POL 327 Final Exam

Know the four major summits mentioned, their dates, and their locations

--1972 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) in Stockholm, Swedan, attended by 113 states, marked the beginning of organized international efforts to devise a comprehensive agenda to safeguard the environment while also promoting economic development. -The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), known as the Earth Summit, was convened in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. The conference produced major international treaties on climate change and biodiversity, two declarations of principle, and a lengthy action program for implementing sustainable development around the world. -The World Summit: August 2002, 191 nations attended, on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa, to reassess and renew commitments to sustainable development. -2012Rio for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, or Rio+20 -the global environmental and sustainable development summits in 1972, 1992, 2002, 2012 focuses more on how such meetings shape actor understandings, raise awareness, and bring political actors to agreement on norms, values and ideas.

Know the four major summits mentioned, their dates, and their locations.

-1972 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) in Stockholm, Swedan, attended by 113 states, marked the beginning of organized international efforts to devise a comprehensive agenda to safeguard the environment while also promoting economic development. -The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), known as the Earth Summit, was convened in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. The conference produced major international treaties on climate change and biodiversity, two declarations of principle, and a lengthy action program for implementing sustainable development around the world. -The World Summit: August 2002, 191 nations attended, on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa, to reassess and renew commitments to sustainable development. -2012Rio for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, or Rio+20 -the global environmental and sustainable development summits in 1972, 1992, 2002, 2012 focuses more on how such meetings shape actor understandings, raise awareness, and bring political actors to agreement on norms, values and ideas.

The "Earth Summits," 1972-2012

-1972: UN Conference of the Human Environment (UNCHE) -1992: UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) -2002: World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) -2012: UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20)

Historical English Commons

-A resource shared by an identifiable group (community) that have the right to exclude nonmembers -Governed by a complex set of community-based rules

In what environmental arenas has the EU been most successful?

-Directive 2003/96/EC established minimum energy tax rates on various energy products, including mineral oils, coal, natural gas, and electricity, while allowing national governments to offer rebates for environmentally friendly forms of energy production. The minimum rates were intended to curb the use of fossil fuels and encourage sustainable transport. Now it says it is outdated and they want to make some changes but nothing has been done yet. In 2012 a revised directive was issued (2012/27/EU) to try to take the measures necessary to put the EU back on track, including greater emphasis on renovation of buildings in order to improve their energy efficiency, energy-efficient purchasing by government agencies, the establishment of indicative national energy efficiency targets, the introduction of energy efficiency obligations, and metering requirements to enhance transparency for consumers related to their energy consumption. Emissions trading is considered a key approach to meeting greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals in Europe. -The EU Emissions Trading System is the first international carbon emissions trading scheme in the world. It addresses more than 12,000 major emissions sources and about 40% of all EU CO2 emissions.

What's the answer or framework for how they develop solutions as an economist?

-Fix incentives - redesign the economic and behavioral incentives -realign costs and benefits

What were some of the contrasting viewpoints from chapter 6?

-On the power of UNCED's ideas -On whether UNCED marked a new era in global environmental politics -On UNCED as an exercise in global governance -On the debate between the governments of North and South -On the openness of the UNCED process -On the effectiveness of NGOs at UNCED -On North-South cooperation among NGOs -On UNCED's legacy

Where has the EU not been successful?

-The EU has failed, for example, to agree internally on a unilateral 30% greenhouse gas emissions reduction target. The expansion of the EU to an increasingly large and diverse set of countries could make subsequent EU leadership on climate change more difficult. -A major challenge to the effectiveness of the EU ETS has been the rock-bottom price of a ton of carbon, which has reduced much of the expected incentive for emitters to reduce their emissions. Another major problem is that too many permits were issued, making it relatively easy for industry to continue to pollute. The low carbon prices are the result of an over allocation of certificates by national governments that were trying to protect domestic industries when the EU ETS began.

Hardin's "Commons"

-access to the commons is open to all -any shared and unregulated resource

politics

-who gets what, when, and how -the process of determining how power and resources are distributed in a society

What's the problem or framework for how they define the problem as a lawyer?

-wrong rules - there is a problem with the current policies, laws, regulations, etc. (or lack thereof)

What's the problem or framework for how they define the problem as a philosopher?

-wrong values - the environmental crisis is at heart a consequence of our belief systems and values

What is a "rights and risk" approach?

A rights and risk approach is a new tool for participatory decision-making that recognizes all legitimate rights of stakeholders and requires a complete assessment of risks to provide a full and fair set of development choices.

Policy Legitimation [Decision Making]

Approve the policy

What does the "social embeddedness of consumption" mean?

Beyond individual purchasing choices among the options before

Who are the main actors being discussed? And how does each view the environmental problem?

CH. 26 Dam builders, indigenous people, Narmada Valley, The World Bank CH. 30: the Massai, Somalis, and pastoralists of other ethnic groups, State, rangers, WWF

What conflicts arise when it comes to formulating and implementing climate change policy?

Compliance with this basic requirement is quite high. Critics argue, however, that much of the information in these communications is not useful, is incomplete, and often cannot be compared across states.

Agenda Setting

Define the problem and identify goal or objective

What's the answer or framework for how they develop solutions as a philosopher?

Education and dialogue

What does each organ do?

General Assembly: designed as the general debate arena where all members would be equally represented according to a one-state/one-vote formula. It has the responsibility for coordinating and supervising subsidiary bodies but with power only to make recommendations to members, except on internal matters such as elections and the budget. It has control over all UN programs and subsidiary bodies. It has elective functions: electing the nonpermanent members of the Security Council, ECOSOC, and the Trusteeship Council; appointing judges to the International Court of Justice; and, upon the recommendation of the Security Council, admitting states to the UN membership and appointing the secretary-general. It deals with delicate situations concerning peace and security. It is a far better organ for the symbolic politics of agenda setting and for mustering large majorities in support of resolutions. Regular annual meetings of the General Assembly are held for three months (or longer) each fall; they begin with a "general debate" period when heads of state, prime ministers, and foreign ministers speak before the assembly. Each year, the General Assembly elects a president and seventeen vice presidents who serve for that year's session. By tradition, presidents come from small and middle-power states. Only once has a woman been elected. The president's powers come largely from personal influence and political skills in guiding the assembly's work, averting crises, bringing parties to agreement, ensuring that procedures are respected, and accelerating the large agenda. There are six functional committees in which all members sit: the First, or Disarmament and International Security Committee, the Second, or Economic and Financial Committee; the Third, or Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee; the Fourth, or Special Political and Decolonization Committee; the Fifth, or Administrative and Budgetary Committee; and the Sixth, or Legal Committee. Each member can have no more than five representatives in the assembly, but alternates and advisers are permitted. The Security Council has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security and the authority to act on behalf of all members of the UN. It was deliberately designed to be small so that it could facilitate swifter and more efficient decision making in dealing with threats to international peace and security. They have permanent members (US, Great Britain, France, Russia, and the People's Republic of China) and nonpermanent members. The permanent members have a veto power and the nonpermanent members are nominated by one of five regional groups and elected for two-year terms. At least four nonpermanent members must vote in favor of a resolution for it to pass. Under current rules, no country may serve successive terms as a nonpermanent member. Five of the nonpermanent seats go to Africa and Asia, two each to Latin America and Western Europe, and one to Eastern Europe. The Council presidency rotates monthly among the fifteen members, and presidents play an active role in facilitating discussions and consensus building, determining when the members are ready to reach a decision and, hence, to convene a formal meeting. The president also confers regularly with the secretary-general, relevant states, and other actors that are not represented on the council. The Secretariat is composed of approximately 55,000 professional and support staff based in New York, Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi, Bangkok, and other UN offices around the world. The Secretary-General is the manager of the organization, responsible for providing leadership to the Secretariat, preparing the UN's budget, submitting an annual report to the General Assembly, and overseeing studies conducted at the request of the other major organs. The UN Secretariat is organized into a series of offices and departments, including the Executive Office of the Secretary-General; the Office of Legal Affairs; the Department of Political Affairs, Peace-keeping Operations, Disarmament Affairs, and Economic and Social Affairs; and the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Each of these is headed by an undersecretary-general. They may highlight gaps in policy and contribute ideas for addressing specific problems drawn from outside consultants, NGOs, and expert groups. Most secretariat staff are involved in implementing the economic, humanitarian, and social programs that represent much of the UN's tangible contribution to fulfilling the Charter promises to "save succeeding generations from the scourge of war...promoting social progress and better standards of like in larger freedom." It is also responsible for gathering statistical data, issuing studies and reports, servicing meetings, preparing documentation, and translating speeches, debates, and documents into the UN's six official languages. The International Court of Justice provides states with an impartial body for settling disputes in accordance with international law and giving advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by international agencies. Judges serve 9 year terms elected by the General Assembly and Security Council. The ICJ has noncompulsory jurisdiction, meaning that parties to a dispute (only states) must all agree to submit a case to the court; it has no executive to enforce its decisions and no police to bring a party to justice. Enforcement therefore depends on the perceived legitimacy of the court's decisions, the voluntary compliance of states, and the "power of shame" if states fail to comply. The Trusteeship Council was originally established to oversee the administration of the non-self-governing trust territories that carried over from the mandate system of the League of Nations. The council's supervisory activities include reporting on the status of the people in the territories, making annual reports, and conducting periodic visits to the territories. The council still exists, but it no longer meets in annual sessions. A new function proposal calls for giving the council responsibility for monitoring conditions that affect the global commons. Another calls for using it to assist "failed states". A third proposal would transform the council into a forum for minority and indigenous peoples. The Specialized Agencies play a key role in activities aimed at economic and social advancement. Global Conferences and Summits "seek to raise global consciousness about a particular problem, hoping to change the dominant attitudes surrounding the definition of the issue"; to educate publics and government officials; to generate new information; to provide opportunities to develop soft law, new norms, principles, and international standards; to highlight gaps in international institutions by providing new forums for debate and consensus building; and to "set in motion a process whereby governments make commitments and can be held accountable." Conferences in particular have mobilized energies and attention in a way that established institutions cannot. They have pushed different parts of the UN system, although the record of implementation is uneven and much depends on NGOs' ability to sustain pressure on governments to live up to commitments they have made and to assist the UN in meeting the demands placed on it. Conferences are one of the main devices...that are used to spawn, nurture, and massage new ideas as well as to nudge governments, international secretariats, and international civil service to alter their conceptions and policies."

