agreed to provide the United States with a secret loan. Despite the loan and discussions of a full alliance, French assistance to the new United States was limited at the outset. Throughout 1777, Vergennes delayed as he conducted negotiations with the Spanish Government, which was wary of U.S. independence and also wanted assurances that Spain would regain territories if it went to war against the British. Vergennes finally decided in favor of an alliance when news of the British surrender at the Battle of Saratoga reached him in December 1777. This is why this battle is widely known as the turning point--it made possible for the Americans to recieve much-needed aid from France. Vergennes, having heard rumors of secret British peace offers to Franklin, decided not to wait for Spanish support and offered the United States an official French alliance. On February 6, 1778, Benjamin Franklin and the other two commissioners, Arthur Lee and Silas Deane, signed a Treaty of Alliance and a Treaty of Amity and Commerce with France. The Treaty of Alliance contained the provisions the U.S. commissioners had originally requested, but also included a clause forbidding either country to make a separate peace with Britain, as well as a secret clause allowing for Spain, or other European powers, to enter into the alliance. Spain officially entered the war on June 21, 1779. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce promoted trade between the United States and France and recognized the United States as an independent nation.

Natural Law

God's or nature's law that defines right from wrong and is higher than human law. For example, killing another human being is a natural law.

Trial of John Peter Zenger

In 1733, Zenger was accused of libel when he printed a publication that harshly pointed out the actions of the corrupt royal governor, William S. Cosby. It accused the governor of an assortment of crimes and basically labeled him an idiot. Although Zenger merely printed the articles, he was hauled into jail. The authors were anonymous, and Zenger would not name them. In his day it was libel when you published information that was opposed to the government. Truth or falsity were irrelevant. He never denied printing the pieces. The most famous lawyer in the colonies, Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, stepped up to defend Zenger. Hamilton admitted that Zenger printed the charges and demanded the prosecution to prove them false. The judge ordered the jury to convict Zenger if they believed he printed the stories. But the jury returned in less than ten minutes with a verdict of not guilty. Although true freedom of the press was not known until the passage of the First Amendment, newspaper publishers felt freer to print their honest views.

Currency & Sugar Acts of 1764

In 1764, Parliament (British Government) passes two acts intent on creating revenue (making money) for the British government and providing a means to discourage foreign nations (Dutch, French and Spanish) from selling goods to the British colonists. The Sugar Act was a law that attempted to curb the smuggling of sugar and molasses in the colonies by reducing the previous tax rate and enforcing the collection of duties. The older Sugar and Molasses tax charged the customer a duty of 6 pence per gallon of molasses. The bribe to customs officials per gallon of smuggled molasses was 1.5p. The new Sugar Act lowered the duty to 3p per gallon. The British wrongly assumed that Americans would be willing to accept the newly reduced tax. The smuggling continued until 1766 when the tax was lowered to one pence, making it cheaper to legally pay the tax than to smuggle. For the first time the Sugar Act raised different constitutional issues. Many perceived the Sugar Act as an infringement of their constitutional rights because they were, for the first time, taxed to raise revenue for the benefit of the crown. The Currency Acts were passed in response to the 13 colonies who had been printing their own form of paper money. The act prohibited (stopped) colonists from doing so. It also required that colonists pay off any debt with gold or silver only.

Treaty of Paris 1783 and Peace of Paris

In 1782, the newly elected British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne saw American independence as an opportunity to build a lucrative trade alliance with the new nation without the administrative and military costs of running and defending the colonies. As a result, Treaty of Paris terms were very favorable to the United States with Great Britain making major concessions: - Great Britain finally gave formal recognition to its former colonies as a new and independent nation: the United States of America. - Defined the U.S. border, with Great Britain granting a vast area known as the Northwest Territory to the United States. - Secured fishing rights to the Grand Banks and other waters off the British-Canadian coastline for American boats. - Opened up the Mississippi River to navigation by citizens of both the United States and Great Britain. - Resolved issues with American debts owed to British creditors. - Provided for fair treatment of American citizens who had remained loyal to Great Britain during the war. Though the Treaty of Paris, 1783 formally ended the war for independence between America and Great Britain, tensions continued to rise between the two nations over issues that remained unresolved by the treaty. The British, for instance, refused to relinquish several of its forts in the former Northwest Territory, while the Americans, for their part, continued to confiscate property from citizens that had remained loyal to the British Crown during the war. In 1795, John Jay returned to Europe to resolve these issues with Great Britain. The resulting agreement, known as Jay's Treaty, helped to delay another costly war between the two countries. In addition to the American colonists, other nations including France, Spain and the Netherlands fought against the British during the American Revolution. Alongside the Treaty of Paris, Great Britain signed separate peace treaties with each these nations in September 1783.

Whiskey Rebellion

In order to raise money to repay the debt after the American Revolution, Alexander Hamilton proposed a tax on whiskey in 1791. The Whiskey Rebellion was a 1794 uprising of farmers and distillers in western Pennsylvania in protest of a whiskey tax enacted by the federal government. Following years of aggression with tax collectors, the region finally exploded in a confrontation that resulted in President Washington sending in troops to quell what some feared could become a full-blown revolution. Like the Shays' Rebellion eight years earlier, the Whiskey Rebellion tested the boundaries of political dissent. In both instances, the government acted swiftly — and militarily — to assert its authority. The federal government had shown itself willing to mobilize militarily to assert its authority. It affirmed the fact that the federal government could handle political unrest and was much stronger than it had been under the Articles of Confederation.

Navigation Acts

In the 1660's the British government passed the Navigation Acts, but the laws were hardly enforced for nearly 100 years. To help pay the war debt created by the French and Indian War, Parliament (British Government) decided to enforce the laws more so than it had in the past. The Navigation Acts had several regulations: • Colonists had to sell certain products (sugar, tobacco, indigo) only to England or English colonies, preventing trade with foreign nations. • Products to be sold in colonies from foreign nations had to pass through England first. This way a tax could be collected on foreign goods before they were shipped to the colonies. • Any products sold or shipped to and from the colonies had to be shipped on British ships built in England or the 13 colonies. ¾'s of any ship's crew had to be British as well.

First Continental Congress

In the summer that followed Parliament's attempt to punish Boston through the intolerable acts, sentiment for the patriot cause increased dramatically. There was agreement that this new quandary warranted another intercolonial meeting. Thus, on September 5, 1774, the First Continental Congress was convened in Philadelphia. This time participation was better, with twelve of thirteen colonies sending a delegate. Only Georgia withheld a delegation. An initial plan discussed by Joseph Galloway was the plan of reconciliation. Galloway proposed that the colonies create a form of government to act in conjunction with that of the British, with a colonial parliament and leaders elected by Britain. This would offer the colonists their own representation while remaining loyal to England. This plan was ultimately rejected when the Suffolk Resolves were presented, a much more drastic proposal. Accepted by Congress on September 17th, the Suffold Resolves encouraged Massachusetts to protest the Intolerable Acts by stockpiling military supplies, operating an independent government, boycotting British goods, and announcing no allegiance to Britain and a king who failed to consider the wishes of the colonists.Reaction to these Resolves was mixed. While some supported such a bold proposal and felt it was an appropriate reaction to the British, others feared it would cause war. In truth, war was already imminent because of the differing definitions of liberty offered by the Patriots and the British. These tensions would be brought to the forefront later in the Battles of Lexington and Concord, signalling the start of the Revolutionary War. For those members of the Congress who were in favor of a more peaceful protest, the Declaration of Rights was developed. These rights included life, liberty, property, and the right to establish their own taxes within the colonies. The final draft was accepted on October 14th, 1774, and constituted a formal declaration to King George III and the Parliament that the actions of the British must cease or else a revolution would result. On December 1, 1774, the Continental Association was created to boycott all contact with British goods. By reversing the economic sanctions placed on the colonists, the delegates hoped Britain would repeal its Intolerable Acts. While this was quite a sacrifice to make, the Patriots were willing to do so in the name of liberty and justice for the colonies.

