physio exam 4

What is the importance of smooth muscle in the wall of blood vessels?

Vascular smooth muscle contracts or relaxes to change both the volume of blood vessels and the local blood pressure, Thus the main function of vascular smooth muscle tone is to regulate the caliber of the blood vessels in the body. Excessive vasoconstriction leads to high blood pressure, while excessive vasodilation as in shock leads to low blood pressure.

. What is meant by "differential blood count"? What is its use

WBC differential determines the percentage of each type of white blood cell present in your blood -Eosinophils indicates a parasitic infection, an allergic reaction or cancer. You can have high levels of eosinophils in your blood (blood eosinophilia) or in tissues at the site of an infection or inflammation (tissue eosinophilia). -high neutrophil: indicate you have bateria infection. increase acute inflamation, heart acttact, burn.. -basophil: increase alllergic, iiching, blood cancer

tricuspid, mitral or bicuspid;

alian heart, between the right atrium and the right ventricle. The function of the valve is to prevent back flow of blood from the right/ left ventricle into the right/ left atrium.

neutrophil

lover of neutral dyes. nuclear of 3 or 5 lobes. 54-62%. phagocyte, granular stained pink

monocytes

microphage, big eater, 5%, phagocytic, 2 to 3 time larger than rbcs, agranular

How does the body meet the changing demands of its organs for blood, including the increased needs of skeletal muscles for blood during exercise, or of the digestive tract after a meal?

Fortunately, we have baroreceptors that monitor pressure in the key arteries and signal the CNS when pressure starts to decline. The CNS then stimulates cardiac output -- the volume of blood ejected by each ventricle -- by increasing heart rate and stroke volume. Soon the volume of blood being transferred from the veins to the arteries through the heart (cardiac output) matches the blood that is running off through the organs from arteries to veins. Consequently, we are able to maintain our increased activity over an extended period of time.

Compare and contrast the systemic and pulmonary circuits

Pulmonary circulation refers to the circulation of blood in which deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs and oxygenated blood is returned to back to the heart. Pulmonary circulation only occurs between the heart and the lungs. Systemic circulation refers to the circulation of blood in which oxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the body and deoxygenated blood is returned back to the heart. Systemic circulation occurs between the heart and the entire body.

Describe the steps involved in phagocytosis

Step 1: Activation of the Phagocyte Step 2: Chemotaxis of Phagocytes (for wandering macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils) Step 3: Attachment of the Phagocyte to the Microbe or Cell Step 4: Ingestion of the Microbe or Cell by the Phagocyte

. Describe the inflammation response. Of what value is it?

e inflammation response (swelling, pain, warmth, redness) and. The damaged cells release chemicals including histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins. These chemicals cause blood vessels to leak fluid into the tissues, causing swelling. This helps isolate the foreign substance from further contact with body tissues. The chemicals also attract white blood cells called phagocytes that "eat" germs and dead or damaged cells.

. Differentiate by structure and function the cellular components of blood

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Describe the structure and function of the heart, including * endocardium, myocardium, epicardium (visceral pericardium), parietal pericardium * right and left atria, right and left ventricles * semilunar valves: aortic and pulmonary * AV valves:

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. Heart disease is the leading killer in the industrialized world. Discuss the development of the major form of heart disease coronary artery disease including its major risk factors and treatments.

- Aspirin use to treat blood cloting in coronary artery because it decrease blood clot and destroy palates. -factor: cholesteron, hypertension, smoke, tieu duong mellutes. - If the artery walls become diseased with lipid tumors ("atheromas") you can experience a "choking in the chest" (angina pectoris) when you become physically active because the heart wall is not getting the blood it needs to meet the increased demands on the heart to pump blood. Diseased arteries in the heart increase the risk for the formation of an unnecessary blood clot ("thrombus"). Such a condition is called "coronary thrombosis" and can lead to death of heart muscle. Collectively this event is called a "heart attack" and is the leading cause of heart disease death in the United States.