Is global pollution mainly a problem of poverty or a problem of affluence?

Global pollution is a problem of neither poverty nor affluence, but of modern technologies. The ecological crisis has resulted mainly from the sweeping progress in technologies. Modern technologies have multiplied the impact of growth on the environment and, consequently, generated most of the existing pollution.

Explain "permanent sovereignty over natural resources."

It confirms a nation's right to do as it sees fit with the resources within its territory.

What is the MEA System?

It is an "intergovernmental document intended as legally binding with a primary stated purpose of preventing or managing human impacts on natural resources." Unlike other international policy fields such as trade, labor, or health, where international institutions are streamlined, environmental problem solving is centered around a multiple number of multilateral environmental agreements and their institutions (secretariat and conference of the parties).

Elinor Ostrom

Observed that many common-pool resources throughout the world are governed by common property regimes

Policy Change [Revision]

Start over!

What are the two main international agreements governing the ozone regime? And what does each do?

The international agreements that delineate the main elements of the regime are the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (a framework convention that did not establish regulations), the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (a regulatory treaty), and the many amendments and adjustments to the Montreal Protocol agreed to during more than twenty meetings of the parties to the protocol.

How does Ostrom define "design principles" and what design principles characterize a common pool resource?

These principles characterized robust institutions for managing common-pool resources such as forests or fisheries. These principles are well-defined boundaries, congruence between appropriation and provision rules and local conditions, collective-choice arrangements, monitoring, graduated sanctions, conflict-resolution mechanisms, minimum recognition of rights, nested enterprises. We use them instead of specific rules, and they characterize all of these robust CPR institutions, plus an eighth principle used in the larger, more complex cases. It is an essential element or condition that helps to account for the success of these institutions in sustaining the CPRs and gaining the compliance of generation after generation of appropriators to the rules in use.

The European Court of Justice

considers cases brought before it by the Commission, the Council, or member states concerning the application of EU treaties. It has one judge per member state. Member states' national courts may request that the ECJ provide interpretations of EU law. The Commission or another EU country also may initiate infringement proceedings in the ECJ against a member state that is failing to fulfill its obligations under EU law. In addition, the ECJ has protected the right of member states to keep national laws that exceed Community-wide standards.

ratification

defines the international act whereby a state indicates its consent to be bound to a treaty

The European Parliament

is elected directly by voters in each country and tends to reflect the diverse interests of political parties and groupings across Europe. There are seven recognized party groupings in the Parliament that bring parties of similar ideological leanings together: the center-right European People's Party and the more left-leaning Party of European Socialists and Democrats are the largest. Its main powers were in its abilities to approve or reject the Commission's proposal for legislation. The Parliament is now basically on an equal footing with the Council of Ministers in determining most EU laws. The Parliament can vote to approve or reject a Commission proposal or can amend it. The Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety, the largest legislative committee in the Parliament, studies and debates critical policy issues related to the regulation of toxic chemicals, the preservation of biodiversity, the promotion of a resource-efficient sustainable Europe, climate change, food safety, and many other issues. The committee proposed that greater attention be paid to the idea that member states could use health or environmental arguments - such as concerns about pesticide resistance, the invasiveness of crops, or potential loss of biodiversity - as the basis for restricting or banning GMOs.

The European Council

is very important as it sets the broad policy agenda for the EU and serves as a forum for building intergovernmental consensus on issues and dealing with points of disagreement among the leaderships of individual member states. The European Council consists of the heads of government and states of the member states, the president of the Council and the president of the Commission. The high representative of the Union for foreign affairs and security policy also takes part in its work. The presidency rotates among the member states every six months, and the country in charge has considerable power to shape the agenda of meetings.

governance

the action or manner of governing

What's the answer or framework for how they develop solutions as a lawyer?

tougher rules/strict enforcement

The Council of the European Union

when environmental issues are being discussed, the EU's twenty-eight environmental ministers may be called together to meet as the Environment Council. The March 2013 Environment Council meeting proposed amendments to the fuel quality and renewable energy directives, debated a draft regulation on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use in the EU, and proposed changes to the environmental impact assessment directive that would streamline environmental assessments but also strengthen standards.

The European Commission

which functions partly as an executive branch, partly as an administrative bureaucracy, and partly as a drafter of legislation, is led by appointed commissioners and includes more than forty directorates-general and services that are somewhat analogous to ministries and agencies of national governments. The commissioners and their staffs are international civil servants who are not supposed to serve any national interest. The Commission's tasks include initiating EU legislation and overseeing its implementation by member states. The Commission is also empowered to negotiate international agreements on behalf of the Community on the mandate of the Council. President is Jose Manuel Barroso.

Tragedy of the Commons

-A resource will be destroyed if its exploitation is not controlled --Rational beings will seek to maximize their personal gain --If everyone reaches the same conclusion eventually, the resource will be depleted

Policy Cycle

-Agenda setting -Policy [Alternative] Formulation -Policy Legitimation [Decision Making] -Policy Implementation -Policy and Program Evaluation -Policy Change [Revision]

What are the weaknesses of the current MEA system?

-There are more than 500 MEAs registered with the UN. Many of these are regional in scope or nested within hierarchical structure of agreements, and a large number are actually defunct, but nonetheless the majority of these operate at the global level. The proliferation of MEAs, with little authority to coordinate activities, leads to treaty congestion as well as institutional and policy incoherence, confusion, and duplication of work. Redundancy leads to inefficiency. However, the rate with which new conventions have emerged has been decreasing since the late 1990s, which is sometimes described as a result of "negotiation fatigue". -MEA secretariats tend to develop an institutional interest in expanding their work, which may result in man-made institutional barriers and may enhance vested interests over time. -In some cases, MEAs have conflicting or duplicating agendas. Such a conflicting/duplicating agenda is partially due to the nature of multilateral rule-making. Each new negotiation process typically starts with different policy makers and stakeholders who do not have the same institutional and policy-oriented concerns that were present in earlier negotiations on related issues. They often start from scratch and are influenced by their own particular political dynamics. In addition, they tend to end up with ambiguous wording as a result of concessions made in the process of reaching consensus. -The proliferation of MEAs increases administrative and institutional costs for member states, because it leads to an increased number of meetings, international negotiations, and reporting. The increasing administrative and travel costs are especially burdensome for developing countries, reducing their participation. -The geographically dispersed locations of MEA secretariats may cause MEAs to be reluctant to hold more substantive and frequent coordinating meetings because of travel costs. To overcome this problem, clustering of MEA secretariats based on issues, themes, functions, or geographical focus have been repeatedly discussed. -Due to the costs related to attending meetings worldwide, developing countries tend to be less willing to engage in additional agreements.