Effects of the Great Awakening

It reinvigorated religion in America at a time when it was steadily declining and introduced ideas that would penetrate into American culture for many years to come. More denominations of Christianity were formed, such as Methodists and Baptists. American's religious community came to be divided between those who rejected the Great Awakening and those who accepted it. Not everyone embraced the ideas of the Great Awakening. Preachers and followers who adopted the new ideas brought forth by the Great Awakening became known as "new lights." Travelling preachers like Whitefield could preach anywhere; they did not need a church. Ignoring parish boundaries, they lured crowds away from the church and into the fields. Their emotional style disrupted the usual social decorum. Those who embraced the old-fashioned, traditional church ways were called "old lights." Despite the conflict, one surprising result was greater religious toleration. A number of colleges were founded by those who accepted the Great Awakening, including Princeton, Brown, and Rutgers. It was also a long term cause of the Revolution. Before, ministers were almost treated like aristocrats. Most new ministers connected with common people. More people had a spiritual connection to God and believed they were capable of interpreting God's purpose. The chain of authority no longer ran from God to ruler to people, but from God to people to ruler. The new denominations that emerged were much more democratic in their approach. The overall message was one of greater equality. The Great Awakening was also a "national" occurrence. It was the first major event that all the colonies could share, helping to break down differences between them.

Midnight appointments and Judiciary Act of 1801

Just before time ran out on the Adams administration, they enacted the Judiciary Act of 1801. This sweeping law struck at a key point of contention: the jurisdiction of the federal courts. The Republicans wanted the federal courts to be constrained, but the new law gave these courts increased jurisdiction over land and bankruptcy cases. The federal courts now had greater authority at the expense of the states. The act added six new federal circuits with sixteen new judges, which eliminated the requirement of SC justices to preside over cases in the lower courts of appeals (known as 'circuit riding'), which was an arduous process for Justices. As a final measure, they also added dozens of new justices of the peace to the District of Columbia. Between December 12 and March 4, President Adams, with the approval of the Senate, busily stacked the courts with his own people which was soon referred to as "midnight judges." It also reduced the size of the Supreme Court from six justices to five, to take effect upon the next vacancy. This was done in order to deny Jefferson an opportunity to appoint a justice until two vacancies occurred since he'd have to wait until there were only four justices (six at the moment) until he could appoint the fifth one. If the Federalists could not control Washington through elected office, they would at least dictate the composition of the judiciary. Most of these judges lost their posts when the Democratic-Republican-dominated 7th Congress approved the Judiciary Act of 1802, abolishing the newly created courts, and returning the federal court system to its earlier structure. Federalists denounced the removal of the judges as unconstitutional because federal judges served during good behavior. Jeffersonians responded saying that they did not dismiss any judges, they merely eliminated some courts, arguing, that since Congress had the constitutional power to create inferior courts, it must also logically have the authority to eliminate courts.

Sons and Daughters of Liberty

Like other secret clubs at the time, the Sons of Liberty had many rituals. They had secret code words, medals, and symbols. It was the Sons of Liberty who ransacked houses of British officials. Threats and intimidation were their weapons against tax collectors, causing many to flee town. Images of unpopular figures might be hanged and burned in effigy on the town's Liberty tree. Offenders might be covered in warm tar and blanketed in a coat of feathers. Often they coordinated their activities. Like the public Congresses that would be convened, this private band of societies provided an intercolonial network that would help forge unity. It should come as no surprise that the members of the Sons of Liberty and the delegates to the various Congresses were at times one and the same. The Daughters of Liberty didn't join in on the public protests and riots incited by the Sons of Liberty in 1765. Instead, they organized and participated in boycotts and helped manufacture goods when non-importation agreements caused shortages. In August of 1768, when Boston merchants signed a non-importation agreement in which they pledged not to import or sell British goods, this caused a shortage in the colony of specific goods like textiles. To help ease this shortage, the Daughters of Liberty organized spinning bees to spin yarn and wool into fabric. When the colonists also decided to boycott British goods, particularly British tea, women joined in on the boycott. Since women were the ones who purchased consumer goods for their households, and some of them also ran small shops themselves, their actions had a major impact on British merchants. To get around purchasing and drinking British tea, women found alternatives by making herbal teas from various plants like raspberry, mint and basil, which they referred to as Liberty Tea.

Federalists and the Federalist Papers

Many of the most talented leaders of the era who had the most experience in national-level work were Federalists. For example the only two national-level celebrities of the period, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington, favored the Constitution. In addition to these impressive superstars, the Federalists were well organized, wealthy, educated, and made especially careful use of the printed word. Most newspapers supported the Federalists' political plan and published articles and pamphlets to explain why the people should approve the Constitution. In spite of this range of major advantages, the Federalists still had a hard fight in front of them. Their new solutions were a significant alteration of political beliefs in this period. Most significantly, the Federalists believed that the greatest threat to the future of the United States did not lie in the abuse of central power, but instead could be found in what they saw as the excesses of democracy as evidenced in popular disturbances like Shays' Rebellion and the pro-debtor policies of many states. Three Federalists—Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay—wrote a series of essays called The Federalist Papers. These essays explained the Constitution and defended its provisions, aimed at convincing opponents of the US Constitution to ratify it so that it would take effect as the nation's fundamental governing document. The documents were intended for the state of New York, though people from across the country read them. The Federalists defended the weakest point of the Constitution—a lack of a Bill of Rights—by suggesting that current protections were sufficient and that the Congress could always propose Amendments. They believed the structure of the new Constitution by itself placed limits on government, so they were concerned that by explicitly listing some rights, the government might think it had the power to do anything it was not explicitly forbidden from doing. Such rights were already implied as the provisions of the Constitution only served to limit the government's powers, so a Bill of Rights was redundant at best and dangerous at worst. One of the most famous Federalist Papers is Federalist No. 10, which was written by Madison and argues that the checks and balances in the Constitution prevent the government from falling victim to factions. The Federalist Papers is widely considered to be the most significant American contribution to the field of political philosophy and theory and is held up by scholars, lawyers, and judges to be the most authoritative source for determining the original intent of the framers of the US Constitution.

Marbury v. Madison

Marshall says constitution authorizes SCOTUS to have original jurisdiction (cases start in Supreme Court) when states have conflicts or dealing with foreign affairs. Everything else is called having appellate jurisdiction. In this case it's the former since marbury went directly to SCOTUS, not an inferior court first. But this case didn't fall under the categories of original jurisdiction. Therefore according to the Constitution itself SCOTUS had no jurisdiction. However the Judicial Act of 1789 said that they did have jurisdiction. Which one do they believe? Judicial act is inconsistent with Constitution. Marshall decides Constitution is superior and deems judicial act unconstitutional. This act set a precedent called judicial review. So although SCOTUS took Marbury's case, they never should've in the first place since SCOTUS didn't have orginal jurisdiction which was required in order for a case to go directly to the SC. They would have to go to inferior court first (all according to Constitution).

Charles Montesquieu

Montesquieu saw despotism as a standing danger for any government not already despotic, and argued that it could best be prevented by a system in which different bodies exercised legislative, executive, and judicial power, and in which all those bodies were bound by the rule of law. This theory of the separation of powers had an enormous impact on liberal political theory, and on the framers of the constitution of the United States of America. According to Montesquieu, the difference between absolute monarchy and despotism is that in the case of the monarchy, a single person governs with absolute power by fixed and established laws, whereas a despot governs by his or her own will and caprice.

Declaration of Independence

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three-part resolution to Congress. His motion called upon Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan for colonial confederation. Lee's resolution was met with debate. Opponents of Lee's resolution argued that although reconciliation with Great Britain was unlikely, the timing was premature to declare independence and Congress ought to focus on securing foreign aid. A vote was set for early July. In the meantime, it was decided that a committee should be formed to draft a document announcing and explaining colonial independence should Lee's resolution eventually be approved. A subcommittee of five, including Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, was selected to choose the careful wording. Such a document must be persuasive to a great many parties. Americans would read this and join the patriot cause. Sympathetic Britons would read this and urge royal restraint. Foreign powers would read this and aid the colonial militia. The five agreed that Jefferson was the most talented writer. They would advise on his prose. Moreover, many members of Congress already viewed the 13 colonies as de facto independent, making the declaration a mere formality rather than a revolutionary break from what already had been. In general terms, the introduction effectively stated that seeking independence from Britain had become "necessary" for the colonies. While the body of the document outlined a list of grievances against the British crown, the preamble includes its most famous passage: "We hold these truths to be self-evident..." The Continental Congress reconvened on July 1, and the following day 12 of the 13 colonies adopted Lee's resolution for independence. The process of consideration and revision of Jefferson's declaration (including Adams' and Franklin's corrections) continued on July 3 and into the late morning of July 4, during which Congress deleted and revised some one-fifth of its text. The delegates made no changes to that key preamble, however, and the basic document remained Jefferson's words. Congress officially adopted the Declaration of Independence later on the Fourth of July (though most historians now accept that the document was not signed until August 2).

