Poli 352

Kennedy administration's first official instruction

very similar to the approach undertaken by the Eisenhower admin worry that the Kennedy admin would free all political prisoners and reconvene parliament

Mercenary in Backmann reading

participated in the maintenance of the Rhodesian regime in its efforts to withhold the advances of nationalist guerrillas -of French origin -"adventure" a reflection upon the brutality and cruelty of Africa's dirty wars

Are international norms neutral according to Grovugi?

no. they undermine alternative discourses and modes of representation

Negative sovereignty

non-interference in domestic affairs; quasi-state that protects corrupt, brutal dictator positive sovereignty: the capacity to deliver public goods and welfare

Garvey's new principle of legitimacy

one that advanced the principle of the protection of human dignity, even if that implied challenging the assumption of absolute control of a state's internal affairs

Other than domestic/electoral politics, why did Truman admin pay attention to domestic racism?

other countries were paying attention to it highly covered in international newspapers this led Truman admin to consider a pro-civil rights posture to promote democracy/contain communism

Fanon saw revolution as

part of a process that culminated in the regeneration of man and society, of self-liberation, and rebirth only through revolution could a suppressed people undo the effects of colonialism colonized people need to assert themselves/take independence. can't expect it to be merely granted. achieving liberation would restore integrity/pride entire colonial system must be destroyed/uprooted struggle total/absolute

Angola organizations

three organizations strove for dominance MPLA, FNLA, UNITA (broke off from FNLA) FNLA merger of two regional parties (led by Holden Roberto, protege of Mobutu) -each of these movements roughly associated w/one of Angola's three main ethnic groups, although each had members of different ethnic origins and the MPLA emphasized its inclusive national appeal

The "Flechas": Portuguese African special

find notes on this

Is race a marginal issue to the world order?

no, central fundamental to the emergence of democracy as a whole

Rural people and tradition (Davidson)

-didn't associate w/broader ideologies -their interpretation of reality depended on local beliefs and customs -difficulty getting folks to accept secular, rather than religious, explanations of reality

Cecil Rhodes Quote

"Africa is still lying ready for us, it is our duty to take it. It is our duty to take it. It is our duty to seize every opportunity of acquiring more territory and we should keep this one idea steadily before our eyes: that more territory simply means more of the Anglo-Saxon

Pan-African Nationalism Garvey Quote

"I pay very little attention to where men are born...it [...] that 40 millions of our foreparts were brought to this Western Hemisphere as slaves and scattered over the West Indies and America without any choice of our own"

Rodney quote about dependency theory

"It is necessary to re-emphasize that development and underdevelopment are not only comparative terms, but that they also have a dialectical relationship one to the other: that is to say, the two help produce each other by interaction. Western Europe and Africa had a relationship which ensured the transfer of wealth from Africa to Europe"

What does Grovugi argue that sovereignty represents?

"an historical mode of global governance intended to effect a moral order of identity and subjectivity and are constructs of global inequities" (30) b/c produced by EU elites to serve their interests and applied only when convenient to these actors

CIA quote about Lumumba's power

"his use of goon squads and propaganda and spirit of defeat within [government] coalition which would increase rapidly under such conditions would almost certainly insure [Lumumba] victory in parlimanent" -effectively that this rise to power would be inevitable and that unless "drastic steps" were taken, this would ultimately defeat US policy in Congo

Slavery as corruption

"slavery was corruption: it involved theft, bribery, and exercise of brute force as well as ruses. Slavery thus may be seen as one source of precolonial origins of modern corruption" "the procurement of slaves through internal warfare, raiding, and kidnapping resulted in subsequent state collapse and ethnic fractionalization"

US Embassy in Moscow in 1949

"the Negro question was one of the principle Soviet propaganda themes regarding the United States"

Fanon and bourgeoisie

"the bourgeoisie only tries to replace the colonial class that had been removed by the revolution, whereas for Fanon the aim is to redistribute the productive energies of the nation, not to substitute black bourgeoisie for white." -they would fail the revolution by trying to use the struggle for their selfish ends (it would be up to others to step and ensure the revolution's success)

