Philosophy Exam 2

Utilitarianism

Actions are right so long as the principle/maxim brings about the most pleasure for a group - singer's position (most common) (Not on list - Singer - Utilitarian Defense of Animal Liberation)

Basic Principle of Equality

Equality of consideration, even if it leads to different treatment of rights. Singer - Utilitarian Defense of Animal Liberation

Humane Utilitarianism

- Disapproves of (deplores) the suffering of animals - Only cares about individual species - States obligations to animals are two-fold -- 1. animals are in distress 2. humans have ability and obligation to remove them

2018 Report by Standing Rock Sioux Tribe

- Drafted on Feb. 21st 2018 in response to 2017 oil spill from Dakota Access Pipeline in North Dakota - Documentation of significant impacts on sensitive waterland habitants, shellfish, mammals, and big game. - Decrease in subsidence hunting and fishing by tribal members. This also affects tribes ability to provide for members and maintain cultural norms. - The work on Oahe Dam and reservoir to construct the pipeline led to loss of 56,000 acres of wooded Missouri River bottomlands. - DAPL corps of engineers lacked a detailed spill plan and instead used informal calculations to approach a "best case" approach. - By ignoring or suppressing known costs for the sake of economic capital, DAPL continues to cost the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe inequitable economic and ecological outcomes. - On August 31st, 2018, the U.S. army corps of engineers affirmed it's original decision to issue a construction permit for the Dakota Access Pipeline.

Doctrine of (Christian) Discovery

- Established sovereign rights in colonial settler-states, often at the economic, political, and environmental detriment of its original inhabitants. - Soon become legal basis in the US - used to deny land claims by native/indigenous people. - Scott - DAPL and the Doctrine of Native Genocide

Colonialism

- Establishment, expansion, and maintenance of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. - Change of culture, language, customs, religion, etc. - Change of ecosystems, waterways, etc. - Exploitation is a term that connects Whyte and Scott

Tim Scott - The DAPL and the Doctrine of Native Genocide

- Genocide of native/indigenous peoples in North America is directly linked through a legal history rooted in settler colonialism. - Doctrine of christian discovery - Settler-colonialism operates to "destroy and replace" native and indigenous people globally, even at the expense of settlers' own uses of the environment

Tragedy of the Commons

- John Locke, Second Treatise - chapter 5, "on property" - A theory that states that in a shared-resource environment, individuals will act in self-interest and engage in depletion and exploitation of shared resources. - Global vs. Country's own resources

Environmental Ethics

- Overall unit topic - How ought we treat nature and the environment and how do these relate to socio-political issues - Descriptive -- normative -- action & activism - Concerned with endangerment of species (Sagoff) - Supports hunting in the sustainment of wilderness (Sagoff)

#NoDAPL Events

- The Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) is a $3.7 billion project to transport crude oil from North Dakota to Illinois. - 1,172 miles and would transport 470,000 barrels of oil per day - The local Standing Rock Sioux Tribe and allies in North Dakota opposed the pipeline due to risk of water contamination in case of an oil spill. - DAPL construction would ruin sacred lands, burial sites, and could contaminate the water supply for the tribe from Missouri River. - Leaders also argued that the construction violated the UN's declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples. - Tribal leaders argued they weren't properly consulted, and while the pipeline was temporarily halted, it was completed in April 2017, and became commercially operational on June 1st, 2017.

Climate Debt

- The idea that wealthier nations pay reparations to poorer nations for the current climate crisis. - Moral indictment for their selfishness and inaction for their part in the issue - Klein - Climate Rage

Consumer Capitalism and Ecological Crisis

1. Hardin: Wealthy nations should only care about their own needs and ability to care for themselves Angus and Butler: The capital and wealth that "first nations" have is only due to their extraction from poorer nations - imperialism and colonialism 2. Hardin: Needs of a nation are determined by population Angus and Butler: Wealthier consume far past population needs - Americans are 5-7% of global population but consume 24-25% of global resources - Population isn't just about people 3. Hardin: The Ratchet Effect is nature's way balancing population Angus and Butler: This has nothing to do with population, but an unequal distribution of resources 4. Hardin: Life boat ethics is necessary to halt the growing resource crisis Angus and Butler: There is not a resource crisis as there is a management crisis

