PHIL Review #4 (Final Review)
Immanuel Kant (1725-1804):
an example of deontological theorist; see himself as an explorer of inner mind - philosophical exploration
What does it mean to say that something has absolute worth?
an intrinsic value (a kind of value that remains even if no other beings exist to place value on it.) that does not depend on someone else valuing it.
Actually George Washington:
barked the cherry tree; making it die -told truth about hurting tree and his dad didn't punish him due to telling the truth which is hardest thing to do
According to Socrates, what is the most important thing in life?
caring for your soul
Which type of imperatives are moral commands?
categorical imperatives
Derivative Ethical Judgements:
combines a fundamental judgment with particular facts to make a judgement about a particular case
According to Mill, how should we distinguish between higher and lower quality pleasures?
competent judges / qualified judges
What kinds of commands are hypothetical imperatives?
conditional commands "if you desire _____, then you should do _____"
What does Kant think is the strongest of natural desires?
desire for life and to avoid death
hypothetical imperatives:
desire/condition commands "If you desire _________, then you should do ________"
Practical Motives:
doing something so save someone only to get an award
Example: Osama BinLaden on beach in chair:
falls asleep and dies before you can do anything about it
Fundamental Ethical Judgements:
general moral principles that don't depend on specific facts about a situation
What are qualified goods? Why is their good qualified?
gifts of nature are qualified goods. things that are used for good. - gifts of nature that can also be used for bad and michevious things. - they qualify as good because they have the capacity to be bad.
Rational Agency (Beings):
have the faculty of acting according to the conception of laws, that is according to principles, i.e., have a will
I.E. Gandhi:
"Be the change you want to see in the world." -your thinking yourself as a role model
(Quote) Aristotle:
"Every argument has to begin somewhere, and it is the mark of an uneducated person not to realize it."
Quote:
"The dries to have life and avoid death is the strongest of the natural desires."
Jewish Proverb:
"The true act of charity is done unanimously, if even god were not watching"
What are the words on Kant's tombstone:
"Two things fill the mind ever new and increasing awe and admiration the more frequently and continuously reflection is occupied with them: the starred heaven above and the moral law within."
Located on Tombstone:
"Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing awe and admiration the more frequently and continuously reflection is occupied with them: the starred heaven above and the moral law within."
What does Kant see as the proper relationship between duty and happiness?
- To secure one's own happiness is a duty, at least indirectly, for discontent with one's condition, under a pressure of many anxieties and amidst unsatisfied wants, might easily become a great temptation to transgression of duty. - but all men have already the strongest and most intimate inclination to happiness, because it is just in this idea that all inclinations are combined into one total. - one should promote their happiness not from inclination but from duty, and by this would his conduct first acquire true moral worth.
What does he mean by "rational agent"?
- rational beings alone have the faculty of acting according to the conception of laws. (have a will) and can only be rational beings. now that which serves the will as the objective ground of its self- determination is the end, and if this is assigned by reason alone, it must hold for all rational beings.
(Metaphysics (as used in the title of Kant's book):
- speculation of reality beyond what our reality can tell us. * nonemprical part of morals.
What are the points of Kant's story of the man summoned by the King?
- we have the capacity in ourselves to do whats right, even when facing death. Which the power to do right is more powerful than our natural desire for life. - ability to overcome the fear of death
What question is Kant trying to answer in formulating the Practical Imperative?
-How is it possible for there to be a moral law that applies to everyone?-How is it possible for there to be a Categorical Imperative? -How is it possible for there to be a fundamental principle of morality that holds true for all people?
Categorical Imperatives:
1. Duties toward ourselves 2. "Golden Rule" Duties toward others
What are the 7 factors of Bentham's Hedonic Calculus?
1. Intensity- how strong is the pleasure/ pain 2. Duration- how long does it last 3. Certainty or Uncertainty- how likely? 4. Propinquity or remoteness- how soon will it occur? 5. Fecundity- the chance the sensation will be followed by more of the same kind 6. Purity- chance the sensation will be followed by the opposite 7. Extent- # of people affected
Objections to "Golden Rule":
1. What if you are a mathiscist? 2. It is okay to have pain...
What, basically, are his arguments of each examples of duty?