French journalist F.-X. Verschave's definition of Francafrique

"the secret criminality in the upper echelons of French political economy where a kind of underground Republic is hidden from view....Over the course of four decades, hundreds of thousands of euros misappropriated from debt, aid, oil, and cocoa or drained(....) through French importing monopolies, have financed French political-business networks, shareholders' dividends, the secre(....) services' major operations and mercenary expeditions" (Mouvements 2002)

Battle of Adwa

1/3/1896 -ethiopian forces under King Menelik II defeated invading Italian forces -3,000 Italian troops killed; 1900 taken prisoner -outcome stunned European powers; "the pope is greatly disturbed" (New York Times)

What gave Europe a head start? (Rodney)

-first part of the world to move from feudalism towards capitalism -headstart in scientific understanding of the universe/making of tools/efficient organization of labour -particular aspects of Africa became weaknesses. representatives of a different phase of development.

IR and fixed universals

-fixed universals: problems of interest/state/power within the IR system -in sticking to these, africa/caribbean/asia, etc. left out of the picture of decolonization

What did Europe have a monopoly of knowledge over?

-international exchange system. only sector capable of viewing the system as a whole.

Privation

(as used by Jackson) intertribal conflict motivated by self-interest and unconstrained by state or civil institutions

How does Jus Gentilis support this argument?

(the law that governed interactions amongst Christians, Christians and Europeans, and Christians and non-Europeans- that deemed indigenous people's physical, emotional, and/or legal attachment to land unworthy of EU respect

How many ethnographies-linguistic groups in the Congo?

132

Roots of Underdevelopment

-"British trade is a magnificent superstructure of American commerce and naval power on an African foundation." - Postlethwayt -"if you were to lose each year more than 200 million livres that you now get from your colonies; if you had not the exclusive trade with your colonies to feed your manufactures, to maintain your navy, to keep your agriculture going, to repay your imports, to provide for your luxury needs, to advantageously balance your trade with Europe and Asia, then I say it clearly, the kingdom would be irretrievably lost" - Bishop Maury (of France): argument against France ending the slave trade and giving freedom to its slave colonies, presented at the French National Assembly, 1791

Wretched of the Earth (1961)

-"For he knows that he is not an animal; and it is precisely at the moment he realizes his humanity that [the native] begins to sharpen the weapons with which to secure his victory" -emancipation through eliminating colonial inferiority complexes

How were foreign policy concerns made clear in the case of Brown?

-"US Justice Department argued that desegregation was in the national interest in part due to foreign policy concerns" -trying to prove to people of the world, every nationality, race, and color, that a free democracy is the most civilized and most secure form of government -Brown was taken as a "blow to communism" as it vindicated American democratic principles -the value of a clear Supreme Court statement that segregation was unconstitutional was recognized by the State Department -overall point: desegregation served as an important foreign policy interest, must be noted to fully understand the U.S. posture of civil rights issues

Cabral's realism

-"our own reality- however fine and attractive the reality of others may be- can only be transformed by detailed knowledge of it" -each country had to find solutions to its particular set of problems -"are we really liberating our people, the human beings in our country from all forms of oppression? Ask me simply this and draw your own conclusions."

So, what has sovereignty been based on?

-"rules, norms, and mechanisms" determined by Western powers, not a universal code of ethical standards -"an ethical imaginary" of "moral solicitude" according to "ethnic, racial, ideological, political, and/or economic" considerations

Davidson quote about situating pre-colonial African "Nation-State [...]"

-"so much nonsense has been written over the last hundred years about the arbitrary and unpredictable nature of precolonial African political communities and their m[...] existence that their systematic regularities, and the re[...] for these realities, have become hugely obscured"

National liberation

-"when imperialism arrived in Guinea it made us leave history- our history" -neo-colonialism as the betrayal of the objectives of national liberation -unity might prevail during the liberation struggle, but "internal contradictions"- class, ethnic, and urban-rural divisions- were likely to re-emerge after independence

Elite security dilemma

-'personalist dictatorships are substantially more contrained than either military or single-party regimes' -deinstitutionalization hallmark of patrimonialism--noted that 'the strategies pursued by dictators' to maintain their power render their military institutions 'incapable of doing much more than repressing unarmed civilians' because in order to 'coup-proof' regime, dictators must systematically weaken their armed forces 'personalist dictatorships that face few of the decisional constraints found in democracies are also constrained from participation in international conflict, albeit through different political institutions'

What factors explain the connection between war and state building?