Three-Fifths Compromise

Once it was decided that representation in the House of Representatives was to be based on population, delegates from Northern and Southern states saw another issue arise: how enslaved people should be counted. Delegates from Northern states, where the economy did not rely heavily on the enslavement of African people, felt that enslaved people should not be counted toward representation because counting them would provide the South with a greater number of representatives. Southern states fought for enslaved individuals to be counted in terms of representation. The compromise between the two became known as the three-fifths compromise because every five enslaved people would be counted as three individuals in terms of representation.

Pinckney's Treaty of 1795

Prime minister of Spain, Manuel de Godoy, sought to extract Spain from its alliance with its traditional enemy Great Britain, and to restore peace with France during the French Revolution. Godoy's policy was not without risks, as antagonizing the British would put Spanish colonies and possessions in the Americas at risk. This is because while Spanish diplomats sought to shift Spanish alliances, U.S. diplomat John Jay arrived in London to negotiate a treaty with Great Britain. Jay's Treaty caused Spain, which feared an Anglo-American alliance, to strike a deal with the U.S. Spanish and U.S. negotiators concluded the Treaty of San Lorenzo, also known as Pinckney's Treaty, on October 27, 1795. The treaty was an important diplomatic success for the United States. It resolved territorial disputes between the two countries by establishing the thirty-first parallel as the border between the United States and Spanish West Florida. The treaty granted American ships the right to free navigation of the Mississippi River as well as duty-free transport through the port of New Orleans, then under Spanish control. This was of vital importance to the farmers and merchants who lived in Kentucky and Tennessee and to the settlers of the Ohio Valley, who now could ship their harvests and goods on the waterways to the eastern seaboard of the United States, to Europe, or to other areas. Additionally, both nations agreed not to incite attacks by Native Americans against the other nation. In return, Godoy requested that the United States commit to an alliance with Spain. Pinckney rejected the alliance, and after further consultation Godoy provided the same offer without the necessity of the alliance. Nevertheless, negotiations came to an impasse as the Spanish continued to insist on their right to require duties for goods passing through Spanish-held New Orleans. Pinckney threatened to leave without signing a treaty unless the Spanish dropped duties on American trade passing through New Orleans. The next day, Godoy agreed to Pinckney's demands, and the two negotiators signed the treaty on October 27, 1795.

Salutary Neglect and Smuggling

Restrictions were placed on what the colonies could manufacture, whose ships they could use, and most importantly, with whom they could trade. British merchants wanted American colonists to buy British goods, not French, Spanish, or Dutch products. In theory, Americans would pay duties on imported goods to discourage this practice. The Navigation Acts and the Molasses Act are examples of royal attempts to restrict colonial trade. The fact that American colonists felt their livelihoods were being negatively impacted by trade regulations was a key cause of the Revolution. Smuggling is the way the colonists ignored these restrictions. Prior to 1763, the British followed a policy known as salutary neglect. They passed laws regulating colonial trade, but they knew they could not easily enforce them. It cost four times as much to use the British navy to collect duties as the value of the duties themselves. Colonists, particularly in New England, thought nothing of ignoring these laws. Ships from the colonies often loaded their holds with illegal goods from the French, Dutch, and Spanish West Indies. British customs officials earned a modest salary from the Crown. They soon found their pockets stuffed with bribe money from colonial shippers. When smugglers were caught, they were often freed by sympathetic American juries. Smuggling became commonplace. As 1776 approached, the tradition of smuggling became vital to the Revolutionary cause. This encouraged ignoring British law, particularly in the harbors of New England. American shippers soon became quite skilled at avoiding the British navy, a practice they used extensively in the Revolutionary War. Soon England began to try offenders in admiralty courts, which had no juries. All attempts to crack down merely brought further rebellion.

Sedition Act of 1798

Rumors of a French invasion and enemy spies frightened many Americans. President Adams warned that foreign influence within the United States was dangerous and must be "exterminated." In one of the first tests of freedom of speech, the House passed the Sedition Act, permitting the deportation, fine, or imprisonment of anyone deemed a threat or publishing "false, scandalous, or malicious writing" against the government of the United States. The 5th Congress (1797-1799), narrowly divided between the majority Federalists and minority Jeffersonian Republicans, voted 44 to 41 in favor of the Senate-passed bill. Federalists championed the legislation fearing impending war with France (French spies could spread misinformation, damaging the government). To them, a seditious libel law (law preventing expression inciting resurrection) was part of the English common law, constitutional under the necessary and proper clause, and an obvious instrument of defense. They believed the First Amendment only provided protection of forbidding prior restraint (government review and censorship before publication), and that the Sedition Acts only help newspapers responsible for what they print. It was also out of the desire to hold the majority in Congress and to retain the White House, then occupied by Federalist John Adams by silencing critics of the federalist administration, and it didn't help that the Democratic-Republicans were French sympthatizers. Federalist judges enforced the law with vigor. There were twenty-five arrests, fifteen indictments, and ten convictions, many upon charges so flimsy as to be comical. Targets of the act tended to be the editors of Democratic-Republican newspapers who criticized the Federalist administration of President John Adams. The acts were denounced by Democratic-Republicans and ultimately helped them to victory in the 1800 election, when Thomas Jefferson defeated the incumbent, President Adams. The act expired in March 1801. The Sedition Act clearly violated individual protections under the first amendment of the Constitution; however, the practice of "Judicial Review," whereby the Supreme Court considers the constitutionality of laws was not yet well developed. Furthermore, the justices were all strong Federalists. As a result, Madison and Jefferson directed their opposition to the new laws to state legislatures. The Virginia and Kentucky legislatures passed resolutions declaring the federal laws invalid within their states. By placing states rights above those of the federal government, Kentucky and Virginia had established a precedent that would be used to justify the secession of southern states in the Civil War.

American Revolution Impact on French Revolution

Several years after the revolt in America, French reformists faced political, social and economic hardships that mirrored the colonists' struggles. While the French Revolution was a complex conflict with numerous triggers and causes, the American Revolution set the stage for an effective uprising that the French had observed firsthand. Although the French and American people had several distinct and differing motives for revolting against their ruling governments, some similar causes led to both revolutions. Both the Americans and French dealt with a taxation system they found discriminating and unfair. Like the American colonists, the French felt that specific rights were only granted to certain segments of society, namely the elite and aristocrats. The National Assembly in France even used the American Declaration of Independence as a model when drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen in 1789. Much like the American document, the French declaration included Enlightenment philosophies, such as equal rights and popular sovereignty. The Americans' victory over the British may have been the single greatest impact on the French Revolution. The French people saw that a revolt could be successful - even against a major military power - and lasting change was possible. Ideas that were once just abstract thoughts - such as popular sovereignty, natural rights, constitutional checks and balances and separation of powers - were now part of an actual political system that worked.

Impact of Shay's Rebellion

Shays's Rebellion exposed the weakness of the government under the Articles of Confederation and led many—including George Washington—to call for strengthening the federal government in order to put down future uprisings. It did not have the authority to fund troops to suppress the rebellion, nor was it empowered to regulate commerce and thereby mitigate the economic hardships of rural workers. General George Washington came out of retirement to promote a strong national government that would be capable of dealing effectively with popular discontent. Shays's rebellion led Washington and other Nationalists— including Alexander Hamilton and James Madison—to proclaim the Articles of Confederation inadequate and urge support for the Constitution produced by the Constitutional Convention in 1787. The possibility of armed upheavals like that led by Shays strengthened the convention delegates' conviction that the national government needed to be more powerful. Moreover, it changed the opinion of those delegates who had been arguing on behalf of the more limited powers of government under the Articles of Confederation.

