Physio final
How many people in the U.S. are estimated to be suffering from a diagnosable mental illness?
1 out of 4
What percentage of children with ASD show intellectual disability?
55%
Brain size accounts for about ______ of our differences in intelligence.
6%
Estimated heritability for working memory, processing speed, and reaction time obtained from twin studies were about ______.
80%
Most mild intellectual disability is believed to be caused by
A combination of environment and hereditary causes
Schizophrenia
A disabling disorder characterized by perceptual, emotional, and intellectual deficits, loss of contact with reality, and an inability to function in life.
Tourette syndrome
A disorder characterized by motor and phonic (sound) tics.
Alzheimer's disease
A disorder characterized by progressive brain deterioration and impairment of memory and other mental abilities; the most common cause of dementia.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
A disorder consisting of obsessions (recurring thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive, ritualistic acts the person feels compelled to perform).
Mania
A disorder involving excess energy and confidence that often leads to grandiose schemes, decreased need for sleep, increased sexual drive, and, often, abuse of drugs.
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
A disorder involving feelings of sadness to the point of hopelessness for weeks at a time, along with slowness of thought, sleep disturbance, and loss of energy and appetite and the ability to enjoy life; in some cases, the person is also agitated or restless. Sometimes called unipolar depression.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
A disorder that develops during childhood and is characterized by impulsiveness, inability to sustain attention, learning difficulty, and hyperactivity.
Korsakoff Syndrome
A form of dementia in which brain deterioration is almost always caused by chronic alcoholism.
Fragile X syndrome
A form of intellectual disability caused by excessive CGG repeats in the FMR1 gene; IQ is typically below 75.
Working memory
A form of short-term memory that provides a temporary "register" for information while it is being used.
Of these, the best predictor of PTSD following trauma is
A history of childhood abuse
Research with adults, children, chimpanzees, and monkeys suggests that we are born with
A mechanism for number or quantity
Lithium
A metal administered in the form of lithium carbonate; the medication of choice for treating bipolar disorder.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
A prolonged stress reaction to a traumatic event; typically characterized by recurrent thoughts and images (flashbacks), nightmares, lack of concentration, and over-reactivity to environmental stimuli, such as loud noises.
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)
A protein that contributes to neuron growth and survival.
Circadian Rhythm
A rhythm that is a day in length, such as the wake-sleep cycle.
Circannual Rhythm
A rhythm that is a year in length, such as migration and seasonal mood.
Autism Spectrum Disorder
A set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by social deficits, communication difficulties, and repetitive behaviors.
Psychosis
A severe mental disturbance of reality, thought, and orientation.
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
A test of prefrontal functioning that requires the individual to sort cards using one criterion and then change to another criterion.
Phototherapy
A treatment for winter depression involving the use of high-intensity lights for a period of time each day.
Which two receptors are key in the development of LTP?
AMPA and NMDA
Neurofibrillary Tangles
Abnormal accumulations of the protein tau that develop inside neurons and are associated with the death of brain cells in people with Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome.
Synaptic changes during learning involve
Activation of proteins, increased number of dendritic spines, increased number of receptors
The best evidence that ethnic differences in intelligence are not genetic is that
Adoption into a more stimulating environment reduces the difference
The proportion of variability in intelligence due to heredity is HIGHEST in ______.
Adulthood
The most common cause of dementia is ______.
Alzheimer's disease
______ is important in emotional learning and is also important in nondeclarative emotional learning.
Amygdala
Anterograde Amnesia
An impairment in forming new memories.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
An increase in synaptic strength that occurs when presynaptic neurons and postsynaptic neurons are active simultaneously.
Autistic Savant
An individual with autism with an isolated exceptional capability.
Phenylketonuria
An inherited form of intellectual disability in which the body fails to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine, which interferes with myelination during development.
Depression
An intense feeling of sadness.
Anxiety is best thought of as ______.
Anticipation of some future threat
Research suggests that, normally, environmental effects on intelligence
Are significant but difficult to identify
Negative symptoms
Aspects of schizophrenia characterized by the absence or insufficiency of normal behaviors, including lack of affect (emotion), inability to experience pleasure, lack of motivation, poverty of speech, and impaired attention.
