Personnel Psychology
Dawis and Lofquist's Satisfaction
Depends on the degree to which the characteristics of the job correspond to his or her needs and values
Dawis and Lofquist's Satisfactoriness
Depends on the extent to which the worker's skills correspond to the skill demands of the job
Person Analysis
Determine which employees require training and what knowledge, skills, and abilities they need to acquire
Holland's Differentiation
Individual has clear interests - high score on one of the six types and low scores on all others
Roe's Career Development Theory: Origins
Influenced by Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Needs and personality are the result of a combination of: genetic factors and early childhood experiences Especially early parent-child relationships: Emotional concentration (overprotective or overdemanding); Avoidance (neglect or rejection); Acceptance (loving and casual) The nature of a person's early relationship with his/her parents produces a basic orientation of either: 'Toward Other People' or 'Not Toward Other People'
Holland's 6 Personality/Work Environment Types
(RIASEC) Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional
Criterion-Related Validity Steps
1. Conduct a job analysis 2. Select/develop the predictor that measures attributes identified by job analysis 3. Administer the predictor and criterion 4. Correlate predictor and criterion scores 5. Check for adverse impact 6. Evaluate incremental validity 7. Cross-Validate (perform steps 3-6 with a new sample)
Super's Self-Concept
A product of inherited aptitudes, physical makeup, and social learning experiences "Picture of self in some role, situation, or position, performing some set of functions, or in some web of relationships" Changes over an individual's life span but becomes more stable with increasing age Job satisfaction, stability, and success depend on the extent to which a job matches this term
Adverse Impact
A selection test or other employment procedure is discriminating against members of a legally protected group when use of that procedure results in a substantially different selection, placement, or promotion rate for members of that group.
Job/Task Analysis
A systematic method for collecting the information needed to describe/clarify job requirements (identify what must be done to perform job successfully): Basis for developing criterion measures Facilitates workforce planning and training program design Assists with decisions about job redesign Helps identify the causes of accidents and other safety-related problems Information about a job can be obtained by observing employees perform the job; interviewing employees, supervisors, and others familiar with the job; reviewing company records; having employees keep a job diary
Biographical Information Blank (BIB)
A type of empirically derived form containing multiple-choice questions that assess job history, family background, economic history, health, attitudes, values, etc.
Identical Elements
Degree of similarity between aspects of the learning and performance environments is maximized
Off-The-Job Training Techniques: Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages: Provide more opportunities to focus on and practice specific job elements, provide supplemental information, and use professional trainers Sufficient flexibility to tolerate learning errors Disadvantages: Low trainee motivation Restricted transfer of training Higher costs due to time off the job
Tiedeman & O'Hara Career Decision-Making Model - Phases
Anticipation Phase - Individual explores different career possibilities and eventually makes a career choice (Exploration, Crystallization, Choice, Specification) Implementation and Adjustment Phase - Individual enters the work situation and eventually becomes an established member of the workforce and achieves a balance between the demands of work and his/her own needs (Induction, Reformation, Integration) Stages can occur simultaneously and movement through the stages may be reversible
Interest Tests
Applicants whose interest profiles resemble those of successful employees will perform best on the job Usefulness of these tests as selection tools is limited Susceptible to faking Have been found to be more valid for predicting job choice, satisfaction, and persistence than job success
Conditions for Transfer of Training
Degree of similarity between aspects of the learning and performance environments is maximized (i.e., identical elements) General rules and principles are taught in addition to specific skills Training includes exposure to a variety of examples and other relevant stimuli Skills acquired in training are subsequently reinforced and supported on the job
Behavioral Modeling
Based on Bandura's social cognitive theory Learning is facilitated when a person observes a skilled worker perform the target behavior and is then provided with opportunities to practice the behavior Modeling is most effective in organizations when it utilizes a guided mastery approach: Modeling of the appropriate skills by the trainer; Guided skill mastery (role-playing in a simulated work environment with instructive feedback); Self-directed application of newly acquired skills on-the-job
Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory
Based on reinforcement theory and Bandura 'The maximum career development of all individuals requires each individual to be exposed to the widest array of learning experiences, regardless of race, gender, or ethnic origin' Primary goal of career counseling = facilitating 'the learning of skills, interests, beliefs, values, work habits, and personal qualities that enable each client to create a satisfying life within a constantly changing work environment' This approach DOES NOT focus on matching an individual's characteristics to job characteristics. Instead, the focus is on promoting continual learning & self-development, which enable a person to respond to changes in work requirements Career Belief Inventory is used to identify irrational, illogical beliefs that affect career-related decisions