Consequences of the American Revolution

Some changes would be felt immediately. The new states drafted written constitutions, which, at the time, was an important innovation from the traditionally unwritten British Constitution. English traditions such as land inheritance laws were swept away almost immediately. The Anglican Church in America could no longer survive. After all, the official head of the Church of England was the British monarch. Political and social life changed drastically after independence. Political participation grew as more people gained the right to vote. In addition, more common citizens (or "new men") played increasingly important roles in local and state governance. Slavery would not be abolished for another hundred years, but the Revolution saw the dawn of an organized abolitionist movement. The Revolution's most important long-term economic consequence was the end of mercantilism. The British Empire had imposed various restrictions on the colonial economies including limiting trade, settlement, and manufacturing. The Revolution opened new markets and new trade relationships. The Americans' victory also opened the western territories for invasion and settlement, which created new domestic markets. Americans began to create their own manufacturers, no longer content to reply on those in Britain. The American Revolution produced a new outlook among its people that would have ramifications long into the future. Groups excluded from immediate equality such as slaves and women would draw their later inspirations from revolutionary sentiments. Native Americans, too, participated in and were affected by the Revolution. Native American tribes would continue to be displaced and pushed further west throughout the nineteenth century. Ultimately, American independence marked the beginning of the end of what had remained of Native American independence.

Washington's Farewell Address, 1796

The Address opened by offering Washington's rationale for deciding to leave office and expressed mild regret at not having been able to step down after his first term. Washington continued at some length to express what he hoped could serve as guiding principles for the young country. Most of all Washington stressed that the "National Union" formed the bedrock of "collective and individual happiness" for U.S. citizens. Washington feared that local factors might be the source of petty differences that would destroy the nation. His defense of national unity lay not just in abstract ideals, but also in the pragmatic reality that union brought clear advantages to every region. Union promised "greater strength, greater resource, [and] proportionately greater security from danger" than any state or region could enjoy alone. He emphasized, "your Union ought to be considered as a main prop of your liberty." The remainder of the Address examined what Washington saw as the two major threats to the nation, one domestic and the other foreign. First, Washington warned of "the baneful effects of the spirit of party." To Washington political parties were a deep threat to the health of the nation for they allowed "a small but artful and enterprising minority" to "put in the place of the delegated will of the Nation, the will of a party." Yet, it was the dangerous influence of foreign powers, judging from the amount of the Address that Washington devoted to it, where he predicted the greatest threat to the young United States. As European powers embarked on a long war, each hoping to draw the U.S. to its side, Washington admonished the country "to steer clear of permanent Alliances." Foreign nations, he explained, could not be trusted to do anything more than pursue their own interests when entering international treaties. Rather than expect "real favors from Nation to Nation," Washington called for extending foreign "commercial relations" that could be mutually beneficial, while maintaining "as little political connection as possible."

Albany Plan of Union

The Albany Plan of Union was a plan to place the British North American colonies under a more centralized government. On July 10, 1754, representatives from seven of the British North American colonies adopted the plan. Although never carried out, the Albany Plan was the first important proposal to conceive of the colonies as a collective whole united under one government. Representatives of the colonial governments adopted the Albany Plan during a larger meeting known as the Albany Congress. The British government itself ordered the Albany Congress to meet in response to a failed series of negotiations between New York's colonial government and the Mohawk nation, then a part of the larger Iroquois Confederation. The British Crown hoped the Albany Congress would result in a treaty between the colonial governments and the Iroquois, clearly spelling out a policy of colonial-Indigenous cooperation which would help during the French and Indian War. Prior to the Albany Congress, a number of intellectuals and government officials had formulated and published several tentative plans for centralizing the colonial governments of North America. Imperial officials saw the advantages of bringing the colonies under closer authority and supervision, while colonists saw the need to organize and defend common interests. One figure of emerging prominence among this group of intellectuals was Pennsylvanian Benjamin Franklin. Earlier, Franklin had written to friends and colleagues proposing a plan of voluntary union for the colonies. Upon hearing of the Albany Congress, his newspaper, The Pennsylvania Gazette, published the political cartoon "Join or Die," which illustrated the importance of union by comparing the colonies to pieces of a snake's body. The Pennsylvania government appointed Franklin as a commissioner to the Albany Congress. The Albany Congress began on June 19, 1754, and the commissioners voted unanimously to discuss the possibility of union on June 24. The union committee submitted a draft of the plan on June 28, and commissioners debated aspects of it until they adopted a final version on July 10. Although only seven colonies sent commissioners, the plan proposed the union of all the British colonies except for Georgia and Delaware. The colonial governments were to select members of a "Grand Council," while the British Government would appoint a "president General." Together, these two branches of the unified government would regulate colonial-Indian relations and also resolve territorial disputes between the colonies. Despite the support of many colonial leaders, the plan, as formulated at Albany, did not become a reality. Colonial governments, sensing that it would curb their own authority and territorial rights, either rejected the plan or chose not to act on it at all. The colonial governments' own fears of losing power, territory, and commerce, both to other colonies and to the British Parliament, ensured the Albany Plan's failure. Due to the colonial legislatures' rejection, the Albany Plan was never submitted to the British Crown for approval. However, the British Board of Trade considered and also rejected it. Fearing that if the Albany Plan was accepted, His Majesty's Government might have a hard time continuing to control its now far more powerful American colonies, the British Crown hesitated to push the plan through Parliament. However, the Crown's fears were misplaced. The individual American colonists were still far from being prepared to handle the self-government responsibilities that being part of a union would demand. In addition, the existing colonial assemblies were not yet ready to surrender their recently hard-won control of local affairs to a single central government—that would not happen until well after the submission of the Declaration of Independence.

Alien Acts and the Naturalization Act

The Alien Acts, the Naturalization Act, and Sedition Act were all passed in 1798. Together they were called the Alien and Sedition Acts. With the Naturalization Act, Federalists raised the residence requirements for aliens who wanted to become citizens from five to fourteen years, a law that violated the traditional American policy of open-door hospitality and speedy assimilation. Since most immigrants favored the Republicans, delaying their citizenship would also slow the growth of Jefferson's party. The Alien Enemies Act permitted the government to arrest and deport all male citizens of an enemy nation in the event of war. If war had broken out, this act could have expelled many of the estimated 25,000 French citizens then living in the United States. But the country did not go to war, and the law was never used. The Alien Friends Act allowed the president to deport any non-citizen suspected of plotting against the government, even in peacetime. This law could have resulted in the mass expulsion of new immigrants. The act was limited to two years, but no alien was ever deported under it. By 1802, all Alien Acts had been repealed or expired except for the Alien Enemies Act, which is eventually amended in 1918 to include women.

Proclamation of Neutrality of 1793

The American Revolution sparked several other revolutions across the world, including the Haitian Revolution and the French Revolution. At the start of the French Revolution in 1789, people were overjoyed, since the first stages of the revolution were not unlike America's dethroning of Britain. However, after the revolution turned radical and bloody, the Federalists rapidly changed opinions and looked nervously at the Jeffersonians, who felt that no revolution could be carried out without a little bloodshed. When French revolutionaries came to the United States asking for assistance, Washington decided to issue a Proclamation of Neutrality, guaranteeing that the United States would stay out of the war and not take anyone's side. The proclamation stated that the United States would not offer protection to Americans who violated neutrality laws, and that the United States would actively prosecute anyone within its jurisdiction who violated international law with respect to neutrality. This was a risky decision, since France had been the United States's major ally during the Revolutionary War and the US promised France to help in future conflicts. Washington's decision to issue a Proclamation of Neutrality was rooted in the fact that the United States was still dealing with a sizable debt after the American Revolution. With this act, along with the recommendations he made in his Farewell Address upon leaving office, Washington set a precedent for isolationism, or refraining from involvement in international affairs, that set the tone for US foreign policy over the next century. The proclamation stated that the United States would not offer protection to Americans who violated neutrality laws, and that the United States would actively prosecute anyone within its jurisdiction who violated international law with respect to neutrality. The proclamation started a war of pamphlets between Alexander Hamilton (writing for the Federalists), and James Madison (writing for the Democratic-Republicans) commonly known as the Pacificus-Helvidius debates. In his seven essays, written under "Pacificus", Hamilton dealt with objections to the proclamation. 1) The decree was constitutional. 2) The Proclamation of Neutrality did not violate the United States' defensive alliance with France, as the Democratic-Republicans were claiming. The treaty, Hamilton pointed out, was a defensive alliance and did not apply to offensive wars, "and it was France that had declared war upon other European powers", not the other way around. 3) By siding with France the United States would have left itself open to attacks within American borders by the governments of Great Britain and Spain stirring up "numerous Indian tribes" influenced by these two governments.