A problem with most intelligence tests is that they
Assess a limited group of abilities
Classical conditioning most likely involves ______.
Associative LTP
The researcher sounds a tone and then delivers a puff of air to your eye. After several times, the tone alone causes you to blink. This behavior is probably explained by
Associative LTP
Which of the following is TRUE regarding children diagnosed with ADHD and prescribed stimulant drugs?
At worst, the drug made no difference
Which of the following relieve(s) anxiety by enhancing GABA activity?
Benzodiazepines
Which disorder is the bridge between schizophrenia and depressive disorder
Bipolar disorder
An individual who fluctuates between intense feelings of love and hate might have ______.
Borderline personality disorder
Instability of emotion is a hallmark of
Borderline personality disorder
What part of the hippocampus provides the output to other brain areas?
CA 1
What mouse knockout model would likely showed absent, or severely diminished, long term potentiation?
CaMKII
Place cells
Cells in the hippocampus that increase their firing rate when the individual is in a specific location in the environment.
All the following parts of the brain are involved in normal aging effects on memory EXCEPT for the ______.
Cerebellum
Plaques
Clumps of amyloid, a type of protein, that cluster among axon terminals and interfere with neural transmission in the brains of people with Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome.
Each of the following ways has been demonstrated to reduce the effects of aging on memory EXCEPT ______.
Cognitive training games
Higher intelligence test results are not always found for Asians. What is a plausible explanation to reconcile this observation and higher reported academic achievement of Asian students?
Cultural and motivational differences
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia include which of the following?
Delusions
The substantial loss of age-related memory and cognitive difficulties that is often observed in the elderly is referred to as:
Dementia
The anxiety disorders are associated genetically with
Depression
Bipolar disorder
Depression and mania that occur together in alternation.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Depression that is seasonal, being more pronounced in the summer in some people and in the winter in others.
The fact that schizophrenia involves multiple genes helps explain
Different degrees of vulnerability
The main neurotransmitter implicated in memory formation is
Dopamine
Which neurotransmitter system has been most associated with the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia?
Dopamine
Which neurotransmitter that is involved in reward also plays a role in learning?
Dopamine
ADHD is associated with reduced or impaired
Dopamine activity
Which piece of evidence does NOT support the monoamine hypothesis of depression?
Dopamine agonists like amphetamine are not effective antidepressants.
The first effective antipsychotic drugs were ______.
Dopamine antagonist
Hypofrontality is a decrease in dorsolateral prefrontal activity caused by ______ deficiency, which impairs performance in the ______ task.
Dopamine; Wisconsin card sorting test
What is the most common genetic cause of intellectual disability?
Down's syndrome
Neuroleptics
Drugs that block dopamine receptors in the brain, decreasing many of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia; may cause tardive dyskinesia after prolonged use.
When do most of the genes linked to memory consolidation increase their activity
During sleep
What is the relationship between memory consolidation and sleep?
During sleep, consolidation occurs with repeated hippocampal activation of cortical areas.
The elderly could compensate for loss of cognitive function by ______.
Eating more fish
The Raven Progressive Matrices are all of the following EXCEPT ______.
Education-based
Confabulation
Fabrication of stories and facts, which are then accepted by the individual, to make up for those missing from memory.
Einstein believed he was the most intelligent human.
False
Enlarged ventricles are a unique characteristic of schizophrenia.
False
Exposure therapy for PTSD is not effective.
False
Forgetting is a type of memory defect.
False
Girls with ADHD are twice as likely as boys to develop antisocial personality disorder.
False
Memory dysfunction in Alzheimer's is strongly associated with beta amyloid plaques.
False
The Flynn Effect explains the rapid genetic changes that have taken place in the 20th century.
False
The hippocampus is the permanent storage site for memories.
False
Unlike with schizophrenia, there is not strong evidence that affective disorders are partially heritable.
False
What is the main piece of evidence that does NOT support the notion that dopamine alone does not explain the neurological cause of schizophrenia?
Females do not have adequate levels of dopamine.
______ is a frequent genetic cause of intellectual disability and is due to a mutation on the X chromosome and males are affected more often than females.