What are the strengths of the current MEA system?

-They have achieved a great deal and reduced the speed with which environmental degradation is proceeding -current research on institutions has shown that the best institutional design for managing complex problems such as the global environment is a loose, decentralized, and dense network of institutions and actors that are able to relay information and provide sufficient redundancies in the performance of functions so that inactivity of one institution does not jeopardize the entire system. -Multiple forums allow multiple opportunities for multiple actors to hold discussions and to take action. This increases the visibility of environmental governance and results in norm diffusion. -A basic principle of the MEA system is to establish on problem-solving rule centered around one MEA. Specialization makes it possible to create a tailor-made solution. It is also easier for the public to understand. -Multiple MEAs and their specific rules of governance provide civil society with more windows of opportunity for participation in the global debate. This is actually a very important point in realizing sustainable development in procedural terms. -A diffused MEA system provides secretariats with opportunities and flexibility for self-innovation. It allows a certain degree of freedom for secretariats to cooperate with agencies dealing with issues other than the environment, where such opportunities exist. Even competition over limited resources often creates positive effects as it encourages the secretariats and other agents to continuously assess their mandates and improve their performances and competencies. Some analysts also see positive effects when host countries of MEA secretariats inject stronger political will in a particular issue (ownership).

Design Principles illustrated by long-enduring common-pool resource institutions

-clearly defined boundaries -congruence (good-fitting rules) -collective-choice arrangements -monitoring -graduated sanctions -conflict-resolution mechanisms -minimal recognition of rights to organize

What is ecological justice?

-is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations and policies. 1. The close linkage between violence against nature and violence against human beings 2. The linkage between the power to control nature and the power to control people 3. The observation that not all people or groups are affected equally by environmental problems or by the responses to those problems 4. The pursuit of solutions that are both ecologically sound and socially just because neither can endure in the absence of the other 5. The need for a fundamental transformation of politics, economics and society

What's the answer or framework for how they develop solutions as a scientist?

-more research/expert management -facts/scientific knowledge -The "Techno Fix"

What are the 6 rights discussed in Chapter 28?

1. The right to life: the "supreme right", "basic to all human rights", and it is a right from which no derogation is permitted even in time of public emergency. It imposes an obligation on States to take positive measures for its protection, including taking measures to reduce infant mortality, malnutrition and epidemics. Right to survival right to development 2. The right to adequate food: enshrines "the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger". Elements of the right to food include the availability of adequate food (including through the possibility of feeding oneself from natural resources) and accessible to all individuals under the jurisdiction of a State. Equally, States must ensure freedom from hunger and take necessary action to alleviate hunger, even in times of natural or other disasters. Feed oneself from natural resources 3. The right to water: CESCR has defined the right to water as the right of everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses, such as drinking, food preparation and personal and household hygiene. 4. The right to health: This right implies the enjoyment of, and equal access to, appropriate health care and, more broadly, to goods, services and conditions which enable a person to live a healthy life. Underlying determinants of health include adequate food and nutrition, housing, safe drinking water and adequate sanitation, and a healthy environment. Other key elements are the availability, accessibility (both physically and economically) and quality of health and health-care facilities, goods and services. 5. The right to adequate housing: "the right to live somewhere in security, peace and dignity." Core elements of this right include security of tenure, protection against forced evictions, availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and cultural adequacy. Guarantees: a.) adequate protection of housing from weather hazards (habitability of housing); b.) access to housing away from hazardous zones; c.) access to shelter and disaster preparedness in cases of displacement caused by extreme weather events d.) protection of communities that are relocated away from hazardous zones, including protection against food evictions without appropriate forms of legal or other protection, including adequate consultation with affected persons. 6. The right to self-determination: "they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development". Include the right of a people not to be deprived of its own means of subsistence and the obligation of a State party to promote the realization of the right to self-determination, including for people living outside its territory. While the right to self-determination is a collective right held by people rather than individuals, its realization is an essential condition for the effective enjoyment of individual human rights.

What are the sources of greenhouse gas emissions? Do these vary across countries? Does this matter?

Although industrialized countries emitted the vast majority of GHGs in the past, some developing countries are among the largest emitters today. Because most GHGs remain in the atmosphere for a long time, the benefits of reducing emissions today will go to future generations rather than to those who must bear the cost of achieving such reductions. The issue of climate change remains intimately linked with the global energy system. Any requirement to reduce emissions will likely affect the cost and availability of energy, a central component of the global economy.

Does the UN Security Council have a mandate to discuss climate change?

Argentina (no): We maintain that the UN Framework convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the primary international intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change. Egypt (no): This debate should not result in any form of outcome that undermines the authority or mandate of the relevant bodies, processes and instruments of wider membership that already address climate change. They would be undermining existing bodies. Australia (yes): The overwhelming nature of the challenge of climate change means that the responsibility lies with all of us, in every forum. US (yes): unusually blunt in condemning what it saw as obstructionism Papua New Guinea: pointed out that the Council has addressed other "nontraditional" security issues without dominating the discussion or undermining other UN entities. Small Island Developing States (Palau): argued that while climate change was not a conventional military threat, the fact that it threatens the existence of entire states places it clearly within the Council's mandate.

What is the principle of additionally?

Arose out of the Southern concern that environmental issues would divert international aid from traditional developmental matters. It seeks to ensure that new moneys are made available to deal with global environmental issues.

What were the Commission's findings and recommendations for future projects?

Asmal argued that the commission had a choice: It could labor until it completely met its mandate, which might take decades, or it could use a specific amount of time to solve as much as it could and leave the remainder of the tasks to other bodies. He chose the second option and stated informally that if the commission could complete 80% of the job, it would be an enormous success. Indeed, it was argued that if the commission could establish 80% of a consensus, the momentum should be sufficient to carry the multi-stakeholder community towards eventual agreement. By leaving unclear just which issues might remain unsettled at the end of the day, Asmal's formulation served to create more negotiating room during the commission process itself, and he deliberately left all issues on the table throughout the several years of commission deliberations. The commission went out of its way to create an inclusive process. Meetings were held on all continents, studies were commissioned from experts in any countries with large dams, and contributions were solicited from people and organizations of any orientation. The establishment of a Web site with voluminous information, including drafts of case studies, allowed participation by anyone with Internet access. On several occasions, the process was so open that organizations with established roles in the controversies felt bypassed and had to be persuaded that the openness was not an attempt to sideline them. The WCD experience on transparency and disclosure should be reviewed by anyone establishing a future commission on what can be achieved with current information technologies.

Why are environmental regimes sometimes, but not always, effective?

Because of systemic obstacles, procedural obstacles, lack or necessary and sufficient conditions, and obstacles that stem from certain characteristics of international environmental issues.

What is the environmental problem being discussed?

CH. 26: "ethnic cleansing" the forcible dislocation of a large number of people belonging to particular ethnic groups. Now this is happening to make way for development projects. Human Rights issue that has yet to be fully addressed CH. 30: Some states or state interests, however, appropriate the conservation concerns of international environmental groups as a means of eliciting support for their own control over productive natural resources. Some tropical developing states use conservation ideology to justify coercion in the name of conservation, often by using violence. The state's mandate to defend threatened resources and its monopolization of legitimate violence combine to facilitate state apparatus-building and social control. "Legitimate" violence in the name of resource control also helps states control people, especially recalcitrant regional groups, marginal groups, or minority groups who challenge the state's authority.

Are there difficult trade-offs to be made between these two values?