Settler Colonialism

A form of colonialism that has settlers arriving on indigenous/native land and making that land a source of a "home" and source of capital - economic, political, social, and environmental factors (Specific type of colonialism) Whyte - DAPL, Environmental Justice, and US Colonialism

Moral Community

A group of individuals who respect eachother's right to equal treatment and interest with equal consideration. Sagoff - Animal Liberation and Environmental Ethics

Spaceship Model

An ethic used to depict the idea of mutually sharing the earth's resources (Not on list - Hardin - Lifeboat Ethics)

Perfect Storm

An event created by an unusual combination of independently harmful factors and results in substantial, possibly catastrophic and negative outcomes. Gardiner - The Perfect Moral Storm

Humanitarian Ethic

Appreciation for the welfare of animals, not nature. Sagoff - Animal Liberation and Environmental Ethics

Egalitarianism

Argument that all beings are equal and deserve equal treatment. (Not on list - Singer - Utilitarian Defense of Animal Liberation)

Prisoner's Dilemma

Both parties choose their own decisions to protect themselves at the expense of the other party/person.

Shared Resources

Circle - Global, each nation portioned an amount vs. Square - Country's own resources, shared resources on individual land

Ecological Community

Community tied by biological relationships and interdependent connections in life. Sagoff - Animal Liberation and Environmental Ethics

Speciesism

Discrimination based on species type that leads to exploitation. Singer - Utilitarian Defense of Animal Liberation

Hurricane Dorian Case Study

Dorian's Damage in the Bahamas: - Category 5 hurricane on September 1-3, 2019. - 45% of homes on grand Bahamas and Abacos were severely damaged or destroyed (13,000 homes). - 76,000 people displaced. - Parts of Bahamas had 35 inches of rain - mass flooding on roadways and highways - At least 70 deaths and 280 still missing - Damage at $7 billion USD - 14.8% of citizens below poverty line - low income areas hit by Dorian - 14.4% unemployed and cannot be rebuilt Notes: - Scientists have linked growing strength of hurricanes due to rising level of greenhouse gases - Both Gardiner and Klein agree that developed nations have a moral obligation to aid poorer nations in their efforts to tackle the effects of climate change in their countries - Hardin disagrees (sensitivity).

Climate Justice

Idea that it's ethically wrong for some groups of people to suffer the detrimental effects of climate change and not others. Whyte - DAPL, Environmental Justice, and US Colonialism

Environmental Imagination

Our collective ability to imagine and pursue a variety of productive responses to our environmental problem. Maniates - Individualization

Mark Sagoff - Animal Liberation and Environmental Ethics

Question: How do animal ethics align with environmental consideration? (think piece) Main Points: 1. Need to consider the differences between moral and ecological communities 2. Differences in environmental ethics (ecological communities) and humane utilitarianism - Humane utilitarianism deplore the suffering of animals - Environmental ethics concerned with endangerment of species, humane utilitarianism only care about individual species - Environmental ethics support hunting in the sustainment of wilderness - Humane utilitarianism states obligations to animals two-fold: 1. animals are in distress 2. humans have ability and obligation to remove 3. Two basic rights that humans have that can be/should be extended to animals -- 1. Right to physical security 2. Right to minimum subsistence 4. If we want to protect the rights we discussed in #3, then we need to relieve animal suffering in nature, where most of it occurs. Conclusion: A humanitarian ethic won't help us understand or justify an environmental ethic. - The humanitarian ethic is either too big or does not list specific duties. Terms: Moral community, ecological community, humanitarian ethic

Kyle Whyte - DAPL, Environmental Injustice and U.S. Colonialism

Question: How does colonialism affect our understanding of environmental injustice? Thesis: The #NoDAPL movement in North Dakota is an issue of land rights, sovereignty, and climate justice. Main Points/Supporting Claims: 1. Climate change scientists show indigenous peoples will likely suffer more than any other community from environmental conditions. - Some of the first climate refugees. 2. We must consider the relation of colonialism to environmental rights, especially when we are considering land policies. - U.S. colonialism has impacted the ways in which indigenous peoples are able to govern themselves internally and their territories. - Standing Rock Sioux Tribe. 3. U.S. colonialism has permitted the development and expansion of extractive industries that are often at the root of environmental issues. 4. Climate change also opens indigenous areas to colonial exploitation from access to resources such as oil. 5. Climate change has also negatively affected the ways in which indigenous people are able to relate to the land and animals. Conclusion: Non-indigenous environmentalists can only be allies to indigenous climate justice issues if and only if they also work toward decolonization, rather than just aligning with indigenous people over single issues. Additionally, climate injustice against indigenous peoples is directly related to U.S. colonialism.