-interstate wars create revenue collection (taxes), improve administrative capacities, nationalism and population unification ("rally round the flag effect") -all these factors lead to strong states

Case study: Kongo and IR of the slave trade

-kidnapping of people for slave trade undermined social order, royal authority -slavers "bring ruin to the country" (letter from king to Portugal) -slave trade was a key factor in weakening and eventually bringing down the kingdom -pre-colonial African political units were often similarly weakened or dissolved

The Ashanti Kingdom

-Asante (Ashanti) Kingdom of modern-day Ghana coalesced from [...] among various ethnic groups -Under the leadership of King Osei Tutu (born circa 1645), Asar [...] unified, organizing an army to defend against neighboring states -Asante stopped paying tribute to neighboring states -King Osei Tutu consolidated control over the gold fields throughout the Akan lands -Introduced new traditions and ceremonies to promote unified identity

King Lobengula

-1888: duped by British mining magnets into signing a treaty allo[...] concessions on his land; it soon became clear they meant to [...] -"did you ever see a chameleon catch a fly? The chameleon gets behind the fly and remains motionless for some time, then he advances very slowly and gently, first putting forward one leg and then the other. At last, when well within reach, darts his tongue and the fly disappears. England is the chameleon and I am that fly."

Mbuya Nehanda

-1897 -Charwe Nyakasikana, Shona Spirit Medium, was inhabited by [...] spirit" (mhondoro) -she preached the gospel of resistance throughout Mashonala encouraging people to join the chimurenga

Jacques Foucart

-1913-1997 -from 1960-74, was the French President's Chief of Staff for Af(...) and Malagasy matters for De Gaulle and Pompidou -Dismissed by V. Giscard d'Estaing in 1974, then re-hired by PM Jacques Chirac in 1986, kept on until mid-1990s -Founded the Service d'Action Civique (SAC), a covert operation (...) of French policy in Africa -Foccart wielded tremendous influence on French policy in Africa (...) planned and coordinated numerous covert operations, including attempts and invasions -pictures of him with Cameroon president Ahidjo (1965), Ivoirian President Houph(...) (1969), photo then with Adidijo and De Gaulle

What happened following Asante independence?

-1957 -many of the former rulers and chiefs did not share in celebration, as the society of the area had been forever altered and the new independence was not the same as the one they'd known before

Conference of the National Organizations of the Portuguese Colonies (CONCP)

-1961 -PAIGC, FRELIMO, and MPLA formed -goal of coordinating the liberation struggle in all 3 territories

The Congo Crisis begins

-30 June 1960: Congo gains formal independence -5 July: black troops chafing under white officers stage a mutiny (...) -riots break out between black and white civilians -10 July: Belgium sends in troops to evacuate whites (mostly Belgian nationals- 0.9% of Belgians lived in Congo in 1959) -11 July: with Belgian support, two mineral-rich southern provi(...) Katanga and South Kasai, break away -Belgium disarmed and expelled all non-Katangese soldiers; ke(...) Katangese to form Katanga Gendarmerie

Colonization, Class, and Race

-Africa had fewer consolidated states that could resist conquest and slave raiding -quoting CLR James: "the race question is subsidiary to the class question and to think of imperialism in terms of race is disastrous. But to neglect the racial factor as merely incidental is an error only less grave than to make it fundamental" (The Black Jacobins)

Are there peaceful routes to state consolidation?

-African countries are faced w the problem of trying to increase the capacity of the state without being able to use wars to improve the state's extractive ability -independence was the best chance for African countries to institute major reforms -there appears to be no impetus from inside African countries to disrupt the current fiscal arrangements significantly

Main idea of Blackey's piece

-African revolutions should be made on the basis of African conditions -comparing Franz Fanon and Amilcar Cabral,, who were both essentially men of peace

What does Davidson argue?

-African society was far more complex than originally thought by Europeans as they had established systems of government and co-operation between various tribes in Western Africa -referring to the Asante clans -acknowledges little documented history of this region before unification under the golden stool

What are the problems of state consolidation in Africa?