1. unfortunate man wants to commit suicide. then thinks if it should be a universal law. his maxim is : from self-love i adopt it as a principle to shorten my life when its longer duration is likely to bring more evil than satisfaction. - that maxim cannot exist as a universal law of nature, it would be inconsistent with the supreme principle of all duty. 2. the maxim: when i think myself in want of money, i will borrow money and promise to repay it although i know that i never can do so. - for supossing this to be a universal law would be a contradiction.the promise itself would become impossible. 3. man has a talent that with the help of culture could make him useful, but his is content in his ways. his maxim is neglecting his natural gift. - he cannot possibly will that this should be a universal law, be as a rational being he wills that his faculties be developed since they serve him and have been given him, for all sorts of purposed. 4. a man who wishes to not contribute anything to his welfare or to his assistance in distress. -if this were a universal law the human race might very well subsist and betrays and cheats the rights of men. It is impossible that such a principle should have the the universal validity of a law of nature
2 Primary ways of treating another person as a mere "means to an end":
1.Deception 2.Force
What is THE categorical Imperative? (First formulation)
Act as if the maxim of your action were to become by your will a universal law of nature
The Categorical Imperative: Final Formulation (3rd):
Act as if you were legislating for a kingdom of ends. I.E. Act as if, by your action, you were choosing the maxims that everyone would follow in a kingdom of beings that have absolute value.
Universal Law:
Act/behavior guided by rule in which all act simultaneously in same manner.
Kant Important Question:
Are you treating people with respect?
What is the Greek word for virtue?
Arete
Who argues that virtue is a "mean between extremes"?
Aristotle
Happiness is not the most important thing:
Being a good person is the most important
What sorts of beings does Kant consider "things"?
Beings whose existence depends not on our will but on nature's, have nevertheless, if they are irrational beings, only a relative value as means, and are therefore called things.
Which theory would say that animals should have rights because they experience pleasure and pain?
Bentham Utilitarianism
Person A says that a certain action is wrong because it's unnatural. Person B responds by listing unnatural acts that are good. What method is Person B using to prove that 's argument is invalid?
Counter Example Method
Kant's ethical theory is usually considered an example of what kind of ethical thinking (deontological or teleological):
Deontological - ignores consequences and focuses on other factors.
Which view holds that morality is just an illusion; i.e. that there is no such thing as "right" or "wrong"?
Ethical Nihilism
Which view holds that, although there are no moral judgements that are universally true, there are moral judgments that are true within particular societies?
Ethical Relativism
What are the two types of qualified goods Kant mentions?
Gifts of Nature: things we are born with (intelligence) Gifts of Fortune: things we earn/are given in life (power)
What is the one unqualified good? Why?
Good will because it is the only good that cannot be corrupted and that leads all other goods down the path of good
What is the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperatives?
Hypothetical- the practical necessity of a possible action as meant to something else that is willed. Categorical- would be that which represented an action as necessary of itself without reference to another end -moral command
What is the Justice Objection to Utilitarianism?
It is okay to sacrifice an a honest individual if it gives enough pleasure to others
According to Kant, a good will is a will motivated to perform an action because .... ?
It is the right thing to do.
What, basically, does the Categorical Imperative mean?
It is the ultimate, unconditional command; the most fundamental moral principle from which all other moral principles must be deduced -act as if as a result of one's choice that everyone will act that way.
Who said, "it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied?
John Stuart Mill
Who said "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law?"
Kant
Who thought that the one thing which can be called good without qualification is a good-will?
Kant
On Moral Psychology:
Kant: Acts motivated by a desire to do good are possible: i.e. there is such a thing as a good will. Bentham: All acts are motivated only by a desire for pleasure and/or to avoid pain; i.e. there is no such thing as a good will.
The Moral Universe:
Kant: All rational agents (beings with free will) are part of the moral universe. Bentham: All beings that experience pleasure and pain are part of the moral universe.
On Ends and Means:
Kant: Ends do not justify the means: i.e. it is always wrong to treat a person merely as a means toward an end. Bentham: Ends may justify the means: i.e. it may be permissible to treat a person merely as a means toward an end if doing so promotes a greater amount of happiness overall.
On Free-Will:
Kant: Free-Will is a fundamental fact upon which all of morality rests. Bentham: Free-Will is irrelevant: i.e. it doesn't matter to Bentham's theory whether or not humans have free-will.
On Political Freedom:
Kant: Freedom is a fundamental value, b/c only freely chosen moral acts have unqualified value. Bentham: Freedom is valuable only insofar as it promotes happiness.
On Happiness:
Kant: Happiness is valuable insofar as it promotes freedom (i.e. insofar as it makes freely chosen moral acts easier). Bentham: Happiness is valuable in itself.