Rebellions in Colonial America and Impact

The American colonies had known violent rebellion long before the Revolutionary War. Each of the original thirteen colonies had experienced violent uprisings. Americans had shown themselves more than willing to take up arms to defend a cause held dear. One of the earliest large-scale insurrections was Bacon's Rebellion. In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon led a group of disgruntled citizens from the western part of Virginia eastward in search of justice. They felt their interests were not represented by Virginia's colonial legislature. They felt Governor Berkeley had done nothing to protect them from Indian raids. Over a thousand of Bacon's followers entered Jamestown and burned the capital city. Governor Berkeley fled until reinforcements could organize. Over twenty rebels were hanged, but fear of further rebellion was struck into the hearts of the members of the wealthy Virginia planting class. In South Carolina a rebellion broke out as a result of the Regulator movement. There was anarchy on the South Carolina frontier after the Seven Years' War. A band of vigilantes known as regulators took the law into their own hands and pushed the outlaws away. The Regulators then turned their wrath on local hunters who raised a force to fight back. Near civil war conditions prevailed until the government finally agreed to institute a circuit court judicial system. In New York, Tenants of the wealthy land aristocrats demanded relief from the high rents imposed on them. When the courts ruled in favor of the land barons in 1766, the angry farmers took up arms. The governor had to bring in the Redcoats to quell the disturbance. In Pennsylvania, a group of Scots-Irish settlers called the Paxton Boys marched on Philadelphia in 1764 to protest the Quakers' friendly Native American policy. The Paxtons lived in Pennsylvania's hinterland and wanted both Native American land and protection from raids on their homes. A delegation, led by Benjamin Franklin met with the Paxton gang to hear their grievances. Order was restored — but just barely before the Paxtons would have attacked Philadelphia. American colonists had proven themselves experienced rebels. Whenever they felt their rights were jeopardized, they seemed willing to take up arms. Economic exploitation, lack of political representation, unfair taxation, were among the causes that led to these clashes.

Antifederalists

The Antifederalists were a diverse coalition of people who opposed ratification of the Constitution. Although less well organized than the Federalists, they also had an impressive group of leaders who were especially prominent in state politics. To Antifederalists the proposed Constitution threatened to lead the United States down an all-too-familiar road of political corruption. All three branches of the new central government threatened Antifederalists' traditional belief in the importance of restraining government power. The most powerful objection raised by the Antifederalists, however, hinged on the lack of protection for individual liberties in the Constitution. Most of the state constitutions of the era had built on the Virginia model that included an explicit protection of individual rights that could not be intruded upon by the state. This was seen as a central safeguard of people's rights and was considered a major Revolutionary improvement over the unwritten protections of the British constitution. During the push for ratification, many of the articles in opposition were written under pseudonyms, such as "Brutus," " Centinel", and "Federal Farmer," but some famous revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry came out publicly against the Constitution. The Anti-Federalists mobilized against the Constitution in state legislatures across the country. Anti-Federalists in Massachusetts, Virginia and New York, three crucial states, made ratification of the Constitution contingent on a Bill of Rights. Sensing that Anti-Federalist sentiment would sink ratification efforts, James Madison reluctantly agreed to draft a list of rights that the new federal government could not encroach. Since its adoption, the Bill of Rights has become the most important part of the Constitution for most Americans. In Supreme Court cases, the Amendments are debated more frequently than the Articles. They have been cited to protect the free speech of Civil Rights activists, protect Americans from unlawful government surveillance, and grant citizens Miranda rights during arrest. It is impossible to know what our republic would look like today without the persistence of the Anti-Federalists over two hundred years ago.

Creation of the Electoral College

The Articles of Confederation did not provide for a chief executive of the United States. Therefore, when delegates decided that a president was necessary, there was a disagreement over how he should be elected to office. While some delegates felt that the president should be popularly elected, others feared that the electorate would not be informed enough to make that decision. The delegates came up with other alternatives, such as going through each state's Senate to elect the president. In the end, the two sides compromised with the creation of the Electoral College, which is made up of electors roughly proportional to population. Citizens actually vote for electors bound to a particular candidate who then votes for the president.

American and British Strengths and Weaknesses

The British military was the best in the world. It had conquered much of the world and prevailed in war after war over the past century. It was well-trained, fully-equipped, and 50,000 troops strong. If you add in the 30,000 Hessian (German) mercenaries hired to fight the colonists, the British forces outnumbered the colonial forces four to one, Funds were much more easily raised by the Empire than by the Continental Congress. Most Indian tribes sided with Britain, who promised protection of tribal lands. On the other hand, the Americans had many intangible advantages. The British fought a war far from home. Military orders, troops, and supplies sometimes took months to reach their destinations. The geographic vastness of the colonies proved a hindrance to the British effort. Despite occupying a few of the large cities for a while, the British remained as at a disadvantage. The war was expensive and the British population debated its necessity. In Parliament, there were many American sympathizers. The colonists under George Washington also fought a different type of war that British forces were not used to. They avoided large-scale confrontations and instead struck quickly in guerrilla-style attacks that they had learned and developed during recent wars with Native Americans. None of these things would have likely brought victory, however. The key factor that turned the tide for the Americans was the intervention of other nations into the conflict. Without the help of Spain, the Netherlands, and especially France, it's unlikely the colonists would have prevailed. In the end, the British desire to maintain economic control over the colonies could not match the intense desire of the colonists to be independent and free.

Judiciary Act of 1789

The Constitution provided that the judicial branch should be composed of one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Congress from time to time established. But unlike the legislative provisions, in which the framers clearly spelled out the powers of the Congress, Article III of the Constitution is rather vague on just what the judicial powers should be. A law passed in September 24, 1789 by the first Congress to more clearly establish the federal court system. The act established a three-part judiciary—made up of district courts, circuit courts, and the Supreme Court—and outlined the structure and jurisdiction of each branch. The Act set the number of Supreme Court justices at six: one Chief Justice and five Associate Justices. The Supreme Court was given exclusive original jurisdiction over all civil actions between states, or between a state and the United States, as well as over all suits and proceedings brought against ambassadors and other diplomatic personnel. In each state, a federal judge was to preside over a US district court which hear minor cases. The circuit courts which exercised limited appellate jurisdiction have two SC justices and a local district judge in each court.

Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts)

The Intolerable Acts is the name given by colonists to the Quebec Act (1774) and to a series of acts (Coercive Acts) by the British in response to the Boston Tea Party. The four acts known as the Coercive Acts are as followed: Boston Port Act: Closed the Port of Boston to all trade until citizens paid for the lost tea Massachusetts Government Act: instituted an appointed government over the previously-elected, local one Administration of Justice Act: Allowed Royal officials accused of crimes in Massachusetts to be tried elsewhere Quartering Act: required colonists to house and quarter British troops on demand, including in their private homes as a last resort. Right after passing the Coercive Acts, it passed the Quebec Act, a law that recognized the Roman Catholic Church as the established church in Quebec. An appointed council, rather than an elected body, would make the major decisions for the colony. With this one act, the British Crown granted land to the French in Quebec that was clearly desired by the American colonists. The extension of tolerance to Catholics was viewed as a hostile act by predominantly Protestant America. It was under these tense circumstances that the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia on September 5, 1774.

Land Ordinance of 1785

The Land Ordinance of 1785 was passed by the U.S. Congress under the Articles of Confederation. It laid out the process by which lands west of the Appalachian Mountains were to be surveyed and sold. The method of creating townships and sections within townships was used for all U.S. land after 1785. This was important because during the war, Congress faced numerous problems gaining control of the land. Native American tribes did not agree with the claim that the land belonged to the United States. Numerous states also claimed the land. When they were colonies, they received permission to control all land to the west of the East Coast. In fact, a big reason why the AOC took so long to be ratified was because of conflict regarding land claims. It wasn't until states had to relinquish claims before the AOC was ratified. The Confederation Congress hoped to sell the land in the Ohio Country to raise funds. The government also feared that the illegal settlers who were already there, or "squattors," would form their own nation since it was so isolated from the rest of the states. As a result, the government claimed ownership of the entire land. As the states and Native Americans relinquished lands, government surveyors were to divide the territory into individual townships. Some townships were reserved for veterans of the war and education while others were to be sold at a public auction to raise revenue.