Fragile X
What area(s) of the brain are involved in mathematical abilities such as calculation and estimation?
Frontal and parietal lobes
Linguistic abilities are often associated with activity in ______ and spatial abilities with activity in ______.
Frontal lobe; parietal lobe
Your aunt is displaying symptoms of confabulation. Where might you expect to see damage on a CT or MRI scan of her brain?
Frontal lobes
Given that benzodiazepines, which increase activity at the GABA receptor, are effective anti-anxiety treatments, a deficit in which neurotransmitter system may be one cause of anxiety disorders?
GABA
Which of the following is NOT a mood/affective disorder?
Grief
All of the following are changes that occur in the postsynaptic neuron 1 hour after LTP EXCEPT ______.
Growth of the axon
Aberrant Salience Hypothesis
Heightened levels of dopamine increase attentional and motivational circuits to make ordinary environmental features seem significant.
The single brain structure most associated with learning is ______.
Hippocampus
Sam has dramatically reduced brain tissue and enlarged ventricles, but his IQ is 105; his disorder is most likely
Hydrocephalus
Flavonoids have been associated with slower cognitive decline in the elderly. They also do all of the following EXCEPT ______.
Improve sleep quality
Both OCD and Tourette's syndrome involved compulsive rituals, probably because they involve
Increased activity in the basal ganglia
Hypofrontality in schizophrenia is associated with all of the following EXCEPT ______.
Increased attention
What would be strong evidence that the brain has specialized mechanisms for numbers and mathematics, just like it does for language?
Infant monkeys and lower primates can perform math estimation.
What is the correct term used today in place of "mental retardation"?
Intellectual disability
Down syndrome
Intellectual disability characterized by IQs in the 40 to 55 range, usually caused by the presence of an extra 21st chromosome.
Which of the following is TRUE about neurogenesis?
It has been most studied in the hippocampus.
True statements about working memory
It holds information temporarily. It provides the basis for problem solving and decision making. It can hold new information as well as memories already stored.
Which of the following is a criticism of the traditional IQ test?
It is culturally biased
Which of the following is TRUE regarding Albert Einstein's brain?
Its parietal lobes were larger than those of the average brain.
Which of the following disorders can be prevented through eating a balanced diet and limiting alcohol intake?
Korsakoff syndrome
Higher IQ scores are correlated with which of the following?
Less brain activity
Intellectual disability
Limitation in intellectual functioning (reasoning, learning, problem solving) and adaptive behavior that is developmental in origin.
Studies indicate that risk for suicide is related to
Low serotonin
Increasing neuronal birth rate in the hippocampus might be effective in the treatment of which disorder(s)?
Major depressive disorder
When researchers injected anisomycin, which blocks protein synthesis, into the brains of mice two weeks after fear conditioning, the results demonstrated that
Memories are particularly vulnerable during recall
Knowing that a greater number of neurons correlates with higher performance on the Mental Rotations Test (MRT), a standard measure of spatial ability, which of the following explanations is more likely true?
Men performed better on MRT and had greater cortical surface area in the parietal lobe.
The intelligence quotient was originally based on the ratio of ______.
Mental age to chronological age
In recent years, there has been a marked increase in the prevalence of individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Which of the following is NOT a likely explanation for these data?
More females are being tested
Which of the following is NOT frequently identified as a major component of intelligence?
Musical ability
Which of the following does NOT relate to and support efficiency in nerve conduction?
Myelination rates increase across the lifespan from infancy to old age.
Which of the following is probably the BEST predictor of IQ score?
Nerve conduction velocity
Nondeclarative memory
Non-statable memories that result from procedural or skills learning, emotional learning, and simple conditioning.
Which of the following is the difference between declarative and nondeclarative memory?
Nondeclarative memory involves emotional learning, while declarative memory involves memory of events.
Karla keeps everything exceptionally neat and well organized - everything is where it should be, but she does not experience any distress or anxiety over it. Karla seems to have ______.
OCPD
Dendritic spines
Outgrowths from the dendrites that partially bridge the synaptic cleft and make the synapse more sensitive.