Climate Rage

The anger from developing nations on continually having to pay the price for developed nations' vast depletion and exploitation of global natural resources. Klein - Climate Rage

Environmental Consumerism

The more green products we buy, the better off the earth will be. Maniates - Individualization

Decolonization

The repatriation of land to indigenous and native people, and the return to the native/indigenous customs, laws, and care of the land. Whyte - DAPL, Environmental Justice, and US Colonialism

The Ratchet Effect

The self correcting process of human population Ex: famine and disease - only disrupted by our efforts to levitate these issues Hardin - Lifeboat Ethics

Michael F. Maniates - Individualization: Plant a Tree, Buy a Bike, Save the World?

Thesis: Individualization is a largely American concept that puts us at risk of stunting our environmental imagination. Main Points: 1. When considering environmental responsibility as an individual responsibility, we turn our attention away from the role of institutions. - This prevents us from using collective power to address this. 2. The other risk is the limiting of our environmental imagination. - Limits our perspective by confining our abilities, responsibilities, and agency for change. - Puts us as consumers first and citizens second. 3. In our struggle to bridge the gap between our morals and practice, "we like to stay busy." - We continue to consume, but in a more "just way." - While consumption is obviously an issue, this mentality is still needed to sell "green products." 4. Environmental groups encourage action, but it is usually limited (donations, letters, etc.) 5. Privatization and individualization of environmental responsibility allow us to shift blame from institutions to individuals (flight from politics). Conclusion: If we are really worried about the ecological crisis, then we need to expand our environmental imaginations. Terms: Individualization of responsibility, environmental imagination, environmental consumerism.

Garrett Hardin - Lifeboat Ethics

Thesis: Instead of conceiving the of the spaceship model, we should use the metaphor of lifeboats when considering the relationship between wealthy and poor nations. Main Points: 1. Lifeboat scenario: 50 people in a lifeboat (wealthy nations), boat carries 60, 100 people in the sea (poorer nations). Lifeboat options: 1. Take on all 100, so 150 people in lifeboat -- over capacity and everyone dies. 2. Take on 10, involves discrimination and admittance -- 90 die. *3. Admit no one and preserve the safety factors.* 2. Needs of people are determined by population. - Life boats of poorer nations are too full. 3. The sharing model (spaceship model) leads to catastrophe when there is no responsibility to maintain it. - Preference for private, tragedy of the commons, lack of ownership = lack of responsibility = depletion of resources = disaster 4. Institutions like the world food bank only alleviate the "emergency" of other countries by producing for them. - If the poorer nations can't fend for themselves that's their own fault. - Also participates in environmental pressures. 5. Immigration ruins the commons of richer nations by depleting resources. Conclusion: In order to guarantee our own posterity (US) we must govern our actions with life boat ethics. Notes/Summary: - Wealthy nations should only care about their own needs and ability to care for themselves - Needs of a nation are determined by population - The Ratchet Effect is natures way of balancing population - Life boat ethics is necessary to halt the growing resource crisis Terms: Spaceship model, Ratchet effect

Naomi Klein - Climate Rage

Thesis: It is the moral responsibility of wealthier nations to pay "climate debt" to poorer nations. Main Points: 1. American environmentalists treat global warming as if all will be affected equally, so will need to collectively work to save the planet. However, 75-80% of the damage from the climate crisis will be seen in developing nations. - Only contribute 1/3 of global emissions, while developed nations contribute a little over 2/3. - Climate debt would require all the costs of adapting to climate change and to more "green" ecology to those who created the crisis. 2. Developed nations, which are less than 25% of the global population, have emitted more than 70% of all greenhouse gas pollution. - U.S. alone responsible for consuming 1/4 of global resources, while only composing about 5% of the global population. 3. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change was passed by 192 countries (including the US), stated that the largest share of the historical and current global emissions originated in developed countries. - The actions needed to fix this problem should be on these countries to fix it. 4. Three-fold solution to paying climate debt - 1. Rich nations need to pay poorer nations the cost for adapting to climate change. - Poorer nations pay about $100 billion annually due to costs of climate change. - Money needs to not be diverted from other emergency funds, and should be given as grants, not loans (ex: amazon). 2. Rich nations need to make deep cuts to their own emission levels, to "make space for developing nations." 3. Rich nations need to pay poorer nations the cosy of skipping fossil fuel usage and going straight to cleaner alternatives (which also need to be adapted by richer nations). Conclusion: If climate debt is not paid, then developed countries will find themselves facing climate rage from developing countries. - Climate debt is a matter of duty. Terms: Climate debt, climate rage

Simon Butler and Ian Angus - Is the Environmental Crisis Caused by the 7 Billion or the 1%?