On Animals:
Kant: In principle, unless animals are rational agents, humans are more valuable than animals: i.e. humans have absolute value, animals do not. Bentham: In principle, humans are not more valuable than animals, because both are capable of suffering.
On Morality and Science:
Kant: Morality must be shown to be possible despite science. Bentham: Morality itself can be turned into a science.
On Motives:
Kant: Only an act motivated by a good will is truly good. Bentham: Motives are irrelevant. All that matters is how people act.
The Fundamental Moral Principle:
Kant: The Categorical Imperative: i.e. Act the way you would have others act; never use any person as a mere means to an end. Bentham: The Principle of Utility: i.e. Act the way that will make everyone you affect as happy as possible.
On Rights:
Kant: The concept of "rights is an expression of the absolute value possessed by all persons. Bentham: The concept of natural rights is "nonsense on stilts"; however, legal rights are convenient fictions, valuable insofar as they promote happiness.
Whose statement of the Categorical Imperative does Dr. Reilly refer to as most eloquent?
Mahatma Gandhi--"You must be the change you want to see in the world"
Murdering a person is wrong. Bob is an innocent person. Therefore:
Murdering Bob is wrong. -Derivative Ethical Judgement
What is Kant's view regarding the making of a lying promise?
No because promises would be meaningless
What is the Principle of Non-Contradiction?
No statement can be both true and false at the same time
How is it possible for there to be a moral law?
Only if there is something that has ABSOLUTE VALUE (an end in itself) will it be possible for there to be a supreme moral law. (and categorical imperative)
What does Kant think makes a person worthy of happiness?
Power, riches, honor, and even health, and the general well-being and contentment with one's condition. - A good will makes a person worthy of happiness.
Who said "Man is the measure of all thing"?
Protagarus
The Categorical Imperative: Second Formulation:
So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as AN END WITHAL, NEVER AS MEANS ONLY. (as having absolute value, not as having relative value) = (treat them as a person and not an object; never merely as a means to an end.) EX: slavery
What does he think the story shows about human nature:
That even in the face of death rational beings have the capacity to do what is right
What is Kant's final formulation of the Categorical Imperative:
The Categorical Imperative + The Golden Rule; act as if you were legislating for a Kingdom of Ends
What is the difference between the Categorical Imperative and the Golden Rule?
The Golden rule- Do unto others as you would have them do unto you-- concerns only our behavior toward others. Kant believes the C. I. is broader than that, he believes it prescribes duties toward oneself as well. - Kant believes the golden rule includes how you should treat others, but doesn't mention how you would treat yourself, which the Categorical imperative does.
What does Kant mean when he says we should not treat rational beings merely as means?
To treat a person "as means only" would mean that you are not respecting that person's rights to choose for him/herself whether or not he/she wants to serve you. This means, in other words, that if you take away from the person's freedom to choose== by using force (you hold a gun to their head) or deception (you tell them you will pay them, when in fact you intend to sneak out without paying) = you are failing to treat them with the respect they deserve as rational beings
How are you suppose to know if it is right thing to do?
Whether or not a choice is good depends on the imperative that the governs the action.
What is Kant's view regarding our duty to help others?
Yes, we have a duty b/c if we needed help then we would want help from others
What is the difference between a good will and a will motivated by practical concerns?
a good will is done based solely on the fact that it is the right thing to do, and a motivated one is based on the idea that they will get something out of it.
Does the value of a good will depend on its effects?
a good will is good not because of what it performs or effects, not by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end, but simply by virtue of the volition; that is, it is good in itself and considered by itself is to be esteemed much higher than all that can be brought about by it in favor of any inclination, nay even of the sum total of all inclinations
Imperative:
a statement that tells you what you must do. EX: "Do your Homework" and "though shall not kill"
What are imperatives?
a statement that tells you what you must do. EX: "Do your Homework" and "though shall not kill"
What is a goodwill?
a will that chooses to do the right thing, b/c its the right thing.
The Categorical Imperative: 1st Formulation:
act according to that rule which you could choose that everyone would follow
(Supreme) The Categorical Imperative:
act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time choose that it should become a universal law
Ends-in-Themselves:
it is something which has value in itself, apart from whether or not someone wants to make use of it. It is something more than just a tool, more than just an object that a person may use for his or her own purposes.
What does it mean to say that something is an end in itself?
it is something which has value in itself, apart from whether or not someone wants to make use of it. It is something more than just a tool, more than just an object that a person may use for his or her own purposes.