Impaired sociability in autistic individuals may involve low levels of
Oxytocin
A sudden and intense anxiety attack with no obvious trigger is likely ______.
Panic disorder
Using diffusion tensor imaging, scientists have focused on brain networks and processing ability, and have identified what area as the network "main hub" that is central to intelligence?
Parietal cortex
According to your text, which lobe(s) of the brain are recruited for increasing complex math problems?
Parietal, frontal and occipital
CA 1
Part of the hippocampus that provides the primary output from the hippocampus to other brain areas
Which of the following groups is MOST at risk for suicide?
People with bipolar
______ cells in the hippocampus increase their rate of firing when an individual is in a specific location in the environment.
Place
Alzheimer's disease is most closely associated with
Plaques and tangles
Default Mode Network
Portions of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes that are active when the brain is at rest or focused internally; its activity is thought to represent preparedness for action.
If you were diagnosed with schizophrenia, you should prefer _____ symptoms
Positive
Consider the situation of testing the intelligence of older adults. What factor is vulnerable during aging and likely particularly important for understanding and determining measures of intelligence?
Processing speed
It is likely that ______ is/are important to general intelligence
Processing speed and processing efficiency
What did Sir Francis Galton measure in 1883 in an attempt to measure intelligence?
Reaction times
Memories are vulnerable to the insertion of "false facts" through suggestions or ideas that fill in the gaps. This usually occurs during the process of
Reconsolidation
The monoamine hypothesis states that depression results from
Reduced activity in norepinephrine and serotonin synapses
Chronic
Referring to symptoms that develop gradually and persist for a long time with poor response to treatment.
Acute
Referring to symptoms that develop suddenly and are usually more responsive to treatment.
If you are positive you know who the 14th president of the United States ism but cannot remember at this very moment, you are having a problem with
Retrieval
______ is the process of accessing stored memories.
Retrieval
Which drug is MOST likely to be used in treating OCD and related disorders such as hair pulling and nail biting?
SSRI
Genes that produce detrimental behaviors would seem to be good candidates for elimination through the process of evolution, so which explanation does NOT support why schizophrenia should still persist?
Schizophrenia is not a very severe disorder.
Depression that worsens in winter and improves in summer is likely to be ______.
Seasonal affective disorder
Research with autism spectrum disorders suggests that autism involves
Several genes
Anterograde amnesia means that the patient has trouble remembering events that occurred
Since the brain damage
If HM's striatum had also been damaged, he would also not have remembered
Skills learned after his surgery
Longer-term storage of memories is often best enhanced during ______.
Sleep
Apparently, the most crucial effect on intelligence during aging is loss of
Speed
Individuals with schizophrenia have all of the following impairments/symptoms EXCEPT ______.
Split memory
Borderline personality disorder is best characterized by all of the following EXCEPT ______.
Split personality
The idea that intelligence is more of a cultural invention we use to explain why some people succeed in their environment better than others, is an idea similar to the perspective of which scientist?
Sternburg
Associative Long-Term Potentiation
Strengthening of a weak synapse when it and a strong synapse on the same postsynaptic neuron are active simultaneously.
A frontal area hypothesized to switch between depression and mania is the
Subgenual prefrontal cortex
Dementia
Substantial loss of memory and other cognitive abilities usually, but not necessarily, in the elderly.
Knowing that decreased levels of serotonin activity are associated with mood changes and with increased impulsivity, what might an individual with low levels of serotonin activity be at increased risk for?
Suicide
The feature most common between Alzheimer's disease and Korsakoff's syndrome is the
Symptoms
Positive symptoms
Symptoms of schizophrenia that involve the presence or exaggeration of behaviors, such as delusions, hallucinations, thought disorder, and bizarre behavior.
When elderly people were presented with words (wise, learned) that bolstered their self-esteem, what effect did it have on their memory test scores?
Test scores improved
Theory of mind
The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and to others.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
The application of 70-130 volts of electricity to the head of a lightly anesthetized patient, which produces a seizure and convulsions; a treatment for major depression.
Intelligence
The capacity for learning, reasoning, and understanding.