Biographical Data
Best predictor of future behavior is past behavior Among the most valid predictors across organizations, occupations, and samples Validity is maximized when items are derived empirically Often contain items that lack face validity because they do not "look like" they are related to job performance. As a consequence, applicants may resist answering items because they perceive them to be an invasion of privacy
Personnel Psychology
Branch of industrial/organizational psychology concerned with activities and issues related to new and current employees in the following areas: Assessment Selection Placement Training
Taylor-Russell Tables
Can be used to estimate the % of new hires that will be successful as employees given various combinations of validity coefficients, selection ratios, and base rates When the selection ratio is low and the base rate is moderate, a predictor with a low validity coefficient can improve decision-making accuracy
Leaderless Group Discussion
Commonly used situational test Five or six participants work together without an assigned leader to solve a job-related problem or discuss a job-related issue
Summative Evaluation
Conducted after a program has been implemented in order to assess its outcomes May include determining how much trainees have learned and the program's cost effectiveness
Formative Evaluation
Conducted while a training program is being developed Results are used to make necessary modifications to the program before it is implemented
Criteria for choosing a job performance criterion measure
Consider: Information obtained from a job analysis Goals of the performance assessment Advantages and disadvantages of the various types of criterion measures
General Mental Ability Tests
Consistently produce the highest validity coefficients across jobs and job settings Review of the meta-analyses of published validity studies, average correlation coefficients of: .51 between GMA and job performance .56 between GMA and performance in job training programs Validity coefficients for measures of GMA vary somewhat, depending on the objectivity of the criterion .53 when the criterion is performance ratings .75 when the criterion is an objective measure of performance on a work sample
Realistic Job Preview
Disillusionment with jobs is a primary cause of turnover. The purpose of this procedure is to reduce unrealistic job expectations and thereby increase job satisfaction and commitment and lower turnover rates. May include: Written description of the job A video Discussions with current workers Work samples
Holland's Career Development Theory
Emphasizes the importance of matching an individual's personality to the characteristics of the work environment If there is a good personality-environment fit, person will be more satisfied, stay on the job longer, and be more productive Personality-environment match is most accurate as a predictor of job-related outcomes when there is a high degree of differentiation
Comparable Worth
Ensure people who perform comparable work receive comparable pay Involves using same job evaluation technique (usually a point system) for all jobs within an organization so that wages are established on the basis of each job's inherent value rather than on job title or who usually performs the job
Performance Assessments
Evaluation of job performance Facilitate decisions about employee raises and bonuses Provide employees with feedback about performance Help determine training needs Make decisions about promotions Validate selection procedures The identification of job performance (criterion) measures typically begins with a job analysis
Brousseau and Driver's 3 Career Concept Dimensions
Frequency of job change Direction of change Type of change in job content
Employment Predictors
General Mental Ability Tests Job Knowledge Tests Personality Tests Interest Tests Biographical Data Interviews Work Samples Assessment Centers
Krumboltz's 4 Factors that Influence Career Decisions
Genetic Endowment and Special Abilities (Artistic and athletic skills) Environmental Conditions and Events (Job opportunities, technological developments, and neighborhood/community influences) Learning Experiences (Instrumental Learning - learning resulting from rewards and punishments; Associative Learning - learning due to classical conditioning) Task Approach Skills (Result of an interaction between the other three factors)
Job Knowledge Tests
Good predictors of job performance Reported validity coefficients similar to or even larger than those for measures of GMA Job-specific = useful only when applicants have had previous job training or experience
Super's Life-Span Stages
Growth (0 to 14 years) Exploration (14 to 25 years) - Specifying, crystallizing, and implementing a career choice Establishment (25 to 45 years) Maintenance (45 to 65 years) - Securing one's occupational position and remaining competitive Disengagement (65 years and over) Each stage is characterized by a different set of developmental tasks
Brousseau and Driver's Career Concept Definition
How the person envisions his/her ideal career path
Organization Analysis
Identify organizational goals and determine if it is training that is needed to achieve those goals
Demographic Analysis
Identify the training needs of different groups of workers (e.g., older versus younger workers)
Incremental Validity
Increase in decision-making accuracy an employer will achieve by using the predictor to make selection decisions