-African states face problems in their efforts to consolidate power---they are poor, short of trained manpower, and confront societies that are often fragmented and have little orientation to the state as a whole -elites can come to power but they may be displaced + even when they do have power, the country's vulnerability to exogenous shocks and presence of sophisticated multinational enterprises/well-connected minority groups cause them to still be vulnerable

How does Herbst compare the European experience to the relative African peace since the 1960s?

-African states' development stunted by the very problems war helped Euro countries to solve

How to explain some Africans' colonial loyalty

-Amilcar Cabral referred to these African colonial troops as "so(...) rootless elements" -African nationalist consciousness was not universal; in some p(....) wasn't even widespread -the colonial army paid relatively well; one of the only opportunities for African upward mobility -colonial powers sought to recruit soldiers from rival ethnic groups and play different ethnicities off of each other -captured guerrillas were often tortured and given a choice; jo(...) enemy or be killed

1975 Angola/MPLA

-Angola proclaimed a sovereign republic under MPLA leadership on November 11 -Cubans then arrived and quickly turned the tide of the fighting, totally winning by March 1976 -took more than 15 years to reach this point

Britain's response to Ashanti concession

-Ashanti offered Britain the benefits of economic control while s[...] them the cost of military conquest -But the British wanted monopolistic control and territorial ownership -the British sent more troops to invade Ashanti, and occupied it permanently in 1901 as a protectorate attached to the Gold Coast -the costs of occupation were borne by the native population -"everyplace that wealth could be extracted by commercial mea[...] within the scope of European companies, mostly British, based [...] coast" (Davidson) -For African political and structural development, there were [....]

How does Davidson solve the puzzle of the weakened state

-Ashanti repulsed British attempts at conquest in the early to mid century -in its invasion of 1874, Britain demonstrated its military superiority by occupying the capital of Kumasi -once slave-raiding ended in West Africa, African trading companies seemed poised to prosper- they could have formed a stable African middle class -in 1895, the Ashanti Kingdom offered Queen Victoria a huge comm[....] concession, sending diplomats to London to offer the British rights [...] to those enjoyed by the British South Africa Company

Who killed Lumumba?

-Belgians, US decided to assassinate him; several failed attempts (....) succeeded; CIA had flown in poisoned toothpaste to kill Lumumba -in Aug. 1960, Pres. Eisenhower told CIA chief Allen Dulles "eliminate (....) -CIA apparently wanted to kill Lumumba before JFK's inauguration (....) later (Kalb) -exact circumstances of killing remained a mystery for decades- CIA (...) 1975 Senate Intel Committee: "the fate of Lumumba in the end (....) African event" -in late 1990s, CIA station chief Lawrence Delvin confessed his role (...) Lumumba, advising Belgian intelligence services -Belgian intelligence officer Col. Marlieres, others, described their (....) killing Lumumba -Belgian govt. apologized in 2002, but nobody ever faced prosecution

Enduring colonial interests in the Congo

-Belgium wanted to keep a grip on mineral-rich Katanga province -in this, they were backed by France and the US -Belgians promoted Katanga leader Moise Tshombe, encouraging (...) to break away from Congo and declare independence -Belgian corporation Union Miniere de Haut Katanga (UMHK) (...) Tshombe's security forces, composed of Western mercenaries (...) -these include Americans, Belgians, French, British, South Africans, Rhodesians, and German ex-nazis

What makes a nation?

-Benedict Anderson's "imagined communities" (1981) -nation-ness has no "ontological or pre-discursive primordial [....]" -And: nationalism is "official- it emanates from the state and [...] interests of the state first and foremost."

"The Scramble for Africa"

-Berlin conference 1884-85 -UK, France, Germany, Portugal, Spain, Italy, USA attended -Western powers drew colonial borders -colonial powers sought natural wealth, bigger empires, spreading Christianity ("Civilizing Mission")

Cabral on culture

-Cabral's ideas about culture were more organized than Fanon's -opposed narrow nationalism which do not serve the true interests of the people and favored instead an "African unity" on a regional or continental scale, insofar as it is necessary for the progress of the African people.