Compare active versus passive acquired specific immunity

- Passive: i immediately work, short time. mmunity due to antibodies that are produced in a body pther than you own. Ex: new born babies have passive immunity sice their anibodies was stranfer form placenta and it will disapear. also be due to injection of antiserum, which contains antibodies that are formed by another person or animal. It provides immediate protection against an antigen, but does not provide long-lasting protection. e should get a tetanus booster, which protects against a particular toxic strain of bacteria found in soil, every 10 years. Other rarer diseases like poliomyelitis ("polio") may not require a booster shot unless polio should become a major threat again. The same can be said for smallpox vaccination. If you had a smallpox vaccination 30 years ago your protection is probably nearly all gone by now. Since smallpox has been eradicated in the world there is really no need for a booster vaccine unless you do research on the living virus or work in a combat zone where the virus might be used as a weapon. -Active immunity: process of exposing the body to an antigen to generate an adapt immunity respone: take long to work, but long lasting or lifelong

Compare and contrast acquired specific immunity with innate non-specific immunity. .

- acquired specific immunity: is immunity that develops with exposure to various antigens. Your immune system builds a defense( anti body) against that specific antigen. (The remaining lymphocytes remain relatively dormant until a particular invader stimulates their reproduction, differentiation and production of lymphocyte products (antibodies and cytokines) that can disable the invader. Some lymphocytes that are produced remain dormant ("memory cells") and can be quickly activated if we are exposed to an invader a second time.) -innate non-specific immunity: -immunity is the defense system with which you were born. It protects you against all antigens. hair nail

lymphatic system characterictics

- no arteries and no pump like the heart. - it begins with capillaries. - The lymph capillaries are more porous than the blood capillaries and can pick up particles and cells too large to enter the bloodstream directly. -The lymphatic system drains lymph (excess tissue fluid) back to the cardiovascular system at two sites in the thorax -- the right and left subclavian veins. -Movement of the lymph depends on the contraction of skeletal muscles -- the skeletal muscle pump -- so you would be advised to get some regular exercise. Think of the lymphatic system as similar to the storm drainage system in our streets. Along the way back to the CV system the lymph is filtered by lymph nodes, which contain phagocytes and lymphocytes.

Describe the cardiac cycle and its relationship to pressure changes inside the heart and in the arteries, the status of the heart valves and heart sounds, and the conduction of the electrical signal through the heart.

-Blood enters the atrial chambers of the heart at a low pressure and leaves the ventricles at a higher pressure. - The high arterial pressure provides the energy to force blood through the circulatory system. - Ventrical pump blood to aortic since it higher pressure. -diasole: Pressure between Atria and ventrical the same - lub: higher presssure in ventrical close the AV valves -Dub: higher pressure in aorta close the semilular valves

Compare and contrast the lymphatic circulatory system with the cardiovascular

-Cardiovascular system is a network of blood vessels through which blood is pumped by a rhythmically beating muscular device, called heart. ><There is no such pumping device in lymphatic system, there are lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes. -Artery divides in arterioles and form capillary network inside tissues, while the capillaries join back together as venules and later form vein. Thus circulation is possible in cardiovascular system >><Lymph capillaries are closed on one side, i.e. at the point of origin but they join together to form larger lymph vessel. Thus lymph does not circulate, but only drains to reach veins - Blood helps in transportation of nutrients, hormones, etc but most importantly it transports respiratory gases: specially oxygen- with the help of hemoglobin present in RBC .><><RBCs are not at all present in lymph, but lots of WBCs are present: hence lymph nodes are the areas where WBCs can fight with germs. Fat absorption and transportation is done by lymphatic system .

Compare and contrast intracellular and extracellular fluid

-Intracellular fluid Carbon dioxide is produced inside it Holds about 67 percent of water inside the human organism Contains large amounts of potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions. -Extracellular fluid: Contains large amounts of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions, also contains nutrients for the cells, such as oxygen, glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids. Contains carbon dioxide and transports it to the various organs. Holds about 33 percent of water inside the human organism

. Describe systolic, diastolic, pulse and mean arterial blood pressures.

-Systolic: 120 mmHg= pressure blood exerts against artery wall during ventricular systole/ contraction -Diastolic: 80 mmHg = pressure blood exerts against artery wall during ventricular diastole/ relaxation -Pulse pressure is the difference between the systolic and diastolic blood pressure. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). It represents the force that the heart generates each time it contracts. For example, if resting blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg, then the pulse pressure is 40 mmHg.