On-The-Job Training Techniques: Examples
Internships Apprenticeships Mentoring Job Rotation Cross-Training
Job-Oriented Methods
Job Analysis: Provide information about the characteristics of the tasks that are performed on the job
Worker-Oriented Methods
Job Analysis: Provide information about the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that a worker needs to perform the job successfully
Off-The-Job Training Techniques: Examples
Lectures Conferences Computer-Assisted Instruction Vestibule Training Behavioral Modeling
Brousseau and Driver's 4 Career Concepts
Linear Career Concept - Progressive upward movement in terms of authority and responsibility Expert Career Concept - Lifelong commitment to occupational specialty and focus on developing knowledge and skills Spiral Career Concept - Periodic moves across occupational specialties or disciplines Transitory Career Concept - Frequent job changes, often to jobs in unrelated fields In the past, organizations ordinarily preferred linear and expert career concepts. Because of trend toward continuous internal change in organizations, spiral or transitory career concepts may be preferable. To maintain effectiveness, organizations must adopt a 'pluralistic career culture' that supports all the career concepts
Roe's Career Development Theory
Links a person's occupational choice to his/her basic needs and personality Individuals who are person-oriented seek careers that involve contact with others (e.g., Business Contact, Service) Individuals who are not person-oriented choose careers that require minimal contact with others (e.g., Science, Technology) People's strongest needs are a determinant of their preferred level of job complexity
Vestibule Training
Makes use of physical replication or simulation of the work environment Useful when on-the-job training would be too costly or dangerous
How to Reduce Impact of Unemployment
Maximizing communication with employees Explaining the criteria for deciding who will be laid off and who will remain Furnishing an outplacement program that provides laid-off employees with: Career and psychological counseling; Job search training; Administrative support during the job search process
Differential Validity and Adverse Impact
Measure is valid for one group but is not valid (or is significantly less valid) for another group The characteristic that distinguishes between the two groups is referred to as a moderator variable Remedies: Don't use the predictor Use a different predictor that is equally valid for members of both groups
Unfairness and Adverse Impact
Members of one group consistently obtain lower scores on the predictor than members of another group, but the difference in predictor scores is not related to differences in scores on the criterion Solution = Use different predictor cutoff scores for each group
Interviews
Most commonly used method for obtaining information about job applicants Generally have lower levels of reliability and validity than many other selection techniques Accuracy is increased by training interviewers in observation and interpersonal skills. Reliability and validity of interviews is maximized when a structured interview is used.Usefulness of structured interview is increased when it is combined with another selection procedure, especially measure of general mental ability. Behavior description interviews (which focus on actual situations that occurred in the applicant's past) are somewhat more valid than situational interviews (which ask applicants to respond to hypothetical situations), especially for complex jobs While some experts recommend using multiple interviewers (a panel or board interview), there is evidence that structured interviews are most reliable, valid, and cost-effective when they entail a single interviewer
Subjective Criterion Measures
Most frequently used to assess employee's job performance - usually take the form of ratings that reflect the judgment of the rater Ratings by an employee's immediate supervisor are the most common type of rating. Self-ratings tend to be the most lenient but are less susceptible to the halo bias. Supervisor ratings are generally the most reliable. Peer ratings are particularly good for predicting training success and subsequent promotions. Subordinate, peer, and supervisor ratings usually agree more with each other than with self-ratings Relative Techniques (Paired Comparison, Forced Distribution) Absolute Techniques (Critical Incident Technique, Forced Choice Rating Scale, Graphic Rating Scale)
On-The-Job Training Techniques: Advantages
Most widely used techniques for training Permit active participation and ongoing feedback Obvious job-relevance Provide maximum opportunities for transfer of training
Multiple Cutoff
Noncompensatory - a minimum score on each predictor must be obtained before a job applicant will be considered Can be used in conjunction with multiple regression. First select those people who score above the minimum cutoff point on all predictors. Use the multiple regression equation to predict each selected person's criterion score
Overlearning
Occurs when an individual practices a new skill or studies material beyond the point of mastery Promotes automaticity (the ability to perform a behavior or recall information quickly with little or no conscious attention) Originally a technique for remembering information that has little inherent meaning and must be remembered for a long time Especially useful when the information will be recalled infrequently or under stressful conditions Be careful not to confuse overlearning with overtraining (Overtraining is used in sports psychology and refers to physical and psychological stress resulting from excessive athletic training.)