The final phase of the Congo Crisis

-Dec. 1962: JFK gives UN forces the green light to attack the sece(...) Katanga and South Kasai, who are defeated by 1963 (what Lumumba wanted) -new elections planned; in concilitory move, Tshombe is asked (...) interim government: "by then, the unity of Congo had become more important for the West than the instability the secession would perpetuate" (Ntalaja) -1963: a quasi-communist rebel group, the SImbas, arose and seized territory in eastern Congo, taking white hostages in Stanleyville -1964: Belgians and US mounted joint operation to free hostages (...) Simbas

Congressional delegation suggestion

-December 12 -met with Ghana's president Nkrumah -urged that all members of the Congolese parliament should be released -in stark contrast to the view of the Eisenhower admin who were worried he would regain power -Kennedy's brother was a part of the delegation and some took this as an indication of the president's position, despite his hard line on Congo during his campaign

Significance of European Firepower

-During the Battle of Shanghai (1893), 700 British soldiers using maxim guns defeated 5000 Ndebele warriors -"whatever happens, we have got The Maxim gun, and they have not." -Hilaire Bloc, "The Modern Traveler"

Shifting alliances between the US and Portugal

-Eisenhower admin: joined European imperial powers in abstaining on the December 1960 UN general assembly resolution calling for self-determination and independence for all colonized peoples -Kennedy admin (pressure tactics): endorsed the resolution and used it to challenge the Portuguese rule in Africa. He was convinced that the support for imperialism strengthened the hand of international communism and sought to prevent its success. Sought relationships with modern nationalists who would promote western interests while modifying African discontent. ended longstanding tradition of support for Portugal in the UN. Called for an investigation of its repression and large scale killings in Angola.

How to situate Fanon within IR theory

-European colonialism was a fundamentally international endeavor -Third world claims to nationhood and independence required resisting a foreign invader -This sometimes required violence

How was recruitment part of FRELIMO's ideology?

-FRELIMO had strongest support from Makonde ethnicity, but had some support across most sectors of Mozambique society -it was non-racial; whites, mixed-race people also joined -identified colonial, capitalist exploitation as the enemy; not (...) Portuguese or Europeans as such -It adopted Marxist tenets; sought to create a socialist society (...) collectivized agriculture and education in the zones it had liberated -illiteracy among the African population in 1965 was at 97.86%

Frantz Fanon (basic summary of life)

-born in Martinique, where he witnessed French racism -Fought, wounded for French in WWII -Moved to Algeria in 1954, where he became an anti-colonial theorist -Inspired revolutionaries in the Global South for decades

Key takeaways from Blackey

-Fanon was more concerned with making revolution than with predicting the future in detail -he was a brilliant propagandist of revolution, most concerned with putting it into motion (however, he sometimes struggled to back up his assertions and generalizations with specific evidence) -Cabral placed revolution under the microscope of analysis in a way Fanon did not (he saw people's revolution as a unique event influenced by grassroots realities) (in this sense, national liberation and social revolution are not explorable commodities)

UPC leaders

-Felix Moumie (killed in 1960) -Ruben Um Nyobe (Killed in....)

Press coverage on American racism

-Fiji Times and the Herald: published an article called "persecution of negroes still strong in America" (described treatment of blacks, although technically had rights, persecuted for trying to exercise them, such as voting) -in the Chinese press: "if the US wants to 'lead' the world, it must have a kind of moral superiority in addition to military superiority" -Prud'homme "the farther South one travels, the less human the Negro becomes" (discusses segregation, the history of the KKK, and the denial of rights through poll taxes and discriminatory voter registration tests) ("if one of us fights for true democracy and progress, he is labeled a Communist...That is an effective way of shutting them up" (denotes how social equality and democracy were originally not completely intertwined in America) (used anti-communist rhetoric to suppress civil rights movement; understandable to international community, why one would not want to become a 'democratic' institution with those racial injustices)

Achieving revolution after independence

-For Cabral, party members had to display the qualities of goodness and honesty- moral attributes- in addition to improving masses' lives -these qualities were to be cultivated through participation and leadership in armed struggle -"the revolutionary petite-bourgeoisie must be capable of committing suicide as a class in order to be reborn as revolutionary workers"

France's Dirty Wars: Madagascar

-French troops put down a pro-independence uprising in Madagascar from March 1947 to December 1948, killing an estimated 30-4(....) Malagasy (by some estimated it was over 100,000) -many insurgents were Malagasy former soldiers in the French (...) who received no veterans' recognition or compensation -French soldiers used mass execution, torture, mass rape, burning villages, throwing people from planes into the ocean -in a 2005 visit, President Chirac called the war "unacceptable" (...) France still refuses to declassify documents related to the war(...)