Economic impact of American Revolution

The Revolution's most important long-term economic consequence was the end of mercantilism. The British Empire had imposed various restrictions on the colonial economies including limiting trade, settlement, and manufacturing. The Revolution opened new markets and new trade relationships. The Americans' victory also opened the western territories for invasion and settlement, which created new domestic markets. Americans began to create their own manufacturers, no longer content to rely on those in Britain. The greatest adverse economic legacy of the war, however, was currency and debt. Continental currency had an enormous inflation rate and had depreciated dramatically. To make matters worse, the national government owed approximately $12 million in foreign debt and $44 million in domestic debt; and state governments owed approximately $25 million, mostly in war debts. The primary concerns of post-war economic planners were reducing the inflation rate and raising the value of the currency; and repaying and financing government war debts.

Treaty of Paris (1763) and Impact on Revolution

The Treaty of Paris (1763) ended the French and Indian War and threw the French off the continent of North America. Out of this conflict, the British became the dominant power in North America. In the terms of the treaty, the British received Canada from France and Florida from Spain, but permitted France to keep its West Indian sugar islands and gave Louisiana to Spain. The arrangement strengthened the American colonies significantly by removing their European rivals to the north and south and opening the Mississippi Valley to westward expansion. The British crown borrowed heavily from British and Dutch bankers to bankroll the war, doubling British national debt. King George II argued that since the French and Indian War benefited the colonists by securing their borders, they should contribute to paying down the war debt. To defend his newly won territory from future attacks, King George II also decided to install permanent British army units in the Americas, which required additional sources of revenue. Fifteen years after the Treaty of Paris, French bitterness over the loss of most of their colonial empire contributed to their intervention on the side of the colonists in the Revolutionary War. However, ideas of rebellion didn't immediately follow the war. There were many reasons why, such as a prosperous economy, disunity, and no clamor for freedom. Much happened between the years of 1763 and 1776 before the rebellion.

Virginia Plan

The Virginia Plan suggested first and foremost that the United States govern by way of a bicameral legislature. This system would split legislators into two houses, as opposed to the single assembly put forth by the New Jersey Plan. Additionally, legislators would be held to specified term limits. Drafted by James Madison in 1787, the plan recommended that states be represented based upon their population numbers, and it also called for the creation of three branches of government— executive, legislative, and judicial—which would create a system of checks and balances. The lower house of the legislature would be elected directly by the people and then the lower house would elect the upper house. Together they would choose the executive and judiciary. By having the foundational body of the proposed national government elected by the people at large, rather than through their state legislatures, the national government would remain a republic with a direct link to ordinary people even as it expanded its power. The idea of representation according to population was a benefit to Virginia and other large states, but smaller states with lower populations were concerned that they wouldn't have enough representation. While the Virginia Plan was not adopted in full, parts of the proposal were incorporated into the Great Compromise of 1787, which laid the foundation for the creation of the U.S. Constitution.

New Jersey Plan

The Virginia Plan was unacceptable to all the small states, who countered with another proposal, dubbed the New Jersey Plan, that would continue more along the lines of how Congress already operated under the Articles. William Paterson's plan had features beyond the apportionment argument, such as the creation of a Supreme Court and the right of the federal government to tax imports and regulate trade. But the greatest difference from the Virginia Plan was over the issue of apportionment: the allocating of legislative seats based on population. This plan called for a unicameral legislature with the one vote per state formula still in place. This position reflected the belief that the states were independent entities and as they entered the United States of America freely and individually, so they remained.

Compromise on Trade of Enslaved People

The issue of enslavement ultimately did tear the Union apart, but 74 years before the start of the Civil War this volatile issue threatened to do the same during the Constitutional Convention when Northern and Southern states took strong positions on the issue. Those who opposed the enslavement of African people in the Northern states wanted to bring an end to the importation and sale of enslaved individuals. This was in direct opposition to the Southern states, which felt that the enslavement of African people was vital to their economy and did not want the government interfering. In this compromise, Northern states, in their desire to keep the Union intact, agreed to wait until 1808 before Congress would be able to ban the trade of enslaved people in the U.S. (In March 1807, ​President Thomas Jefferson signed a bill abolishing the trade of enslaved people, and it took effect on Jan. 1, 1808.) Also part of this compromise was the fugitive slave law, which required Northern states to deport any freedom seekers, another win for the South.

State Constitutions

The opportunity to draft the first State Constitutions allowed Americans to govern the new states in a way that reflected revolutionary thinking and including new ideals and new ideas. The new states drafted written constitutions, which, at the time, was an important innovation from the traditionally unwritten British Constitution. In most cases colonial traditions were continued, but modified, so that the governor (the executive) lost significant power, while the assemblies (the legislative branch, which represented the people most directly) became much more important. A number of states followed the example of Virginia, which included a declaration or "bill" of rights in their constitution designed to protect the rights of individuals. Although these constitutions contained many innovations, they also incorporated inequitable aspects of the new society. All state constitutions, bar those of New York and Virginia, determined that only Protestants could hold public office. Many of the state constitutions also placed property qualifications on voting. And some states required elected officials and assemblymen to possess significant amounts of property before they could stand from office. There were other undemocratic features of these new constitutions. In Maryland, where conservatives held sway in the assembly, there was no secret ballot: voting was to be conducted by voice and in public, leaving voters open to pressure and intimidation. Pennsylvania created the most radical state constitution of the period. Following the idea of popular rule to its logical conclusion, Pennsylvania created a state government with several distinctive features. First, the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 abolished property requirements for voting as well as for holding office. Pennsylvania also became a "unicameral" government where the legislature only had one body. Furthermore, tthe office of the governor was entirely eliminated. The Pennsylvania constitution decided that "the people" could rule most effectively through a single body with complete legislative power.

State of Nature

The state of human beings outside civil society, invoked by philosophers such as Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. It's a hypothetical condition in which all individual human beings lived separately from one another before coming together into societies. Visions of the state of nature differ sharply between theorists, although most associate it with the absence of state sovereignty. For Hobbes the state of nature is a war of all against all, and the life of man 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short'. Society is justified as the remedy to this appalling state, which is Hobbes' version of the social contract. Others such as Rousseau have been more optimistic, claiming that people act more peaceful with the desire to survive while also having a sense of compassion for others.

Royal Proclamation of 1763

The treaty of paris ceded territory, known as the Ohio Valley, was marked by the Appalachian Mounatins in the east and the Mississippi River in the west. Despite the acquisition of this large swath of land, the British tried to discourage American colonists from settling in it. The British already had difficulty administering the settled areas east of the Appalachians. Americans moving west would stretch British administrative resources thin. Further, just because the French government had yielded this territory to Britain did not mean the Ohio Valley's French inhabitants would readily give up their claims to land or trade routes. Scattered pockets of French settlers made the British fearful of another prolonged conflict. The war had dragged on long enough. Moreover, the Native Americans, who had allied themselves with the French during the Seven Years' War, continued to fight after the peace had been reached. Pontiac's Rebellion, led by Ottawa chief Pontiac, continued after the imperial powers achieved a ceasefire to drive the Biritsh out of their land. The last thing the British government wanted were hordes of American colonists crossing the Appalachians fueling French and Native American resentment. The solution seemed simple. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued, which prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. The British hoped to neutralize conflict between white settlers and Native Americans, but they ended up provoking the wrath of the colonists, who cited the Proclamation of 1763 as one of the grievances leading to the American Revolutionary War. The Proclamation of 1763 merely became part of the long list of events in which the intent and actions of one side was misunderstood or disregarded by the other.