80% (Four-Fifths) Rule
Often used to determine if a procedure is having an adverse impact The hiring rate for majority group is multiplied by 80% to determine minimum hiring rate for minority group Selection test results in 50% hiring rate for African Americans and 90% hiring rate for Whites (90% x 80% = 72.0%). 72% is greater than the hiring rate for African Americans (50%) = adverse impact Shortcoming = It can be used to determine if a person has been discriminated against only when he or she is a member of a specific group. For a finding of adverse impact, the 80% Rule requires that a pattern of discrimination be established.
Job Rotation
Organizational Development Intervention and On-The-Job Training Technique Having trainees perform several jobs over time Ordinarily used to train managers
Cross-Training
Organizational Development Intervention and On-The-Job Training Technique Teaching workers tasks and activities that are performed in several similar jobs
Base Rate
Percent of employees who are performing satisfactorily without use of the proposed predictor Ranges in value from 0 to 1.0 Moderate base rates (base rates close to .50) are associated with the greatest incremental validity When most of the employees being hired using current techniques are either highly successful or unsuccessful (i.e., when the base rate is very high or very low), the addition of a new predictor will have little effect on the quality of the work force. High - current selection procedure is adequate Low - something other than selection procedure is the problem since it's not likely that the current procedure is selecting the worst applicants (e.g., it may be that there aren't very many people who can perform the job successfully without first receiving adequate training)
Job Evaluation
Performed to determine the worth of jobs in order to set salaries and wages. Techniques emphasize identifying compensable factors (required skills and education; degree of autonomy and responsibility; consequences of errors)
Super's Career Maturity/Adaptability
Person's ability to cope with developmental tasks of his/her life stage Assessed with the Career Development Inventory Contributing factors include: Awareness of the need to plan ahead Decision-making skills Knowledge and use of information resources Familiarity with information about occupations
Multiple Regression
Predictor scores are weighted and summed to yield an estimated criterion score Each predictor's weight is determined by its correlation with the criterion and with the other predictors Compensatory since exceptional performance on one predictor can offset poor performance on another predictor
Multiple (Successive) Hurdles
Predictors are administered one at a time in a predetermined order, with each predictor being administered only if the previous one has been successfully passed or completed It saves time and money since all of the predictors are not administered to all individuals
In-Basket Test
Probably best known of the situational tests Requires participants to take action on letters, memos, brief reports, etc. that are typical of those actually encountered by managers
Job Loss Coping Strategies
Problem-Focused - managing or modifying the problem that is causing stress (Engaging in job search activities; Obtaining additional training to develop new marketable skills; Moving to a location that has better job opportunities). Linked to: A greater probability of reemployment and higher levels of psychological well-being and life-satisfaction Symptom (Emotion)-Focused - Regulating emotional response to the stressful event (venting, denial, disengagement, etc.); Attempting to obtain emotional support from family members and friends; Seeking financial assistance; Becoming involved in community activities
Principles of Effective Training
Provide Immediate and Ongoing Feedback Foster Overlearning Provide Frequent Opportunities for Active Practice Provide Opportunities for Distributed Practice Choose the Appropriate Learning Focus Promote Transfer of Training (improvement in actual on-the-job performance)
Objective Criterion Measures
Provide direct information about an employee's job performance Quantitative measures of production and certain types of personnel data (Ex. Units produced, sold, or rejected; Accidents, absenteeism, tardiness, and salary and promotion history) Often inadequate; may be biased by situational factors; many important aspects of job effectiveness cannot be assessed; measures are often unavailable for complex professional, managerial, and administrative jobs
Frame-of-Reference (FOR) Training
Provides raters with a common conception of: The multidimensional nature of job performance and what constitutes effective and ineffective performance on each dimension
Leniency/Strictness Bias
Rater tends to avoid the middle range of a rating scale and, instead, rates all employees as either high (leniency) or low (strictness) on all dimensions of job performance
Central Tendency Bias
Rater's consistent use of only the middle range of the rating scale
Halo Bias
Rater's evaluation of an employee on one dimension of job performance affects his/her evaluation of that employee on other unrelated dimensions or when the rater's general impression of an employee influences how the rater rates the employee on all dimensions of job performance. It can be positive or negative.