France's dirty wars: Cameroon

-French troops waged a lengthy war in Cameroon (1957-70) to (...) the pro-independence Union of Cameroonian Peoples (UPC), I(....) approximately 300,000 -the UPC, founded in 1948 by Felix Moumie, Ruben Um Nyobe (...) Ernest Ouandie, demanded immediate independence from Fr(....) unity with British Cameroon, and non-adherence to the French(....) -France crushed protesters in 1955; started waging war in 195(....) against guerrillas in the highlands -French troops used mass execution, torture, and rape widely -UPC founders were hunted down and killed

Examples of the least developed societies that were violent/hostile and were often best able to resist slavery

-Gabon's inhabitants were defiant and violent towards the Portuguese- large reason for why the slave trade numbers were small

Walter Rodney

-Guyanese Pan-African Thinker

Hammarskjold and the UN role in Africa

-Hammarskjold was shaken by Lumumba's death -Believed the UN played a key role in ensuring African self-determination -died in a mysterious plane crash in Sept. 1961 -investigators and scholars are all but certain that the plane was destroyed by a bomb or shot down by a jet -this apparent assassination also seems to have been carried (...) US, French, South African, and possibly British connivance

Quotes about war and state building

-Herbst "war is an important cause of state formation that is missing in Africa today" -Huntington "war was the great stimulus to state building" -Tilly "war made the state, and the state made war"

Conclusions to IR/Fanon and Cabral

-IR needs to be rethought from subaltern perspectives -race is not incidental to global politics -the socio-political ideologies and movements of struggle represent colonized peoples' lived realities

How was there variation in US policy towards Portugal?

-JFK sought to sideline communism by encouraging moderate independence movements; this included Angola's FNLA -as violence broke out in Angola in 1961, Kennedy's administration censured Portugal at the UN, along with the USSR -France and the UK backed Portugal; Salazar was defiant -Kennedy and key aides diverged on policy towards Portugal -a bloc of anticommunists and segregationists in the US Congress mobilized in support of Portugal -as the Cold War escalated with the 1961 Berlin Crisis and the 196(....) missile crisis, Kennedy stopped opposing Angola -Johnson, Nixon, and Kissinger favored Portugal and had no sympathy for African self-determination

Guinea-B and CV second phase

-January 1963, armed struggle began in Guinea-Bissau (not feasible in the far off islands of the Cape Verdas) -immediately rewarded by political preparations w/success (diminished by reversions to local customs and lack of discipline though) -1964: Congress of leading militants put the movement back on track (started building post-colonial state in liberated regions (liberated zones were protected by a well organized peasantry, while the army grew too __ to fight elsewhere) -the Portugal's 30,000 troops were worn down until the PAIGC had effectively won by 1968 on the mainland (Portuguese would likely have cut their losses here, had they not feared adverse consequences in Angola and Mozambique---the war therefore continued, but with increasing PAIGC superiority)

Guinea-B and CV third phase

-January 1973, Cabral was murdered in Conakry by African agents of the colonial regime leading to a new phase (partly in response, the PAIGC went on the offensive to reduce the Portuguese's strongest points. by September, the PAIGC were strong enough to declare independence and hold a general election in the liberated zones)

Marcus Mosiah Garvey

-born in St.Ann's parish, Jamaica in 1887 -minimal formal education -in 1914 "practically all the people and countries that were not sovereign were also not white" -came to NY from JA in 1916, founded Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). -by the early 1920s UNIA boasted 700 branches in USA, and 1200 branches in 40 countries

UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjolc

1905-61

French relations with CAR's dictator Bokassa

-Jean-Bedel Bokassa (1921-1996) distinguished himself in combat(...) French army in Indochina -Appointed head of the Central African Republic army in 1966, he (....) coup d'etat and began a reign of terror, naming himself an emperor (....) France sent a battalion to safeguard the ceremony -France mined CAR's uranium; in return, French Pres. Giscard d'Es(....) proclaimed himself Bokassa's "friend and family member" -French troops deposed the brutal Bokassa in 1979 ("Operation [...]). He fled to cote d'Ivoire, then got asylum in France, where he live(....) chateau near Paris for years -in 1979, journalists found that Bokassa gave Giscard d'Estaing dia(....) scandal rocked France, and Giscard d'Estaing lost 1981 elections

Key FRELIMO leaders

-Josina Machel "Mother of a Nation" (1945-67) -Samora Machel (first president of Mozambique, 1933-86)

Why didn't the CIA have to hire an assassin?