Fries Rebellion

To pay for an enlarged navy and army in preparation for war against France, Congress enacted the Direct House Tax in July 1798, imposing $2 million in taxes on real estate and enslaved people to be apportioned among the states. The Direct House Tax was the first—and only—such direct federal tax on privately-owned real estate ever imposed. In addition, Congress had recently enacted the Alien and Sedition Acts, which restricted speech determined to be critical of the government and increased the power of the federal executive branch to imprison or deport aliens considered "dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States." In February 1799, Pennsylvania auctioneer John Fries organized meetings in Dutch communities in the southeastern part of the state to discuss how to best oppose the tax. Many of the citizens favored simply refusing to pay. Fries warned the federal tax assessors to stop doing their assessments and leave Milford. When the assessors refused, Fries led an armed band of residents that eventually forced the assessors to flee the town. Encouraged by his success in Milford, Fries organized a militia. As opposition to the House Tax spread through Pennsylvania, federal tax assessors resigned under threats of violence. The Adams administration used military force to suppress the insurrection. The resisters were charged with sedition and treason. On May 21, 1800, Adams granted general amnesty to all participants in Fries' rebellion. He stated that the rebels, most of whom spoke German, were "as ignorant of our language as they were of our laws." The long-term impact was that the German-American communities rejected the Federalist Party, hurting Adams's re-election hopes.

Shay's Rebellion

Unlike many other state legislatures in the 1780s, the Massachusetts government didn't respond to the economic crisis by passing pro-debtor laws (like forgiving debt and printing more paper money). The farmers who fought in the Revolutionary War had received little compensation, and by the 1780s many were struggling to make ends meet. Businesses in Boston and elsewhere demanded immediate payment for goods that farmers had previously bought on credit and often paid off through barter. There was no paper money in circulation and no gold or silver to be accessed by the farmers to settle these debts. At the same time, Massachusetts residents were expected to pay higher taxes than they had ever paid to the British. As a result local sheriffs seized many farms and some farmers who couldn't pay their debts were put in prison. These conditions led to the first major armed rebellion in the post-Revolutionary United States. The fight took place mostly in and around Springfield during 1786 and 1787. American Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays led four thousand rebels (called Shaysites) in a protest against economic and civil rights injustices to attack courthouses, effectively preventing taxes from being collected. In January 1787, Governor Bowdoin hired his own army, privately funded by Boston businessmen. Some 4,400 men were directed to put down the insurgency. This armed force crushed the movement in the winter of 1786-1787 as the Shaysites quickly fell apart when faced with a strong army organized by the state. While the rebellion disintegrated quickly, the underlying social forces that propelled such dramatic action remained. The debtors' discontent was widespread and similar actions occurred on a smaller scale in Maine (then still part of Massachusetts), Connecticut, New York, and Pennsylvania among others places.

Precedents set by George Washington

Washington believed that the precedents he set must make the presidency powerful enough to function effectively in the national government, but at the same time these practices could not show any tendency toward monarchy or dictatorship. 1) Cabinet - Washington took it upon himself to nominate people who would serve in his inner circle of personal secretaries. The decision was his alone to make. 2) Title - When politicians suggested titles for the nation's chief executive ranging from "His Excellency" to "His Highness, the Protector of Our Liberties," Washington recommended the more democratic "Mr. President." 3) State of the Union - He presented the annual State of the Union report, required by the Constitution, as a speech given directly to the Congress. Thomas Jefferson would break this precedent in the nineteenth century, however it was restored by Woodrow Wilson in the twentieth. 4) Term limit - The most important precedent was Washington's final act as president: He stepped down after completing two terms. Pressed to serve a third, he believed that a peaceful transition of power to a newly elected president would be in the nation's best interest. While President Franklin D. Roosevelt broke this precedent by winning a third and fourth term, the precedent became law when Amendment XXII of the Constitution was ratified in 1951.

Stamp Act of 1765 and Declaratory Act of 1766

When Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765, things changed. It was the first direct tax on the American colonies. Every legal document had to be written on specially stamped paper, showing proof of payment. Deeds, wills, marriage licenses — contracts of any sort — were not recognized as legal in a court of law unless they were prepared on this paper. In addition, newspaper, dice, and playing cards also had to bear proof of tax payment. Arguing that only their own representative assemblies could tax them, the colonists insisted that the act was unconstitutional, and they resorted to mob violence to intimidate stamp collectors into resigning. Parliament passed the Stamp Act on March 22, 1765 and repealed it in 1766, but issued a Declaratory Act at the same time to reaffirm its authority to pass any colonial legislation it saw fit. The Declaratory Act is simple in form. It stated quite clearly that the British government had "full power" over the British colonies in the Americas. When it came to governing the colonies, Parliament (British Government) could pass laws "in all cases whatsoever."

Constitutional Convention

When Shays' Rebellion erupted in the interim, a group of Americans had even stronger reasons to meet to discuss plans for responding to the range of problems. From May 25 to September 17, 1787, 55 delegates from 12 states convened in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention. Rhode Island was the only state that refused to send representatives to the convention, which assumed as its primary task the revision or replacement of the Articles of Confederation. The impressive group included many prominent Revolutionary leaders like Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, and Robert Morris. Some of the older leaders of the Revolution, however, were not present. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were abroad serving as diplomats to France and England, respectively. In their place were a number of younger leaders, who had been less prominent in the Revolution itself. Most notable among them were the Virginian James Madison and the West Indian-born New Yorker, Alexander Hamilton. These national "superstars" did not, however, include people from western parts of the country, nor did it include any artisans or tenant farmers. Indeed, there was only a single person whom we could consider a yeoman farmer. The assembly immediately discarded the idea of amending the Articles of Confederation and set about drawing up a new scheme of government. Revolutionary War hero George Washington, a delegate from Virginia, was elected convention president. During three months of debate, the delegates devised a brilliant federal system characterized by an intricate system of checks and balances. The convention was divided over the issue of state representation in Congress, as more populated states sought proportional legislation, and smaller states wanted equal representation. Before the Constitution could take effect, it had to be ratified in accordance to the AOC—formally approved by the assemblies of at least nine of the 12 states that had sent delegates to the convention.

Convention of 1800 (Treaty of Morfontaine)

When it was clear that both the US and France didn't want a war, the negotiators sent by Adams negotiated the Treaty of Mortefontaine. The Quasi-War officially ended with this treaty, which also formally ended the alliance of 1778 between the United States and France during the Revolutionary War. The Treaty of Mortefontaine terminated the only formal treaty of alliance the young nation had signed. It would be nearly a century and a half before the United States entered into another formal alliance. France agreed to return captured American ships, while the United States agreed to compensate its citizens for $20 million damages inflicted by France on American shipping. Although the 1778 alliance ended, the two countries extended "most-favored" trading status to each other.

1796 Election

With incumbent President George Washington having refused a third term in office, the 1796 election became the first U.S. presidential election in which political parties competed for the presidency. The Federalists coalesced behind Adams and the Democratic-Republicans supported Jefferson, but each party ran multiple candidates. Before the ratification of the 12th Amendment in 1804, each elector was to vote for two persons, but was not able to indicate which vote was for president and which was for vice president. Instead, the recipient of the most electoral votes would become president and the runner-up vice president. As a result, both parties ran multiple candidates for president, in hopes of keeping one of their opponents from being the runner-up. These candidates were the equivalent of modern-day running mates, but under the law they were all candidates for president. Thus, both Adams and Jefferson were technically opposed by several members of their own parties. The plan was for one of the electors to cast a vote for the main party nominee (Adams or Jefferson) and a candidate besides the primary running mate, thus ensuring that the main nominee would have one more vote than his running mate. Adams's main running mate was Thomas Pinckney, a former governor of South Carolina who had negotiated the Treaty of San Lorenzo with Spain. Pinckney agreed to run after the first choice of many party leaders, former Governor Patrick Henry of Virginia, declined to enter the race. Alexander Hamilton, who competed with Adams for leadership of the party, worked behind the scenes to elect Pinckney over Adams by convincing Jefferson electors from South Carolina to cast their second votes for Pinckney. Hamilton did prefer Adams to Jefferson, and he urged Federalist electors to cast their votes for Adams and Pinckney. Although Hamilton resigned from the cabinet in 1795, he remained influential and his advice was sought and followed by many Federalists — even some who remained in Adams' cabinet. With Jefferson's popularity strongest in the South, many party leaders wanted a Northern candidate to serve as Jefferson's running mate. Popular choices included Senator Pierce Butler of South Carolina and three New Yorkers: Senator Aaron Burr, Chancellor Robert R. Livingston, and former Governor George Clinton, to be the party's 1796 candidate for vice president. A group of Democratic-Republican leaders met in June 1796 and agreed to support Jefferson for president and Burr for vice president. The result was that incumbent Vice President John Adams of the Federalist Party defeated former Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic-Republican Party, who was then elected VP.