CH. 31: The Crude palm oil that SDPL and GVL will produce in the coming years will be branded as environmentally friendly and socially responsibly commodities to European consumers. While it may be true that the technology used to turn the crude palm oil into biofuel relies on renewable raw material, the manner in which these raw materials are produced should raise some ethical questions for the European consumer. Most of the countries that leased land have weak governance...where the extraction of natural resources is strongly linked to poverty, human rights abuses, and environmental degradation. To therefore present energy produced from raw material accessed in this context as sustainable is misleading.

Who are the main actors in each chapter and what interests do they represent?

CH. 7: Rubber tapers and indigenous peoples (Indians) who live off the land. Odd they are working together because they have been fighting a long time because better to come together because forests are being cut down so no land to have/fight over. They realized they were being put against each other to fight a mutual enemy. They occupy lands (standins) in deforestation areas. Some success but not nearly as much as they want because they started getting violent. Businessmen/Landowners that form associations. They have property rights on paper but these indigenous people that have lived there for centuries don't have that paper. But farmers and business can use legal system. CH. 31 multinational corporations. The Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor warns that in countries with weak governance "the plight of the poor is often rooted in political systems in which citizens are denied a voice; government institutions have no obligation to answer to the people, and special interests exploit resources without fear of scrutiny". Politicians and big businesses promote renewable energy technologies as a breakthrough that should be harnessed, the social and environmental costs associated with the raw materials they need is often ignored. It is therefore understandable that environmentalists and human rights defenders question the "green" credentials of renewable energy technologies. The Sime Darby Plantation Liberia (SDPL) and Golden Veroleum Liberia (GVL) both acquired large quantities of lands in Liberia to grow oil palm and rubber. The Round Table on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is the international body that certifies crude palm oil as sustainable. As members of the scheme, both companies claim that their crude palm oil is produced in an environmentally friendly and socially responsible manner.

What is the World Commission on Dams and why was it created?

Comprising of twelve commissioners, was created in 1998 to review the performance of large dams and make recommendations regarding future water and energy projects. The commission determined that it is essential to first establish a fair process, whereby a "rights and risk" approach will put the social and environmental dimensions of dams on a plane with traditional economic and engineering considerations.

What is the resource curse?

Countries with the most resources are the most exploited, usually a particular resource that is in high demand and their economies is dependent on this resource; less economic growth worse development outcomes and corruption and fuel milias and have civil conflict or wars arupt because they want the resource, usually not a democratic system

What are the positives and negatives associated with [big] dams?

Dam construction and management was a preserve for civil engineers. In time, economists began to poach on the engineering preserve, demanding rates of return and other microeconomic standards. In some countries, there has been successful incorporation of people from other disciplines as well - including sociologists, environmentalists, anthropologists, and climatologists - who tended to take a role in dam debates as an assertion of veto rights.

What is the environmental problem being discussed in each chapter?

Deforestation caused by cutting down rainforest to graze more cattle. Growing soy beans and causing land area to be cleared. CH.31: Most of the land (of crude palm oil and biomass) was leased in countries with weak governance, and where the extraction if natural resources [is] linked to poverty and human rights abuses. The crude palm oil is a major ingredient for biofuel, which is also promoted as renewable energy. All the land allocated to them were taken from the customary owners without due process. They were neither consulted nor did they give consent for their land to be allocated. In 2011 communities in Garwula, Grand Cape Mount County filed a complaint with the RSPO claiming that SDPL was violating their rights, including polluting their water sources and taking their land for which they had no consented. The company had also cleared forests used for various cultural practices to plant oil palm. In October 2012 a separate complaint was filed to the RSPO against GVL because the company had allegedly failed to follow RSPO procedures, including failure to secure consent from land owners before clearance. Sustainable products as they are being marketed and importing them from other countries to show they are not sustainable.

What are the different types of NGOs?

ENGOs: environmental NGOs, such as Greenpeace International and the African Forest Forum (Kenya) YOUNGOs: Youth NGOs, such as the UK Youth Climate Coalition and Zero Carbon Africa BINGOs: Business and industry NGOs, such as the World Business Council on Sustainable Development RINGOs: Research and independent NGOs, such as the American University delegation (United States) and Pesticide Action Network Asia (Malaysia) TUNGOs: Trade union NGOs, such as the Norwegian Federation of Trade Unions LGMAs: Local governments and municipal authorities, such as Asociación Conciencia (Argentina) and the International Council of Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) IPOs: Indigenous peoples' organizations, such as the Gwichin Council International (Canada)

In what ways is an open pasture a tragedy of the commons? If overgrazing is a problem, why don't the herdsmen stop adding animals?

Each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit - in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own best interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons. Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.

What is innovative and/or effective about the design of the ozone regime?

First. Advancing scientific knowledge played an important but not a determinative role in the creation and expansion of global ozone policy by helping to increase government concern, inform public opinion, alter perception of national self-interest, enhance the contractual environment, and increase the perceived value of the regime. Calling it ozone hole; getting the public to decimate knowledge was little easier and connect it personally; good education; scientific background to back it up; didn't require the amendments and having the adjustment provision; didn't go for more extreme provisions immediately; developing countries benefited; require recording and finding noncompliance; assessment panel; develop alternatives; economic interests were altered so no industry fighting back; able to transition to not have economic impacts; consistent on following through; change economic incentives so you get compliance; people care because they know it affects them like skin cancer; exposed to UV rays and get sunburn, cataracts, etc.

What does the climate justice movement think about the Kyoto Protocol?

For some climate justice advocates, the protocol falls down by absolving the North of its moral and historical responsibilities. Pay for other countries to not increase their carbon emissions. An exception is the Brazilian proposal, which seeks to link future commitments to historical responsibilities for temperature rises. But Kyoto is still largely perceived by the climate justice movement as a way for the North to buy its way out of altering its unsustainable consumption patterns by trading carbon credits with the South. In the North, where environmental justice has deep roots, social movements have also taken up climate change as a rights issue - but are more supportive of Kyoto, whose neo-conservative opponents are also long-term adversaries of the civil rights and anti-poverty movements. Their messages emerge from long-standing struggles over the adverse and disproportionate impact of toxic waste and pollution on poor and minority communities.

How do Halle and Kohr feel about global summits? Who do you agree more with and why?

Halle: if we are to move forward multilaterally, we will have to begin, finally, to address the glaring gaps between rich and poor countries, and the rich and poor within countries. And since we do not seem ready to do that, we must put a stop to the massive waste of money represented by events like the Rio conference. Goals were vague; need more explicit commitments Kohr: It was fortunate there was even an agreed outcome at all. Despite some setbacks, the developing countries managed to secure many of their key positions and demands made in the negotiations. It says a lot about the current international situation that a reaffirmation of principles made 10 and 20 years ago is a sign of success.

Who is Chico Mendes? And what is he known for?

He is a Brazilian rubber taper and fought to preserve Amazon and fight for rights of Indigenous groups (human rights). Assassinated on 1988 at 44 years old.

According to Hardin, what is the "pollution problem?"

Here it is not a question of taking something out of the commons, but of putting something in - sewage, or chemical, radioactive, and heat wastes into water; noxious and dangerous fumes into the air; and distracting and unpleasant advertising signs into the line of sight. The rational man finds that his share of the cost of the wastes he discharges into the commons is less than the cost of purifying his wastes before releasing them. The pollution problem is a consequence of population.

Construct a timeline of major events for chapter 30 What is the starting point for this narrative? What major changes/events are discussed? And what is the situation in Kenya now?onstruct a timeline of major events for chapter 30 What is the starting point for this narrative? What major changes/events are discussed? And what is the situation in Kenya now?