. Compare and contrast the structure and function of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins.

-heart→artery→arteriole→capillary→venule→vein→heart -Arteries are larger and carry oxygenated blood from the heart throughout the body. Pulses are obtained from arteries. -Veins carry unoxygenated blood back to your heart. The lack of oxygen turns the blood dark red, making it appear purple/blue through the skin. -Capillaries are microscopic vessels that connect arteries and veins. The capillaries are the leaky part of the vascular system, permitting the exchange of substances between the blood and the tissue spaces. -The smaller arteries that connect to the capillaries, are called arterioles. Blood vessels that take blood towards the heart are veins. ... The smallest veins are called venules. -Arterioles are known as variable resistance vessels. When we exercise the arterioles in our skeletal muscles dilate, allowing more blood to flow through.

. Give examples of innate, non-specific immunity.

-immunity is the defense system with which you were born. It protects you against all antigens. - barriers that keep harmful materials from entering your body. These barriers form the first line of defense in the immune response. -hthe phagocytic action of leukocytes are part of a non-specific innate defense system that includes blood clotting, our skin, hair, nails, sneezing, coughing, tears, gastric juice, digestive enzymes ..... These protect us against a wide variety of assaults, hence they a non-specific.

Describe why mean arterial pressure (MAP) must be considered an essential variable

-mean arterial pressure is an average blood pressure in an individual during a single cardiac cycle -When we exercise there is a redistribution of blood and also and increased flow of blood from arteries to veins. If we did not have some means to compensate we would soon be unable to exercise as MAP plunged. Fortunately, we have baroreceptors that monitor pressure in the key arteries and signal the CNS when pressure starts to decline. The CNS then stimulates cardiac output -- the volume of blood ejected by each ventricle -- by increasing heart rate and stroke volume. Soon the volume of blood being transferred from the veins to the arteries through the heart (cardiac output) matches the blood that is running off through the organs from arteries to veins. Consequently, we are able to maintain our increased activity over an extended period of time.

Describe the cardiac action potential and outline the electrical conduction system of the heart. Be prepared to interpret a normal electrocardiogram

-the SA node in the wall of the right atrium generates action potentials about 60 times a minute at rest. Each action potential spreads through the two atria causing atrial contraction, then travels through the AV node down the AV bundle (of His) into the right and left bundle branches to the Purkinje fibers and ventricular - These waveforms are labeled P, Q, R, S, T and U. myocardium triggering ventricle contraction. -The QRS complex, normally beginning with a downward deflection, Q; a larger upwards deflection, a peak (R); and then a downwards S wave. The QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization and contraction. The PR interval indicates the transit time for the electrical signal to travel from the sinus node to the ventricles.

esophil

1-4%. parasites, biolobes, stain granules red

Compare and contrast arterial and venous blood pressure. What is the significance of their differences?

1. Arteries have a much thicker wall to withstand the high pressure of blood flowing in them, whereas veins have a thinner wall so that they can be pressed flat against adjacent muscles, helping to move the blood. 2. Veins have valves, contrary to arteries, to prevent back-flow of blood flowing in them. 3. Arteries have a narrow lumen to maintain the high blood pressures, while veins have a wide lumen to accommodate the slow-flowing blood. 4. Arteries have a thick outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibres to avoid leaks, while veins have a thin outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibres, because there is little danger of bursting. 5. Arteries have a thick inner layer of circular elastic and muscle fibres, to help pump the blood on after every heartbeat, whereas veins have thin layers with relatively few circular elastic and muscle fibres, as blood does not flow in pulses so the wall of the veins cannot help to pump it

lymphocyte

20-30%, agranular, release B and T cell. B is antibody production, T is cellular respone. gray blue

Describe the Frank-Starling law of the heart

And increased return flow of blood to the ventricles stimulates and increased strength of contraction (the Frank-Starling law of the heart)

List several transport functions of the cardiovascular system

Body Temperature Regulation Transportation of: nutrients, oxygen, hormones, carbon dioxide, waste Regulation of: temperature, heat exchange Protection: blood clotting, immune defense (white blood cells) Although atrial contraction precedes ventricular contraction, it is contraction of the ventricles that are essential for our survival. When the ventricles of the heart contract, they eject blood into arteries. Arteries by definition conduct blood away from the heart, veins return the blood to the heart. Blood moves from arteries to veins through the organs because of a pressure gradient ("bulk flow") between arteries and veins and because one-way valves in the heart prevent backflow.