Relative Value:
its value is relative to certain individuals
What does it mean to say that something has relative worth?
its worth is dependent upon someone placing value one it. An object only has value to a person that values it. a value is dependent upon the needs and desire of different individuals
What sorts of beings does Kant think have absolute value? Why does he think they have this value?
man and generally any rational being. Human beings, in other words, have absolute value. They have value in themselves , precisely because they are rational beings. -rational beings alone have the faculty of acting according to the conception of laws, that is according to principles, i.e. have a will.
Ethics is the part of philosophy that studies....?
morality - principle standards that tells us how to live
The reality of a goodwill is:
most revealed in stories
What exactly is a "metaphysics of morals"?
nonempirical part of morals, they are independent from experience. - Fundamental ethical judgement = basic moral principles that don't depend on an particular facts.
A man and a king certain house:
ordinary an mid 30's; respected within community; goes into bad place; argues with himself; resists; then cycle repeats tomorrow; guards are at door next day; then saying will be executed if going inside; next day the king is evil; calls for favor for hero to execute this man for having relationship with the girl he likes; What should he do?; Do it, or say no; live as monster or die as a good person
According to Bentham, what are the two sovereign masters of humanity?
pain and pleasure
What sorts of beings must be treated as "ends-in-themselves" according to Kant?
rational beings
What sorts of beings does he consider "ends in themselves"?
rational beings, persons. because there very nature points them out as ends in themselves. that is as something which must not be used merely as means.
What, according to Plato, are the 3 parts of the soul?
reason, spirit, appetite
Doing the right thing may:
result in bad results
Maxim:
rule/saying the expression of your intention as a rule (Kant's meaning) -rule of a behavior, they tell us how to live. When you're faced w/ a choice ask yourself what am I going to do? Would everyone act this way? Yes? Do it No? Don't do it. GOLDEN RULE
What does Kant mean by the phrase "ends in themselves"?
something whose existence has in itself an absolute value, something which could be a source of definite law
What does he think is necessary in order for there to be an objective moral law?
something with absolute moral value. - something that has value in itself, apart from the needs or desires of others
What four examples of duties does Kant discuss in the FPMM?
suicide, lying promises, duty to help others, improve yourself
What does Kant call the Practical Imperative?
supreme practical law- act as if the maxim of your action were to become by your will a universal law.
Deception:
take away their freedom by manipulating their understanding
Force:
take away their freedom using the threat of violence
What is the Practical Imperative?
that in all of our actions we must treat people (including ourselves) as beings that have absolute worth: we are not permitted to treat them as objects. Rational agents in whatever form they may take, have value in themselves, and must not be used merely as means for our own purposes.
Kant believed that:
the average person understood his philosophy
Fundamental Principle of the METAPHYSICS OF MORALS:
the non-empirical part of morality (fundamental judgements)
What are the two things that fill the mind with wonder the more one contemplates them:
the starred heaven above and the moral law within
Means-to-ends:
the word "end' is similar to purpose or goal. so an end is something a person values and wants to obtain or achieve. If that object or action will help a person achieve a desired end.
What does it mean to say that something is a means to an end?
the word "end' is similar to purpose or goal. so an end is something a person values and wants to obtain or achieve. If that object or action will help a person achieve a desired end.
Why does Kant think that true stories of heroes are the most important part of moral education:
they show the reality of a good will and that a good will is not just fantasy
According to Jeremy Bentham, what is the purpose of punishment?
to deter crimes
categorical imperatives:
unconditional/ultimate commands "Do _______ Don't do _____"
What kinds of commands are categorical imperatives?
unconditional/ultimate/absolute commands "Do this ________ Don't do ________"
End-In-Itself:
value
Absolute Value:
value in itself apart from any needs/desires of others
How does Kant interpret the command, in Scripture, to love our neighbor, and even our enemies?
we don't have to love (as in affection) our neighbors and enemies because that love cannot be controlled but we do have to care enough for them to help if they need it For love, as an affection, cannot be commanded, but beneficence for dutys sake may; even thug we are not impelled to it by any inclination- nay, are even repelled by a natural and unconquerable aversion. This is practical love and not pathological- a love which is seated in the will, and not in the propensions of sense- in principles of action and not of tender sympathy; and it is this love alone which can be commanded
Human Dignity:
we have something that we have that is different than animals
What is akrasia:
weakness of the will
Akrasia:
weakness of will Ex: Addict
I.E. Act the way:
you would have others act.