In 1904 the Maasai, who used to occupy all the land from Mt. Kenya in the north to the border with (and into) what is today Tanzania, were resettled in two reserves. Several years later, those in the northern reserve were resettled again in an extension of the southern reserve. By 1912, they were confined to an area of about 38,000 square kilometers. 1906: they created the Southern Game Reserve - a wildlife reserve within the Maasai reserve because the Maasai were not believed to threaten wildlife, having coexisted with the region's wild game for thousands of years. 1940s-1950s: the colonial government gave in to pressures from game hunters and some conservation groups to set aside rangeland exclusively for wild game. At that same time, the state wanted to settle the Maasai in fixed places, which meant changing their traditional migratory cattle-raising practices. The Southern Game Reserve was abolished in 1952 and four smaller reserves were created, including a new one outside the area of the old Southern Gamer Reserve, called Maasai Mara In the 1950s, hunting was first outlawed within these reserves, although the government issued permits for hunting outside the reserves. In the early 1960s livestock grazing was also forbidden in an 80 km^2 area of the Amboseli reserve, which was a direct threat to Maasai lifestyles and livelihoods. 1960s: the increase in wildlife-oriented tourism increased the state's direct interest in the protection of wild game and the reservation of parklands. Fees and revenues grew. 1970s: Kenyan independence fees and revenues also grew 1974: the government designated 488 km^2 of the Amboseli Basin as a national park, while still negotiating with the Maasai. In 1977: this area was reduced to 390 km^2, which was gazetted as a park and would remain free of livestock. 1989: tourism in Kenya was contributing about 20% of the nation's total foreign exchange. By 1991, tourists were spending some 50 million dollars a year to view elephants and other wildlife The problems were aggravated by a drought in 1984, in which the Maasai lost a substantial part of their livestock and received no assistance from the Park authorities. The wildlife utilization fees were paid regularly until about 1981, then the payments became sporadic without explanation to the Maasai; wouldn't always go to the people who were directly affected 1977: the hunting ban eliminated anticipated income from safari hunting license fees In April 1989, Richard Leakey became the director of Kenya's Wildlife Service. 1989: The government was already using its mandate to protect and manage resources to assert its authority where local people had resisted state controls on their activities since the colonial period. Wage war against poachers, helicopter gun ships; more than 100 poachers are killed to shoot to kill Kenyan Wildlife Service Headquarters and Rangers 1984: clash left 2,169 people dead 1987: some 200-300 Home Guards, none of them Somali, were armed "to assist in policing grazing rights and local disputes" Though equipment and funds may be allocated to protect nature, they can directly or indirectly be used by the state to serve its own political ends. In this way, the commitment to preservation of wildlife for tourism and research serves both the economic and political interests of the Kenyan government, while its actual effectiveness in doing so is questionable.

What was the first mandate and how did the Commission address it?

In pursuit of the first mandate - to review the development effectiveness of dams - the commission reviewed more than 1,000 dams to some degree and 125 dams in great detail. It undertook country studies in the two most controversial cases (India and China) and, most importantly, conducted river basin studies in several parts of the world. It also commissioned seventeen thematic reviews that examined the global inventory of 45,000 large dams in the context of specific attributes and policy issues. The thematic reviews involved evaluations of the social, environmental, and economic implications of dam projects, alternatives to dams, and governance and institutional processes. The commission drew two lessons from its review of the development effectiveness of the world's large dams. The first lesson was that dams have brought significant benefits to publics throughout the world, and that a large cost, often unrecognized owing to its diffuse social and environmental impact, was also incurred. The second lesson was that the most successful dams historically shared three characteristics: They reflected a comprehensive approach to integrating social, environmental, and economic dimensions of development; they created greater levels of transparency and certainty for all involved; and they have resulted in increased levels of confidence in the ability of nations and communities to meet their future water and energy needs.

According to Jethro Pettit, what is the North-South debate on climate change about?

In the North, civil society has concentrated on climate change more exclusively as an environmental issue, by environmental NGOs and researchers and has focused on scientific and technical solutions such as emissions controls and carbon credits. In the South, however, climate change has emerged primarily as a sustainable development issue, whose solutions are seen as inseparable from larger issues of poverty, trade and globalization. These messages have yet to appear in Northern development discourses and in the policies of international NGOs, though these have begun to address issues of poverty impacts and adaptability. Climate change is already on the agenda for many marginalized people concerned with protecting their social and economic rights, North and South. From a rapid review of the landscape, they are making links between poverty and climate change in ways that differ from the mainstream international development community. Some social movements are articulating their messages within the theme of antiglobalization, connecting climate change with unjust of North/South economic relations.

What event are chapters 15 and 16 discussing?

International Institute for Sustainable Development right after the sustainable development summit that has just finished in Rio.

What is the problem of consumption? What are the "systemic drivers" of consumption?

It is not only what consumers choose and use, but more significantly how systemic drivers shape the quantities, costs, and benefits of producing, distributing, and disposing of consumer goods. At the core of this problem is the inability of environmental governance to alter, in any fundamental way, the global ecological effects of these drivers - such as advertising, economic growth, technology, income inequality, corporations, population growth, and globalization - that together are causing consumption, much of which is wasteful, to rise and steadily worldwide.

What is the UN Environment Programme and what does it do?

It is the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment. Their mission is to provide leadership and encouragement partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and people to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations. They assess global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends; developing international and national environmental instruments; and strengthening institutions for the wise management of the environment. Their work is categorized into seven broad thematic areas: climate change, disasters and conflicts, ecosystem management, environmental governance, chemicals and waste, resource efficiency, and environment under review. They maintain their overarching commitment to sustainability.

How does the author describe the traditional understanding of commodity chains? And what is wrong with this traditional understanding?

It was viewed as a set of connections or processes through which a product went, from the provision of raw materials at one end of a chain to the final purchase and use of a product at the other end. The problems are the traditional notion suggests that consumption happens only at the end of the chain - when we buy something or use it. But, if we are to understand ever-expanding material throughout in our world, we must remember that consumption happens at every stage or within every transaction along these chains. At every stage, with every interaction, things are used up. The traditional formulation also downplays the social embeddedness.

How do climate justice advocates use "litigation strategies" to voice their concerns?

Litigation in the USA, even where it fails, has a history of being used to the strategic advantage of rights causes over time. According to the International Center for Technology Assessment, 'If it takes lawsuit after lawsuit to force the Bush administration to accept its responsibilities and pursue good public policy on this issue, then that's what it will face". In legal terms, it is not just actions, but the failure to act that can be prosecuted as a violation of rights. However, even with this highly symbolic contribution, litigation can be very costly and difficult to access for poorer communities, so there are limits to what can be achieved. They are slow moving and hard to get representation; if you lose a case it makes cases in the future harder to overturn

What solutions does Hardin advocate? (Note: solutions vary for overgrazing, pollution, and overpopulation)

National Parks: We might sell them off as private property. We might keep them as public property, but allocate the right to enter them. The allocation might be on the basis of wealth, by the use of an auction system. It might be on the basis of merit, as defined by some agreed-upon standards. It might be by lottery. Or it might be on a first-come, first-served basis, administered to long queues. Pollution: coercive laws, or taxing devices that make it cheaper for the polluter to treat his pollutants than to discharge them untreated.

What could the Security Council actually do?

Nauru: Requesting the immediate appointment of a special representative on climate and security. That it should request an assessment of the capacity of the UN system to respond to such impacts so that vulnerable countries can be assured that it is up to the task. Belgium: we have to take concrete steps towards a coherent approach within the UN system. Our international institutions should be prepared to respond to the impacts of climate change and the scarcity it will cause. Costa Rica: The permanent members of the Security Council - all major emitters and, with their right of veto, endowed with exceptional powers within this organ - should in particular make a clear political commitment to reducing greenhouse gases. Nigeria: calls for enhanced efforts for the equitable distribution of adaptation funds and capacity-building programming, as well as promotion of the Global Environment Facility programme steered by the UN Development Programme.

What are the various outcomes discussed in chapters 15 and 16? And how do Halle and Kohr's perceptions of these outcomes differ?

One-third of the text consists of reaffirmation of decisions taken previously. In these reaffirmations, we declare that what we said before is still valid, that these aspirations still exist. Roughly one-third of the text spells out considerations that governments should bear in mind in advancing along their development paths. The final third of the outcome document consists of language, mostly familiar but sometimes new, that identifies priorities in a wide array of areas ranging from oceans, cities, and food security to water, sustainable consumption, economic development and institutional design. Kohr: The talks were bogged down by contentious debates on the "green economy", a new concept in the context of multilateral negotiations. The outcome document agreed to just about meets the minimum requirements of success, given the deteriorating state of international cooperation and the tough battles that developing countries had to fight in the past year to get their points across. It was a starting point and not a threshold or ceiling for implementing the path to sustainable development that had to be ambitious and should serve as a legacy for future generations.