In a game of trivia, your brain has been working hard to retrieve those tidbits of knowledge. On two different questions you exerted a great deal of effort but were only successful on the first question. If we looked at your brain while you were answering each question, when might we see activity in the hippocampus and/or frontal area?
The frontal area would be active on both trivia questions.
Lumpers and splitters disagree on the significance of ______ in intelligence
The g factor
The parameter of H.M.'s surgery and later performance suggests what conclusion about memory?
The hippocampus is not the permanent storage site for memories.
Glutamate theory
The hypothesis that NMDA receptor hypofunction results in glutamate and dopamine increases that produce positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
Monoamine Hypothesis
The hypothesis that depression involves reduced activity at norepinephrine and serotonin synapses.
Reserve hypothesis
The hypothesis that individuals with greater cognitive or brain capacity are able to compensate for brain changes due to aging, brain damage, or disorders such as Alzheimer's.
Dopamine Hypothesis
The hypothesis that schizophrenia involves excess dopamine activity in the brain.
Vulnerability model
The idea that environmental challenges combine with a person's genetic vulnerability for a disease to exceed the threshold for the disease.
Retrograde amnesia
The inability to remember events prior to impairment.
Imagine you trained animals on a task, then lesioned them within either 1 day after training or 3 weeks after training. What would their performance be like when you re-assessed them on that same task 4 weeks later?
The lesion 3-weeks group would perform better than the lesion 1-day group.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
The measure typically used for intelligence.
Declarative Memory
The memory process that records memories of facts, people, and events that the person can verbalize, or declare.
Hebb Rule
The principle stating that if an axon of a presynaptic neuron is active while the postsynaptic neuron is firing, the synapse between them will be strengthened.
Consolidation
The process in which the brain forms a permanent representation of a memory.
Retrieval
The process of accessing stored memories.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep
The stage of sleep during which most dreaming occurs; research indicates that it is also a time of memory consolidation during which neural activity from the day is replayed.
Winter birth effect
The tendency for more schizophrenics to be born during the winter and spring months than at any other time of the year.
Data from twin studies suggest that ______.
The two disorders are distinct
In terms of who is more likely to develop schizophrenia, which of the following is true?
There are no differences between men and women or between rural and urban residents.
True statements about brain size
There is a small correlation between brain size and intelligence. Men's brains are proportionately larger than women's brains. Elephants' brains are larger than humans' brains.
The lack of complete concordance for major depression in identical twins suggests that ______.
There is an environmental contribution
Schizophrenia is a very old disorder, with symptoms having been documented 4,000 years ago, and some genes developing over 100,000 years ago. What is one hypothesis for why the genes have persisted despite their negative effects?
They may be highly correlated with intellectual ability and artistic creativity.
In obsessive-compulsive disorder, obsessions are ______ and compulsions are ______.
Thoughts; behaviors
Schizophrenia apparently involves
Tissue deficits, frontal dysfunction, disrupted connections
A person that presents with involuntary motor and sound tics, grimaces, blinks, and grunts may have ______.
Tourette's syndrome
Tardive Dyskinesia
Tremors and involuntary movements caused by blocking of dopamine receptors in the basal ganglia due to prolonged use of drugs that block dopamine signals.
Consolidation is just one phase of how a memory is made.
True
Efficient memory is best thought of as a balance between remembering and forgetting.
True
Extinction requires the activation of NMDA receptors.
True
Hoarding is an OCD-related disorder.
True
In the diathesis-stress model of psychopathology, the stress is the "straw that broke the camel's back."
True
Phenylketonuria is a developmental metabolic disorder that impairs myelination.
True
Phototherapy, sitting in front of high-intensity lights, is an effective treatment for seasonal affective disorder.
True
Socioeconomic class is more important than ethnic origin in understanding IQ scores.
True
The ApoE4 gene is associated with the majority of Alzheimer's cases.
True
The basal ganglia is implicated in the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder.
True
What is the difference between "lumpers" and "splitters"?
Unlike lumpers, splitters look at subtests.
People with higher IQs tend to ______.