Using the terms of homeostasis, describe hemostasis. What are the sensors, effectors and why is this homeostatic system necessary?

Haemostasis: is the of wound healing. This involves blood clotting. Haemostasis has three major steps: 1) vasoconstriction, 2) temporary blockage of a break by a platelet plug, and 3) blood coagulation, or formation of a fibrin clot. These processes seal the hole until tissues are repaired. Homoestasis: is the proccess by which variables are regulated so that internal conditions remain stable and relatively constant. Examples of homeostasis include the regulation of temperature and the balance between acidity and alkalinity (pH). It is a process that maintains the stability of the human body's internal environment in response to changes in external conditions.

Describe the relationship of heart rate and stroke volume to cardiac output.

In this case, if the heart rate is 70 beats/min, the stroke volume would be a little more than 70 ml/beat. cardiac output equals the heart rate (HR), which is the number of heartbeats per minute, times the stroke volume (SV), which is the volume of blood pumped by the ventricles with each heartbeat. If your body needs more blood, then your heart will increase the cardiac output

. Be able to order the movement of a blood cell through the CV system

L.A->2 cups->LV->atery valve->system artery- sys ateriory-sys cappillary-sys venulos-sys vein-vena cava->/////////RA-3 cups-RV->pul valve-> pul trunk/atery-lung( pul ateroties- pul cappillary-pul venlu- pul vein- LA

Sympathetic drive Parasympathetic drive

Sympathetic drive to the Heart: increases the spontaneous rate of action potential generation in SA node, lowers resistance of the AV node and increases strength of ventricular contraction by opening calcium ion channels. Parasympathetic drive to the Heart: slows SA node and increases resistance of AV node. PS have little effect on strength of heart contraction. PS input to the heart dominates at rest.From this site, the two channels of the autonomic nervous system originate the sympathetic and parasympathetic components. The sympathetic components increase heart rate by releasing the neural hormone catecholamines - epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones are cardio accelerators. Acceleration of the heart rate is called tachycardia. The parasympathetic nervous system located in the brain stem and upper or sacral portion of the spinal cord slows heart rate. The parasympathetic components decrease heart rate. These neurons release the neurohormone acetylcholine, which inhibits heart rate. The slowing of heart rate is called bradycardia

Stroke volume:

The amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart in one contraction. The stroke volume is not all the blood contained in the left ventricle; normally, only about two-thirds of the blood in the ventricle is expelled with each beat. Together with the heart rate, the stroke volume determines the output of blood by the heart per minute (cardiac output). cardiac output equals the heart rate (HR), which is the number of heartbeats per minute, times the stroke volume (SV), which is the volume of blood pumped by the ventricles with each heartbeat. If your body needs more blood, then your heart will increase the cardiac output.

List the 3 major components of the cardiovascular system

The heart, the blood vessels and the blood. Sometimes the watery fluid called lymph and the vessels that carry it are considered to be part of the Circulatory System. -The heart is a special pump that pumps the blood around the body. When the blood enters the heart it is deoxygenated. The heart then pumps the deoxygenated blood to the lungs where it picks up some oxygen. The blood is now oxygenated. This oxygenated blood travels back to the heart. The heart now pumps the oxygenated blood around the body so that every cell gets a supply of vital oxygen. This sequence is repeated over and over again. -Blood Vessels: Arteries, capillaries and veins are blood vessels. Arteries carry high pressure blood which is full of oxygen ( this is called oxygenated blood) away from the heart. Veins carry low pressure blood back to the heart. The blood in veins has had the oxygen removed in the body (this is called deoxygenated blood). Capillaries - have very thin walls which allow food, oxygen and waste to pass through. -The Blood There are four parts to the blood: 1: Red Cells - these contain a substance called haemoglobin which carries oxygen in the blood. 2: White Cells - these have the job of killing off invading microbes. 3: Plasma - this is a liquid which contains salts, sugars and proteins. 4: Platelets - these are bits of dead cells that clot the blood.