What is stratospheric ozone? What is the ozone layer? Why is it important? What depletes it? What would be the impacts of significant ozone depletion?

Ozone is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms. The stratosphere helps to shield the Earth from ultraviolet radiation produced by the sun. Depletion of this ozone layer would result in increases in human skin cancers and cataracts and serious harm to many plants, animals, and ecosystems. Destruction of the ozone layer would be a planetary disaster. Certain human-made chemicals pose a serious threat to stratospheric ozone. Chemicals that threaten the ozone layer include chlorofluorocarbons, once very widely used as refrigerants, industrial solvents, and aerosol propellants, as well as in the manufacture of rigid and flexible foam; hydro chlorofluorocarbons, less ozone-depleting CFC substitutes; halons, widely used for fire control; methyl bromide, and inexpensive, widely used, and very toxic soil and structural fumigant used to kill pests across a wide range of agricultural and shipping sectors; and other substances such as carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform. What all these chemicals share is the ability to remain intact and rise high into the atmosphere, where they break down and release chlorine or bromine atoms into the stratosphere; these atoms then destroy ozone molecules. HFCs are not ozone depleting substances but they are problematic in being a greenhouse gas. Trophospheric Ozone is man-made ozone; through pollution/smog and not healthy for humans to be around and not great for planet and it is a greenhouse gas. HCFCs, BCMs,

Policy Implementation

Put policy into effect

What is the Green Belt Movement?

Responding to needs identified by rural women, namely lack of firewood, clean drinking water, balanced diets, shelter and income. It used peace trees to reconcile disputing communities. It explores the concept of cultural biodiversity, especially with respect to indigenous seeds and medicinal plants. These women will see direct impacts of the change in environment. She saw the water dried up and where she used to play the string bags are no longer there. Now women may have to travel long distances to get water. Empowerment of women and marginalized groups. Wanted to bring back sense of adventure because now young girls spend time getting water instead of playing.

What is the polluter-pays principle?

Seeks to ensure that the costs of environmental action are borne by those who created the need for action. It is rooted in concerns about fairness and constitutes a key component of the Rio bargain.

What are common-pool resources? Examples?

Set of pastoralists - who are inexorably led to overuse their common pasture - as an allegory for what he thought was typical for common-pool resources (CPRs) not owned privately or by a government. CPRs are normally used by multiple individuals and generate finite quantities of resource units available to others. Most CPRs are sufficiently large that multiple actors can simultaneously use the resource system. Efforts to exclude potential beneficiaries are costly. Examples of CPRs include both natural and human-made systems including: Hardin's grazing lands, groundwater basins, irrigation systems, forests, fisheries, mainframe computers, government and corporate treasuries, and the Internet. Examples of resource units derived from CPRs are fodder, water, timber, computer-processing units, information bits, and budget allocations.

What is the precautionary principle?

Stating that the absence of full scientific certainty should not be used as an excuse to avoid taking action to mitigate the threat or impact of climate change.

What are some obstacles (systemic, procedural, etc.) to effective global environmental policy?

Systemic Obstacles: -The International Political System: states prefer and strive for independence over interdependence, states tend to seek a balance of power, and effective cooperation among states is often difficult to achieve. -Global Political and Ecological Systems: the structure of the global political system, composed of independent sovereign states, is structurally not well suited to address complex, interdependent, international environmental problems whose causes, impacts, and solutions transcend unrelated political boundaries. -Global Legal Systems and the Requirements for Effective International Environmental Policy: Legitimate actions within one country can create environmental problems for another. The structure of international law, in the form of sovereign legal control of resources within one country's borders, often conflicts with the requirements for effective international environmental policy. -lack of hierarchy -obstacles that stem from characteristics of international environmental issues -lack of necessary and sufficient conditions Procedural Obstacles: -Lowest-Common-Denominator Problem: Because states are sovereign entities, they can choose to join or not join international environmental agreements. At the same time, the active participation of many countries is usually necessary to address a regional or global problem. This often means that the countries most interested in addressing a problem must gain the cooperation of countries with less, little, or even no interest. Thus international and global environmental policy often represents, at least at the start, the lowest-common-denominator measures that the relevant countries are willing to accept. Slow Development and Implementation: The sovereignty of states and the fact that each can choose to join or not join an international environmental agreement contributes to a significant time lag between the identification of an international environmental problem and the impact of international policy. Negotiations must be convened, policies agreed to, treaties formally ratified by governments, treaty implementation initiated, and national policies undertaken effectively and over a long enough period of time to have an impact on the environmental problem. They can take their time

How have global environmental politics changed since the 1972 global summit in Stockholm? What has not changed since 1972? Compared to where things stood at the Stockholm conference, where do we stand as we look to the future?

The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden, attended by 113 states, marked the beginning of organized international efforts to devise a comprehensive agenda to safeguard the environment while also promoting economic development. Although no binding treaties were adopted at Stockholm, the conference established the United Nations Environment Programme, creating a permanent forum for monitoring global environmental trends, convening international meetings and conferences, and negotiating international agreements. Among UNEP's most important achievements are the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the binding 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. In the 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development issued its historic report Our Common Future, which called for a new era of "sustainable development". -The international political context -The emergence of global public awareness and concern -growth in the number of international environmental treaties, agreements, and cooperative accords -9/11 had impact and get a rise of isolation and now a focus on terrorism and pull back from working with other countries -cold war -Global financial crisis in 2007-08 and changes dynamics of political context -we plateau and less caring on environment and shift towards development issues -de-emphasis on environmental protection in 2012 -Not as many heads of state in 1972 and way more in 2012 -growth inside side conventions at same time as official convention lots of participations form NGO -a lot of commitments to action; 2002 and 2012 lots of maintaining -2012 we are getting countries to say yes we are still on board is an accomplishment NOT CHANGED -lot of conflict between North and South -getting worse and same problems of pollution -developed states are projecting same tools and power to influence developing countries to push their agenda; technological education that is being passed down -US is a trend setter; US is not a leader in policy initiatives on environment and stubborn with cooperating and plays a big roles in policies getting watered down or not passing them

What is the Montreal Protocol? What are the main rules of the Protocol and the ozone regime?

The Montreal Protocol established the mechanism to control ODSs and placed binding controls on the production and use of certain CFCs and halons. The most important regime rules are the binding requirements for countries to reduce or eliminate the production and use of ODSs. Regime rules also include requirements regarding the provision of technical and financial assistance to developing countries to help them implement the treaty, reporting by countries regarding the production and use of ODSs, when and how the efficacy of the regime is to be reviewed, and other issues.

What 3 (or 4) multilateral environmental agreements provide the foundation for the international climate change regime? What does each agreement do? What are the main objectives and terms of each? (Prepare 3-4 bullet points for each.)

The UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Cancun Agreements, Copenhagen agreement. The Doha amendments and paris agreement The FCCC establishes the basic architecture within which international efforts to address global climate change take place it doesn't establish binding regulations but might lay out general obligations or goals and it's an organizational structure, while the Kyoto Protocol outlines specific obligations consistent with the guiding principles set forth in the FCCC. Together, these two documents set forth the principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures that have governed interactions among members of the international community on this issue for the past thirty years. With the Cancun Agreements, countries have tried to develop new rules and institutions within the existing regime in order to deal with the changing nature of the climate change problem. The FCCC believes measures taken to deal with climate change should be cost-effective, ensuring the greatest benefit at the lowest cost. In addition, all countries are seen to have a right to sustainable development, and measures to address climate change should promote that objective. It also emphasizes the importance of maintaining an open international economic system. The Kyoto protocol set specific targets for industrialized countries to reduce their GHG emissions but left the specific rules and operational details for how countries could achieve those reductions unresolved.

What event is chapter 6 discussing?

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)

Who was on the commission and what did it do?