Selection Ratio
Ratio of job opening to job applicants 1:50 indicates there is one job opening for every fifty job applicants Low selection ratio (many applicants for one or a few jobs) is preferred since it allows an employer to be more selective when making hiring decisions Employer can raise the predictor cutoff score and thereby reduce risk of hiring false positives
Super's Life Career Rainbow
Relates an individual's major roles to the five life stages Useful for helping counselee recognize the impact of current and future roles and stages on career planning
Work Samples
Require an individual to perform tasks similar or identical to those actually performed on the job Most commonly used to select applicants for jobs requiring clerical, mechanical, or technical skills Most often used to evaluate the current ability of experienced applicants to perform the job Can be used with applicants who do not have previous experience in order to evaluate their capacity to benefit from training. Work samples include a structured period of learning and evaluation and are referred to as trainability tests.
Dawis and Lofquist's Theory of Work Adjustment
Satisfaction, tenure, and other job outcomes are the result of the correspondence between the worker and his/her work environment on satisfaction and satisfactoriness There is an interaction between a worker and his/her job: over time, the job affects the characteristics of the worker and the worker affects the demands of the job
Roe's Eight Basic Fields of Occupations
Service Business Contact Organization Technology Outdoor Science General Cultural Arts and Education Six levels of occupation complexity that range from unskilled to professional and managerial
Adverse Impact Defenses
The burden of proof lies with the defendant (the employer) to show that use of the procedure is not discriminatory. Business Necessity- Must not only prove that the measure is job-related but must also show that its use is required for the safe and efficient operation of the business Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ) - Gender is a BFOQ when: It's an essential determinant of the genuineness of the job (It would be acceptable to interview only men for a male role in a play) and a person's gender must be taken into consideration to maintain community standards of morality or propriety (It would be acceptable to interview only women for the position of women's restroom attendant)
Needs Assessment/Analysis
Training program development begins with this procedure which consists of four elements: An organization analysis A task (job) analysis A person analysis A demographic analysis
Forced Choice Rating Scale
Type of absolute technique (subjective criterion measure) Each item consists of two to four alternatives that are considered to be about equal in terms of desirability, and the rater selects the alternative that best or least describes the ratee Pro: It can help reduce rater biases Con: Time-consuming to develop and often disliked by raters
Critical Incident Technique
Type of absolute technique (subjective criterion measure) First, derive a checklist of critical incidents by having the supervisor observe employees while they work and record specific behaviors that are associated with outstanding and poor performance. Then, when using the technique for performance appraisal, the rater marks those items in the checklist that apply to ratee. Pro: It provides useful information for employee feedback Con: Its development requires close supervision of employees and accurate recordkeeping by the rater; It addresses only critical (extreme) job behaviors, not typical ones; It does not indicate the frequency or degree to which a behavior occurs
Graphic Rating Scale
Type of absolute technique (subjective criterion measure) Requires rater to indicate on a Likert-type scale the ratee's level of performance on one or several dimensions Con: Highly susceptible to rater biases Pro: Accuracy is improved when points on the scale are anchored with descriptions of specific job behaviors
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
Type of graphic rating scale (Type of absolute technique - subjective criterion measure) When developing BARS, supervisors or others familiar with the job: Identify several independent dimensions of job behavior (e.g., job knowledge, motivation, etc.); Identify several behavioral anchors (critical incidents) for each dimension; Order and number the behavioral anchors within each dimension from least to most positive/desirable When using BARS, the rater chooses the one behavior for each dimension that best describes the employee Pro: Can be easily used to provide employees with specific feedback about their job performance due to anchors; Increases inter-rater reliability and reduces rater biases Con: Amount of time required to develop the scale; Behavior anchors usually describe what the rater expects the employee to do and, therefore, do not necessarily indicate what behavior the rater has actually observed
Paired Comparison
Type of relative technique (subjective criterion measure) Rater compares each ratee with every other ratee in pairs on one or more dimensions of job performance Con: Becomes increasingly cumbersome to use as the number of ratees increases
Forced Distribution
Type of relative technique (subjective criterion measure) Similar to "grading on the curve" Involves assigning ratees to a limited number of categories based on a predefined normal distribution on one or more dimensions of job performance (Ex. Lowest 10%, next 20%, middle 40%, next 20%, highest 10%) Con: May yield erroneous data if the performance of ratees is not actually normally distributed
Absolute Techniques
Type of subjective criterion measure Provide information on ratee's performance without reference or comparison to other employees Pro: Overcome many of the problems associated with relative techniques Con: More susceptible to rater biases