Describe neural and endocrine inputs that influence heart rate and stroke volume

The arterial pressure is then controlled mainly by a renal-volume-endocrine pressure control system, in which the blood volume and total peripheral resistance are manipulated slowly to adjust the pressure. -Epinephrine and norepinephrine are the two main catecholamines that can activate or deactivate sympathetic receptors within the cardiovascular system. Another neurotransmitter dopamine that has limited actions in the autonomic nervous system may excite or inhibit depending on the receptors. Dopamine can be converted into norepinephrine and thus can increase heart rate and blood pressure. -vasopressin (diuretiic hormonw) Within the cardiovascular system, vasopressin is a vasoconstrictor which increases arterial blood pressure. An increase in blood volume results in increased cardiac output and improved cardiovascular function. -Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) are medications that block the action of angiotensin II by preventing angiotensin II from binding to angiotensin II receptors on the muscles surrounding blood vessels. As a result, blood vessels enlarge (dilate) and blood pressure is reduced. ( ban chat cua angiotesin la lam tang blood pressure boi vi no contrict cai bloos vessel wall,, thuoc nay lam giam hreat pressure) -ACE inhibitors lower your blood pressure by reducing angiotensin II in your body. This allows your blood vessels to relax and widen, making it easier for blood to flow through. It also lowers the amount of water your body retains, which lowers your blood pressure.

Define cardiac output. How is it calculated? What is a normal cardiac outpuuut at rest?

The cardiac output is usually expressed in liters/minute. For someone weighing about 70 kg (154 lbs), the cardiac output at rest is about 5 liters/minute. In this case, if the heart rate is 70 beats/min, the stroke volume would be a little more than 70 ml/beat. Sympathetic drive can also increase cardiac output by increasing the rate and strength of heart contraction. Sympathetics increase strength of ventricular contraction by allowing more calcium ions to enter the ventricular muscle cells. The sympathetic hormones can have a similar effect. Parasympathetics usually dominate the heart at rest, slowing down the SA node and slow down the action potential through the AV node. The two autonomic divisions normally operate in a coordinated fashion so that they do not compete with each other, much like you operate the brake and gas pedal on your car.

immunization or vaccination function

Vaccination (immunization) is a way to trigger the immune response. Small doses of an antigen, such as dead or weakened live viruses, are given to activate immune system "memory" (activated B cells and sensitized T cells). Memory allows your body to react quickly and efficiently to future exposures.

chordae tendineae, papillary muscle

The papillary muscles are muscles located in the ventricles of the heart. They attach to the cusps of the atrioventricular valves (also known as the mitral and tricuspid valves) via the chordae tendineae and contract to prevent inversion or prolapse of these valves on systole (or ventricular contraction)

How does cardiac muscle contraction differ from skeletal muscle contraction

Unlike skeletal muscle, the heart has its own way of generating action potentials without the necessity of neural innervation. The SA node in the wall of the right atrium generates action potentials about 60 times a minute at rest. Each action potential spreads through the two atria causing atrial contraction, then travels through the AV node down the AV bundle (of His) into the right and left bundle branches to the Purkinje fibers and ventricular myocardium triggering ventricle contraction. Muscle cells in the heart differ from skeletal muscles cells in that they form electrical synapses that allow an action potential to pass from one cell to the next. In effect, the cells of the heart that conduct action potentials are all linked to each other electrically forming one electrical unit. We can monitor the movement of action potentials through the heart from the surface of the body using an instrument called an electrocardiograph. It produces a tracing called an electrocardiogram. heart can beat after takeing out from body. Nerve impulse can no genarate SP abut it control the heart rate

basophil

basic dyes, 3 lobes, less than 1%. promote inflamation, release of histamin, heparin during the allergic

Describe the composition (hematocrit) of the blood

the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood. RBCs in 45% of blood volume. The plasma 55%. WBCs <1% whole blood. - RBCs contains 1/3 protein hemoglobin, a protein that binds oxigen reversibly in the blood, enhancing its delivery to the organs hemolobin give blood red. rbcs live 120 days and is produced in bone narrow and destroy in livers and kidney