The World Bank and the regional development banks were inevitably drawn into the decision-making. Expert credit agencies where turbine manufacturers were located played a part, and bilateral-aid donor agencies often got involved except in rare cases. Finally, the nongovernmental environmental organizations could not resist the opportunity to push their agendas beyond national boundaries and join the debate as well. The chair was chosen first: Kader Asmal, minister of water in South Africa, a veteran of the anti-apartheid movement and senior member of the African National Congress Executive Committee, known for bringing consensus out of the most intractable situations. The diverse commission was chosen, including the CEO of a major manufacturer of dam turbines, a leader of a militant protest group against dams in India's Narmada Valley, and a leading academic expert on the social and resettlement issues associated with dams. The commissioners came from all regions of the world and covered most major fields of knowledge relevant to decisions on dams. Each decision had to reflect joint ownership of the commission and a strong sense of shared participation.

Think back to the 6 stages of the policy making process discussed at the beginning of the semester. What stages can you identify throughout the evolution of the climate change regime?

The agenda-setting phase of the international climate change regime saw the expansion of concern about the problem from the scientific to the political arena.

What is the climate justice movement?

The climate justice movement are concerned with the hugely disproportionate impact of pollution and ecological degradation on poor communities. Together, these diverse social forces have adopted "climate justice" as a rallying cry. Their message is that poor people have not been "waiting for the science" on global warming. They have been living with it - and with many other forms of pollution and degradation - for many years, as "social sinks" for the externalization of environmental costs. Articulated in the language of rights, their foremost concern about climate change is with who is responsible for this enormous new threat to their survival. Rather than asking how we can mobilize them on climate issues, a more important question may be how they can further mobilize and align themselves as a global political force with influence at multiple levels - and perhaps in doing so compel those of us in the poverty industry to take a much stronger stand both on the life-threatening poverty effects of climate change and more importantly, on addressing its primary causes within our own societies and economies.

What is the lowest-common-denominator problem?

The countries most interested in addressing a problem must gain the cooperation of countries with less, little, or even no interest. Thus international and global environmental policy often represents, at least at the start, the lowest-common-denominator measures that the relevant countries are willing to accept.

Who were some of the stakeholders in debates/controversies over big dams?

The debate took on a particular virulence in the development banks - the one place where all countries met, whether rich or poor - to decide on major infrastructure involves enormous resources, and with the payoff occurring over many years, it was natural that developing countries with large hydroelectric potential would look foreign financiers for the imported component costs - turbines, transmission systems, and engineering skills. Each stakeholder would, on more than one occasion, decide that the potential outcome was not worth the investment of time and political capital and threaten to withdraw. However, in the end, almost none withdrew. IUCN, those who live upstream and downstream from the dam; NGOs, energy companies, ecologists

What are the 3 types of commodity chains discussed in the chapter? What are the environmental and humanitarian impacts associated with each?

The environmental concerns related to agricultural commodities are ecological harms caused by the widespread use of herbicides and pesticides and excess nutrients engendered by fertilizer use; deforestation, land-use changes, and biodiversity losses associated with converting lands into industrial-scale agriculture; overuse of surface water and groundwater resources; soil degradation and desertification; and the growing demand for fossil fuels engendered by the industrialization of agriculture around the world. The humanitarian and public health concerns associated with agriculture that are most frequently listed by activists and analysts alike include the following: human health risks from widespread and often unsafe use of chemical pesticides and herbicides, exploitation of child labor, the general lack of labor rights and worker safety institutions, and the widespread low pay and poverty in grower-producer communities. The mining industry and extractive industries require the movement of massive quantities of earth, and they produce stunning amounts of a diverse set of pollutants. Agricultural commodities, extractive industries, finished consumer goods

What are the benefits and challenges of a regional (or multilateral) governing structure like the EU?

The establishment of a common internal economic market contributed to the opening of national borders and the harmonization of many policies once in the exclusive domain of individual member states. The EU has also established some of the strongest and most innovative environmental protection measures in the world. In principle, environmental protection now enjoys equal weight with economic development in EU policy making. The EU has managed to become an international agenda setter in relation to climate change, renewable energy, chemicals regulation, product standards, biosafety, and numerous other environmental matters. It is an impressive development that provides valuable lessons for other regions of the world to consider. Political will and public support have been key factors behind the EU's success in approaching the environment from an integrated perspective. The political, economic, and geographic diversity that characterize the EU have challenged policy makers to develop innovative strategies and skills for overcoming differences and sharing burdens equitably. Enlargement has both complicated internal negotiations on environmental matters and provided opportunities to strengthen the EU's international reach on environmental issues.

Explain the title "Coercing Conservation."

The title "Coercing Conservation" is that some state interests appropriate the ideology, legitimacy, and technology of conservation as a means of increasing or appropriating their control over valuable resources and recalcitrant populations and that international conservation groups are (sometimes negligently) complicit in the resulting dispossession of indigenous peoples with resource claims. A state or a faction of the state may coerce conservation under one or all of three circumstances: when the resources are extremely valuable, when the state's legitimate control of the resource is questioned or challenged by other resource users, and when coercion is considered either the last resort or the easiest means of establishing control over people and territory.

Explain each of the 3 flexible mechanisms (a.k.a. Kyoto mechanisms).

The flexible mechanism gives parties considerable flexibility in choosing how to achieve their emissions reduction commitments. The "Kyoto mechanisms" or "flexible mechanisms" include emissions trading, joint implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism. Emissions trading permits countries that exceed their allowed emissions to purchase emissions credits from countries whose emissions are below their allotted amount. The CDM allows industrialized countries to invest in emissions-reducing activities in developing countries in return for certified emissions reductions that they may then use toward meeting Kyoto targets. Industrialized countries may also invest in emissions reduction activities in other industrialized countries under the rules of joint implementation.

Why is the ozone regime an important regime to study? What lessons can we learn from this regime?

The ozone regime is the set of integrated principles, norms, rules, and procedures that nation-states have created to regulate and coordinate action in an attempt to protect stratospheric ozone from human-made chemicals. The lessons we can learn from this regime is that the ozone layer is a critical natural system and must be protected; that certain human-made chemicals deplete the ozone layer; that political action should be based on the best scientific and technical information available; that regulations should be guided, in general, by precautions; and that all states have a common responsibility to help protect the ozone layer but have different responsibilities in doing so. The norms of the ozone regime include the standards of behavior enunciated in the Vienna Convention, the Montreal Protocol, amendments to the protocol, and decisions by the parties or Executive Committee that do not carry the binding nature of rules. The procedures of the ozone regime include provisions for amending the treaty; procedures for deliberating on, agreeing to, and implementing other types of binding and nonbinding decisions. The atmospheric abundance of ODSs is declining, as is the amount of chlorine and bromine in the stratosphere, and ozone depletion has largely stabilized, although severe depletion still occur. If countries continue to implement their commitments, the ozone layer over most parts of the world should fully recover by 2050, with the depletion above the Antarctic disappearing later in the century.

What is the principle of common but differentiated responsibility?

The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities acknowledges that, although all members of the international community have an obligation to protect the climate for present and future generations, industrialized countries and formerly communist countries with economies in transition have a responsibility to take the lead in addressing climate change. This stems from their historical responsibility for emitting GHGs as well as the assumption that they possess the financial and technological capabilities to control those emissions.

How does climate change affect the 6 rights discussed in Chapter 28?

The right to life: will affect the right to life through an increase in hunger and malnutrition and related disorders impacting on child growth and development, cardio-respiratory morbidity and mortality related to ground-level ozone. Climate change will exacerbate weather-related disasters which already have devastating effects on people and their enjoyment of the right to life, particularly in the developing world. The right to food: As a consequence of climate change, the potential for food production is projected initially to increase at mid to high latitudes with an increase in global average temperature in the range of 1-3°C. At lower latitudes crop productivity is projected to decrease, increasing the risk of hunger and food insecurity in the poorer regions of the world. Poor people living in developing countries are particularly vulnerable given their disproportionate dependency on climate-sensitive resources for their food and livelihoods. The realization of the right to adequate food requires that special attention be given to vulnerable and disadvantaged groups, including people living in disaster-prone areas and indigenous people whose livelihood may be threatened. The right to water: exacerbate existing stresses on water resources and compound the problem of access to safe drinking water, currently denied to an estimated 1.1 billion people globally and a major cause of morbidity and disease. In this regard, climate change interacts with a range of other causes of water stress, such as population growth, environmental degradation, poor water management, poverty and inequality. The right to health: climate change is projected to affect the health status of millions of people, including through increases in malnutrition, increased diseases and injury due to extreme weather events, and an increased burden of diarrheal, cardio-respiratory and infectious diseases. Poor health and malnutrition increase vulnerability and reduce the capacity of individuals and groups to adapt to climate change. The right to adequate housing: sea level rise and storm surges will have a direct impact on many coastal settlements. The erosion of livelihoods, partly caused by climate change, is a main "push" factor for increasing rural to urban migration. Many will move to urban slums and informal settlements where they are often forced to build shelters in hazardous areas. Funding that is suspended or threatened to be suspended for landlords which affects disproportionately the poor groups. The right to self-determination: changes in the climate threaten to deprive indigenous peoples of their traditional territories and sources of livelihood. Either of these impacts would have implications for the right to self-determination. The inundation and disappearance of small island States would have implications for the right to self-determination, as well as for the full range of human rights for which individuals depend on the State for their protection.