Use less energy when processing information Have faster nerve conduction velocity Have a higher gray/white matter ratio
Some observers claim the high correlation between identical twins IQs occurs because they evoke similar treatment from people. This was refuted by a study in which the correlation
Was unaffected by parents' misidentification of twins as fraternal or identical
Long-Term Depression (LTD)
Weakening of a synapse when stimulation of presynaptic neurons is insufficient to activate the postsynaptic neurons.
What is the difference in prevalence rates between MDD and bipolar disorder?
Women are two to three times more likely than men to suffer from MDD.
In the course of adding a long column of entries in your checkbook, you have to carry a 6 to the next column. If you forget the number in the process, you're having a problem with
Working memory
What is the memory system called that provides a temporary "register" for information while it is being used?
Working memory
If you were a neuropharmacologist, which neurotransmitter system do you think would be most important to target in the development of new drugs for the treatment/prevention of Alzheimer's disease?
acetylcholine
H.M. was a famous neuropsychiatric patient who was treated for epilepsy and later developed ______.
anterograde amnesia
Intelligence theorists who believe in the general factor, g, also ______.
are called lumpers
Which of the following areas shows significant deficits in cognition as a person ages?
basal forebrain region
Which of the following deficits is an example of anterograde amnesia?
being unable to recall events occurring after brain injury
The difference between bipolar I and bipolar II is that ______.
bipolar I has occasional manic episodes whereas bipolar II has mild hypomanic episodes
Who might you expect to have enlarged volume of hippocampal regions?
cab/taxi drivers from a big city
Environmental causes of schizophrenia
complications during pregnancy or labor maternal stress prenatal exposure to viruses
All of the following are ways in which learning and memory is disrupted in Alzheimer's
degeneration of neurons that release acetylcholine elimination of theta waves in the hippocampus excess of glutamate activity
In terms of developing most psychological disorders, most experts agree that genes ______.
determine vulnerability for the illness
The downregulation of protein RbAp48 in humans and mice resulted in ______.
dysfunction of dentate gyrus
Why might rates of infectious disease be the best predictor of national differences in IQ?
fighting off childhood disease robs body of energy for brain growth
Tardive dyskinesia may result ______.
from chronic treatment with antidopamine drugs
All drugs that are effective in treating schizophrenia
have some effect at D2 receptors
The vulnerability model suggests ______.
heredity and environment are needed to explain the cause of psychological disorders
The difference between obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) is that ______.
in OCPD the person does not experience the distress and anxiety that a person with OCD would
Researchers believe that in most cases older memories are stored ______.
in the prefrontal, temporal, and parietal cortices
Name the brain changes associated with ECT
increased sensitivity to serotonin decreased sensitivity in norepinephrine autoreceptors widespread synchrony of neural firing
The first drug that showed antidepressant effects was a tuberculosis drug called ______.
iproniazid
Reduced norepinephrine is associated with ______.
lack of motivation
Which of the following was reported to improve episodic memory in the elderly?
learning digital photography or quilting over a 3-month period
The persistent strengthening of synapses that accompanies learning is called what?
long-term potentiation
With respect to aging and intelligence, ______.
loss occurs, but it has been overestimated
Schizophrenia is typically characterized by
loss of contact with reality perceptual, emotional, and intellectual deficits an inability to function in life
Consolidation is the process of ______.
making memories long lasting or permanent
H.M.'s impairment was because surgeons had removed this part of his brain.
medial temporal lobe
nondeclarative memory
memory for skills, habits, emotional responses, and some reflexes
The textbook author describes two kinds of learning. Which one could H.M. do better?
nondeclarative memory
A person with Korsakoff's syndrome would NOT be expected to have which of the following?
nondeclarative memory impairment
Supporting the reserve hypothesis is the finding that ______.
remaining mentally active is associated with better cognitive functioning
Declarative memory
the cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared
A study of the brains of London taxicab drivers revealed that ______.
the posterior portion of the hippocampus was larger than in other male counterparts
ECT appears to relieve depression by
the same mechanisms as antidepressant drugs
What is Korakoff's syndrome almost always caused by?
thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency
All of the following are hypotheses for the development of schizophrenia EXCEPT ______
uncaring/unloving parental care
Affective disorders are associated with ______.
volume deficits that predate depressive symptoms