Thesis: Rather than focus on population restriction, we should be concerned with the consumption of the global elite (1%). Main Points: 1. Even with the population boom, most of the environmental crises are cause by for profit corporations. 2. If you look at the global elite, they have the most stock in these companies, which leads them to consume, control, and destroy more than the remaining population. - Ex: environmental costs of war. 3. While the population is a concern, this needs to be solved with an improvement to human welfare. If we don't, the crises will continue. 4. The Too Many People argument only serves as a form of misdirection away from the actions of the global elite. Conclusion: The current capitalist system and the global elite are at fault for the ecological crisis. - Need to consider how this factors into our normative ethics. Notes/Summary: - Life expectancy is lower in poorer countries. - Land zoning. - The capital and wealth that "first nations" have is only due to their extraction from poorer nations - imperialism and colonialism - Wealthier consume far past population needs - Americans are 5-7% of the global population, but consume about 24-25% of global resources - Population isn't just about people - Has nothing to do with population, but an unequal distribution of resources - There is not a resource crisis as there is a management crisis

Stephan M. Gardiner - A Perfect Moral Storm: Climate Change, Intergenerational Ethics, and the Problem of Moral Corruption

Thesis: The peculiarity of the climate change issue leads us to be susceptible to moral corruption. 1. Global and Intergenerational Storms -- Dispersion of Causes and Effects: - Climate change is a global phenomenon and its impacts are unequally spread across the globe. Some areas will be at a higher risk of destruction than others. - Climate change is also a "lagged" phenomenon. Rising sea levels and the green house gas effects take several years, even decades, to be fully observed and calculated. Fragmentation of Agency: - Climate change is caused by a vast number of individuals and institutions. Tragedy of the commons/prisoner's dilemma - not about knowing the right thing to do, but enforcing action. Institutional Inadequacy: - There is no world government, or effective centralized system of agency, that can appropriately coordinate an effective response to climate change. 2. Theoretical Storm (moral culpability and corruption) -- - Composed of our "theoretical ineptitude" - Ex: intergenerational equity and nonhuman animals - When the theoretical storm converges with the global and intergeneration storms, we are faced with the problem of moral corruption 3. Moral Corruption -- - Because climate change involved the consideration of multiple issues, it is easy to be self-selective to which issue we pay attention to, usually to considerations that make the situation difficult. This often leads to inaction or haphazard applications. - Ex: distraction, complacency, pandering, hypocrisy Conclusion: The moral issue of climate change, and its complex components, makes it easier for each generation to use it as a cover. They may seem to be taking the issue seriously, but in fact are exploring the issue to their own advantage. Terms: Perfect storm

Peter Singer - Utilitarian Defense of Animal Liberation

Thesis: We need to extend the basic principle of equality to other species other than our own Main Points: 1. Similar argument against animal rights used to disparage other humans. 2. Differences means some variances in rights, but not in extending the basic principle of equality to animals. - Not arguing for equal treatment, but for equal consideration. 3. Pure equality based on actual equality of human beings doesn't exist. - Can't stop here or defend hierarchies. 4. Equality is a moral ideal. - Equity (can't give equal treatment because people aren't equal, can give people what they need though) vs. equality (equal treatment). 5. The capacity of sentience (feeling) gives a being moral consideration. - No moral justification for ignoring this. Conclusion: 3 forms of speciesism that we have to confront: 1. experimentation, 2. consumption, 3. philosophical consideration Terms: Basic principle of equality, egalitarianism, utilitarianism, speciesism

Climate Refugees

Those who are fleeing situations of environmental disasters that have been led to residential displacement. Whyte - DAPL, Environmental Justice, and US Colonialism

Individualization of Responsibility

When our responsibility to attend to environmental issues is situated as best resolved using individual means. Maniates - Individualization