What was the second mandate and how did the Commission address it?

The second mandate of WCD - to develop internationally acceptable criteria, guidelines, and standards, where appropriate, for the planning, design, appraisal, construction, operation, monitoring, and decommissioning of dams, was the main challenge for the commission members. The solution reached by WCD comprised three international norms: international recognition of human rights, the right to development, and the right to a healthy environment. In that context, WCD established seven policy principles for decisionmakers to follow: gain public agreement, conduct a comprehensive options assessment, address existing dams, sustain rivers and livelihoods, recognize entitlements and share benefits, ensure compliance, and share rivers for peace, development, and security. At a minimum, the seven principles would serve as a valuable agenda from which any negotiation over a dam project might begin.

What are the 6 major organs of the United Nations?

The six major bodies: The General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.

Within the realm of global environmental politics, what role do institutions, values, interests, power, and ideas play?

This refers to the argument that social reality is "constructed" through social interaction -that humans, collectively, construct the world in which they live through their identities and debates about values and norms (about what is justified or appropriate). International cooperation is more than mere ad hoc coalitions or a reflection of shared interests. It reflects who the participants are (or believe they are), and it can shape how they see themselves over time and what they view as appropriate.

Was the 1992 Rio Summit a global town meeting or a closed-door reunion of political and economic elites? Was it an important step toward institutionalizing global environmental governance or a failure of wills? A watershed for a new era, a triumph of business as usual, or simply an irrelevant distraction?

This was not a conference about the environment at all; it concerned the world's economy and how the environment affects it. The spectacle of the great and the good at UNCED casting about for "solutions" that will keep their power and standards of living intact has confirmed the skepticism of those whose fate and livelihoods were being determined. The demands from many grassroots groups around the world are not for more "management" - a fashionable word at Rio - but for agrarian reform, local control over local resources, and power to veto developments and to run their own affairs. For them, the question is not how their environment should be managed - they have the experience of the past as their guide - but who will manage it and in whose interest. Unwilling to question the desirability of economic growth, the market economy, or the development process itself, UNCED never had a chance of addressing the real problems of "environment and development." By such deliberate evasion of the central issues which economic expansion poses for human societies, UNCED condemned itself to irrelevance even before the first preparatory meeting got underway. There is progress but we are not making super specific commitments.

Is the Security Council a competent and representative body to address climate change?

UK (Yes): It is through discussion and better awareness of new and cross-cutting security challenges, including the effects of climate change, that the Council can best fulfill its responsibility to prevent future conflict. Singapore: It can help to build greater awareness of the catastrophic long-term consequences of climate change, including the possible security consequences. Secondly, the Security Council can help to reinforce ongoing efforts to inject political momentum into the UNFCCC negotiating process. China's (no): The Security Council lacks expertise in climate change and the necessary means and resources. Moreover, the Council is not a forum for decision-making with universal representation. India (no): We must not confuse political motion with action. Climate change needs the collective understanding and support of all Member States. Action must therefore lie in the UNFCCC. Bolivia (no): we do not believe that the issue should be addressed by the Security Council because the representatives of the largest emitters of greenhouse gases are precisely those States with permanent seats in the Council to adopt resolutions on sanctions or reparations that effectively hold those countries responsible for the damage they are causing? Today, the only forum with this level of participation is the General Assembly. For that reason, all aspects of climate change should be addressed comprehensively by that body. Russia (no): We believe that involving the Security Council in a regular review of the issue of climate change would bring no added value whatsoever and would merely lead to a further politicization of the issue and increased disagreements among countries, which would be an extremely undesirable outcome.

Who was Wangari Maathai? And what was she known for?

Wangari Maathai was the 2004 Nobel Peace Laureate and the first African to receive this prize. She was known for intensifying her commitment to the African people, to reduce conflicts and poverty and thereby improve their quality of life. Let us embrace democratic governance, protect human rights and protect our environment. She started the Green Belt Movement.

Which countries are leaders and which are laggards on climate change policy?

While countries like China and India acknowledged their role as major GHG emitters, they rejected the idea that they should accept binding emissions reduction commitments based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. In 2007 China surpassed the US as the world's leading emitter of GHGs.

How will climate change impacts affect women, children, and indigenous peoples?

Women: exposed to climate change-related risks due to existing gender discrimination, inequality and inhibiting gender roles. Death rate of women is higher than men during natural disasters (often linked to reasons such as: women are more likely to be looking after children, to be wearing clothes which inhibit movement and are less likely to swim). Women are more susceptible to gender-based violence during natural disasters and during migration, and girls are more likely to drop out of school when households come under additional stress. Vulnerability is exacerbated by factors such as unequal rights to property, exclusion from decision-making and difficulties in accessing information and financial services. Children: Climate change will exacerbate existing health risks and undermine support structures that protect children from harm. Extreme weather events and increased water stress already constitute leading causes of malnutrition and infant and child mortality and morbidity. Likewise, increased stress on livelihoods will make it more difficult for children to attend school. Moreover, like women, children have a higher mortality rate as a result of weather-related disasters. Indigenous Peoples: Climate change, together with pollution and environmental degradation, poses a serious threat to indigenous peoples, who often live in marginal lands and fragile ecosystems which are particularly sensitive to alterations in the physical environment. Indigenous peoples inhabiting low-lying island States face similar pressures, threatening their cultural identity, which is closely linked to their traditional lands and livelihoods.

Is climate change a security threat? What are the various perspectives on this issue?

Yes. The various perspectives on this issue are sea-level rise, statelessness, food insecurity, extreme weather events, reduced water access, and migration. The president of Nauru said it's a threat to international peace and security. It carries the potential to destabilize Governments and ignite conflict. Bangladesh: climate change-induced food insecurity, the uprooting of populations and related adversity constitute a threat to international peace and security. Russia: The report refers only to hypothetical impacts of climate change on security and is not able to precisely predict them. It fails to provide empirical data establishing any correlation between these phenomena. Although it contains very balanced conclusions and recommendations on further work in this area, it is very telling that the Security Council is not once referred to in the report. Brazil: security tools are appropriate to deal with concrete threats to international peace and security, but they are inadequate to address complex and multidimensional issues such as climate change.

treaty

a formal agreement between two or more states in reference to peace, alliance, commerce, or other international relations

Sustainable Development

is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs Sustainable development means the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept clearly represents an attempt to bridge the concerns and interests of developed and developing nations, but it applies to both. Both the wealthiest and the less developed countries will need to change their production and consumption patterns. It also attempts to reconcile economic growth and environmental protection, not view them as trade-offs. The concept is strongly anthropocentric. It starts from the premise that human needs must be met before a state can address environmental problems. Thus improvement in the living conditions in poor countries, and especially those of women and marginal social and economic groups, is an essential precondition for ecological preservation. Fourth, the limits to growth are not ultimately physical or biological but social and technological; it is assumed that environmental problems can be solved. Finally, the concept is extremely general, lacking specific content on how sustainable development is to be attained or who is responsible for achieving it. It allows the idea to be adopted by virtually everyone as a way of bringing people together to seek common ground.

institution

structures and mechanisms of social order that govern the behavior of a set of individuals within a given community

What's the problem or framework for how they define the problem as a scientist?

wrong information - there is a lack of accurate, objective information