Relative Techniques
Type of subjective criterion measure Require rater to compare the performance of two or more employees Pro: They can help alleviate rater biases Con: Force the rater to place some ratees at high or low performance levels, even when most or all employees are performing at about the same level; Prohibited by law for most federal jobs; Raters and ratees often dislike them; They are less useful for obtaining the information needed to provide employees with specific feedback
Job Performance Criterion Measure Characteristics
Ultimate (Conceptual/Theoretical) Criterion - Accurate and complete measure of performance (Ex. Provide effective therapeutic services) Actual Criterion - Way that performance is actually measured (Ex. Client survey of satisfaction with therapy) Relevance - Actual criterion's construct validity (degree to which it measures the ultimate criterion) Deficiency - Degree to which an actual criterion does not measure all aspects of the ultimate criterion (limits relevance) Contamination - Actual criterion assesses factors other than those it was designed to measure (limits relevance)
Effect of Unemployment
Unemployment is often followed by deterioration in mental and physical heath A small minority (10%) of the recently unemployed report an improvement in health following job loss Majority show signs of increased anxiety, depression, and stress as well as an increase in physical illnesses and injuries A return to paid employment is usually followed by a rapid improvement in health (evidence decline is 'effect' rather than 'cause')
Utility Analysis
Used in organizations to evaluate the effectiveness of training programs as well as other programs and procedures Involves using a mathematical equation to derive an estimate of the program's financial return on investment The following is one of several equations that are used to calculate the utility of a training program: U = T x N x d x SD - N x C U = utility measured in terms of dollar value T = number of years duration of the program's effects on job performance N = number of people trained d = effect size of training program in standard deviation units SD = standard deviation of job performance for untrained employees in dollars C = per person cost of training
Kirkpatrick's Four levels of Criteria
Used to asses the effectiveness of training programs Correlations between the four types of criteria are relatively low, which has led to the recommendation that evaluations of training programs include criteria from more than one type in order to obtain complete information about a program's effectiveness. Reaction Criteria - Evaluate participant's reactions to the program (e.g., satisfaction with the training experience). Not necessarily linked to job performance Learning Criteria - Evaluate how much participants actually learned from the training program Behavioral Criteria - Assess participants' change in performance when they return to the job Results Criteria - Assess the value of the training program in terms of the organization's goals. Usually the most important but the most difficult to develop and, resultantly, infrequently used
Assessment Centers
Used to evaluate managerial-level personnel, most often to: Determine if lower-level managers should be promoted to higher-level positions; Identify a manager's needs for training and personal development Participants are evaluated by a team of evaluators on a number of dimensions (e.g., leadership, oral/written communication, decision-making, flexibility, cooperativeness) Variety of techniques are used (structured interviews, written tests, and situational tests [work samples, in-basket test, leaderless group discussion])
Dawis and Lofquist's Work Values Assessment
Used to help individuals identify occupations that fit their needs and values Assesses 21 work needs that correspond to 6 work values: Achievement Independence Recognition Relationships Support Working Conditions
Personality Tests
Useful predictors in organizational settings Studies are not entirely consistent with regard to the relative validities of global and specific personality traits Of the Big Five personality traits, conscientiousness has been found to be the best predictor of job performance across different jobs, job settings, and criterion measures
Super's Life Space
Various social roles an individual adopts at different points during his/her life (e.g., child, student, worker, citizen)
Tiedeman & O'Hara Career Decision-Making Model - Theory
Vocational identity development is an ongoing process that is tied to ego identity development and involves the repetitive processes of differentiation and integration (Ego identity is described in terms of Erikson's psychosocial stages). A primary focus of career counseling is helping people become consciously aware of the factors that contribute to the decisions they make at each stage so that they are better able to make choices that are based on full knowledge of themselves and relevant external factors
Learning Focus (Whole vs. Part)
Whole learning involves presenting and practicing the entire task at once (Most effective for tasks that are low in complexity but high in organization) Part learning involves initially presenting and practicing the parts of the task and subsequently combining the parts (Most effective for tasks that are high in complexity but low in organization)
Downsizing Effects
Workers who remain on the job may exhibit Survival Syndrome (Depression, anxiety, guilt, stress-related illnesses, and decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment) Consequences of downsizing for survivors have been linked to several factors, including: Degree to which fair and compassionate procedures are used during the layoff process and whether survivors interpret downsizing as a violation of the 'psychological contract' (beliefs that employees have about the unwritten contract between themselves and their employer)