Republican Motherhood

Women's role in society was altered by the American Revolution. Women who ran households in the absence of men became more assertive. Abigail Adams became an early advocate of women's rights when she prompted her husband to "remember the ladies" when drawing up a new government. The early seeds of the concept are found in the works of John Locke. Rather than adhering to the traditional sexual hierarchy promoted by his contemporaries, Locke believed that men and women had more equal roles in a marriage. Who were the primary caretakers of American children? American women. If the republic were to succeed, women must be schooled in virtue so they could teach their children. Because of this special role, women were permitted to receive more of an education than they previously had been allowed. This idea of an educated woman became known as "Republican Motherhood." As in the case of the abolition of slavery, changes for women would not come overnight. But the American Revolution ignited these changes. Education and respect would lead to the emergence of a powerful, outspoken middle class of women.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

a law that established a procedure for the admission of new states to the Union. There were three steps to becoming a step: 1) Settlers come to the territory and a governor is appointed to govern the territory. 2) Once 5,000 free adult males were in the population, they could elect a legislature. 3) Once the population reaches 60,000, the territory can become a state with its own government and state constitution. In addition, the new states that would be admitted as part of this act would be equal to the original 13 states. The new governments will also be based on republican ideas, such as a bill of rights protecting religious freedom, trial of jury, and other individual rights. The last important idea is that slavery is banned in this territory. Any existing slaves is fine, but there should be no new slaves brought in to the territory. This is the first time the national government banned slavery in a particular area.

Thomas Hobbes

believed that people are born selfish and need a strong central authority (a sovereign authority) to avoid the danger and fear of civil war. Otherwise we would be in a state of nature in which people would be under constant fear of violent death and cooperation would be impossible. The only authority that naturally exists is a mother over her child. But among adults human beings, adults are equal in capacity to threaten one another's lives. So, there is no natural source of authority to order their lives together. In this case, they live in Hobbes' state of nature. Without this effective authority, Hobbes argues the result is doomed to be deeply awful, nothing less than a state of war. These are his three reasons why anarchism (no gov't) won't bring peace: (i) we will violently compete to secure the basic necessities of life and perhaps to make other material gains. (ii) we will challenge others and fight out of fear ("diffidence"), so as to ensure our personal safety. (iii) we will seek reputation ("glory"), both for its own sake and for its protective effects (for example, so that others will be afraid to challenge us). If we have any rights at all, if nature has given us any rights whatsoever, then the first is surely this: the right to prevent violent death befalling us. We do not just have a right to ensure our self-preservation: we each have a right to judge what will ensure our self-preservation. Hobbes has given us good reasons to think that human beings rarely judge wisely. Yet in the state of nature no one is in a position to successfully define what is good judgment. If I judge that killing you is a sensible or even necessary move to safeguard my life, then—in Hobbes's state of nature - I have a right to kill you. Others might judge the matter differently, of course. Because we are all insecure, because trust is more-or-less absent, there is little chance of our sorting out misunderstandings peacefully, nor can we rely on some (trusted) third party to decide whose judgment is right.

John Locke

defended the claim that men are by nature free and equal. Against claims that God had made all people naturally subject to a monarch. People have natural rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and property, that have a foundation independent of the laws of society. The social contract is where people in the state of nature conditionally transfer some of their rights to the government in order to better ensure the stable, comfortable enjoyment of their lives, liberty, and property. Since governments exist by the consent of the people in order to protect the rights of the people and promote the public good, governments that fail to do so can be resisted and replaced with new governments. He defends the principle of majority rule and the separation of legislative and executive powers. Locke denied that coercion should be used to bring people to (what the ruler believes is) the true religion and also denied that churches should have any coercive power over their members. Locke's vision of the state of nature is described as the absence of government but not by the absence of mutual obligation of respecting natural rights. Beyond self-preservation, the law of nature, or reason, also teaches "all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, liberty, or possessions." Unlike Hobbes, Locke believed individuals are naturally endowed with these rights (to life, liberty, and property) and that the state of nature could be relatively peaceful.

Intercolonial Disunity

had been caused by enormous distances; geographical barriers; conflicting religions, from Catholics to Quakers; varied nationalities, from German to Irish; differing types of colonial governments; many boundary disputes; and class tensions

XYZ Affair (1797) and Quasi War

he French were outraged by what they viewed as an Anglo-American alliance in Jay's Treaty. France suspended diplomatic relations with the U.S. at the end of 1796 and seized more than 300 American ships over the next two years. In response, President John Adams dispatched three U.S. envoys to restore harmony between the United States and France—Elbridge Gerry, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and John Marshall. Upon arriving in France, Gerry, Pinckney and Marshall found that they were unable to formally meet with the Foreign Minister, the Marquis de Talleyrand. The U.S. envoys were instead approached by several intermediaries, Nicholas Hubbard (later W,) Jean Hottinguer (X), Pierre Bellamy (Y), and Lucien Hauteval (Z.) They demanded that in order to even talk to Talleyrand, the US needed to provide France with a low-interest loan and pay a substantial bribe to Talleyrand. Angered by the intolerable terms, Marshall and the envoy returned to the U.S. President Adams prepared for war, and pro-war Federalists pushed Congress to support him. Leaders of the Democratic-Republican party were suspicious of Adams' motives and demanded that he publicly release the diplomatic correspondence describing the negotiations in France. Adams, knowing its contents, obliged them and released the correspondence, but replaced the names of the French intermediaries with the letters W, X, Y, and Z. Federalists who controlled the Congress as well as the presidency raised new taxes, dramatically enlarged the army and navy, and generally increased the power of the central government in preparation for a war against France that seemed inevitable. The Adams administration entered a "quasi-war" with France from 1798 to 1800. Although no official declaration of war had been made, the United States clearly acted as an unofficial ally of Great Britain. Only 15 years since the end of the Revolutionary War, a dramatic transition in American international alliances had occurred. The undeclared war mostly confined to the seas raged for two and a half years, where American ships captured over 80 armed Frenchships. However, President Adams ultimately wanted to avoid a major war, confident that if France wanted war it would have responded to American attacks on French ships. Adams nominated a new representative to France despite public and Federalist disappointment that there would be no war, but conceded to Federalist demands and expanded the single nomination into a commission of three.

American Revolution Impact on Slavery

the broad acceptance of slavery began to be challenged in the Revolutionary Era. The challenge came from several sources, partly from Revolutionary ideals, partly from a new evangelical religious commitment that stressed the equality of all Christians, and partly from a decline in the profitability of tobacco in the most significant slave region of Virginia and adjoining states. The decline of slavery in the period was most noticeable in the states north of Delaware, all of which passed laws outlawing slavery quite soon after the end of the war. The courageous military service of African Americans and the revolutionary spirit ended slavery in New England almost immediately. The middle states of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey adopted policies of gradual emancipation from 1780 to 1804. These gradual emancipation laws were very slow to take effect — many of them only freed the children of current slaves, and even then, only when the children turned 25 years old. Even in the South, there was a significant movement toward freeing some slaves. In states where tobacco production no longer demanded large numbers of slaves, the free black population grew rapidly. This major new free black population created a range of public institutions for themselves that usually used the word "African" to announce their distinctive pride and insistence on equality. On the other hand, the Lower South, particularly South Carolina and Georgia, remained passionately committed to the African slave trade and some masters in the region revoked their offers of freedom for war service while others forced freed black people back into bondage. Many of the founders hoped that slavery would eventually disappear in the American South. When cotton became king in the South after 1800, this hope died. There was just too much profit to be made working slaves on cotton plantations. The statement of human equality in the Declaration of Independence was never entirely forgotten, however. It remained as an ideal that could be appealed to by abolitionists and civil rights activists through the following decades.