-Lumumba was already in the custody of the Leopoldville authorities (his enemies) -was transferred to a prison in Bakwanga (where he would be in danger) -CIA maintained no involvement in this plan to transport L to B nor did they do anything to prevent this

Angola organizations' ideology

-MPLA was Marxist -FNLA and UNITA used anti-communist rhetoric to win international backing but accepted support from China which was intent on countering Soviet patronage of the MPLA -both the FNLA and UNITA criticized the prominence of whites and western educated Africans in the MPLA (remember inclusive nature) and presented themselves as only representatives of authentic African nationalism -they systematically attacked MPLA cadres -UNITA attempts an ousting of MPLA from the eastern part of the country

third Angola uprising

-March 1961 -plantation workers in the North started to rebel -when things really got started (partly led by UPA militants) -killed 200 europeans and an unknown number of literate Africans -more an outburst of long-repressed anger than a political movement -insurrection spread and wasn't put down until the following October -Europeans responded by killing more than 20,000 Angolans suspected of having nationalist ideas (wanted to destroy the MPLA and little of the organization survived) (those that did remain took refuge in Brazzaville)

FRELIMO

-Mozambique -nationalist movement emerged from western-educated and working-class populations in the south and from emigrants in neighboring countries who had originally hailed from central and northern Mozambique -means(?) to unite in a single nationalist movement people of all races, regions, ethnic groups, and socioeconomic classes

How was Portugal different from other NATO allies? (Schmidt)

-NA maintained neocolonial economic relationships and independence was an attractive option for both parties -Portugal ruled by fascist dictator Antonio Salazar -comparatively an impoverished country w/an underdeveloped economy -kept its status (high ranking) by its African possessions (w/o cheap labour and raw materials from harsh forced labour, Portugal's industries would not be profitable) -unable to compete in an unprotected market, determined to remain in political control of its colonies -colonial possessions overseas provinces (like French Algeria)

Role of NATO in Portuguese conflict

-NATO provided $$$ in military and economic aid that enabled Portugal to finance 3 simultaneous wars and bolster its failing economy

Nixon's pro-Portugal shift

-Nixon thought white colonial regimes in Africa were key allies -the 1969 policy document "study in response to National Sec(...) Study Memorandum 39" hardened US policy toward southe(...) -the US now sought to safeguard economic and strategic interests to deny opportunities to the Soviets and Chinese -"the whites are here to stay and the only way that constructive change can come about is through them. There is no hope for (....) to regain the political rights they seek through violence, which can only lead to chaos and increased opportunities for communism." -US weapons sales to Portugal increased, and oil investment gr(...)

Calculating slavery's impact on African societies

-Nunn -find the number of slaves exported from an African country to be an important determinant of economic performance in the second half of the 20th century, which has been dismal -"The African countries that are poorest today are the ones from which the most slaves were taken"

Golden stool and how it worked

-Osei Tutu (b.1645) was the first of the Asante kings to be chartered under the Golden Stool -by 1750 it controlled the entirety of what is now modern-Ghana -in the 19th century the Asante was starting to be viewed as a nation state with established territorial limits, police, and national language

Consolidation of Ashanti State

-Osei Tutu conquered neighboring lands, incorporated their economies -imposed a centralized taxation system -raised an army by implementing a draft system on population [...] his control -kingdom engaged in the trans-Atlantic slave trade, selling pris[...] war to Europeans -built considerable national wealth

Guinea-Bissau's PAIGC

-PAIGC (African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau (...) Verde) founded 1956 -turned to armed struggles after Portuguese soldiers massacred striking African dockworkers at Pijiguiti in 1959 -PAIGC waged guerilla warfare in the jungles starting in 1963 -it was the best organized, best-trained, and most successful (....) guerrilla armies fighting the Portuguese -Portugal's response was to bomb schools, clinic, markets, vill(....) and any infrastructure established by the PAIGC -Portuguese used napalm widely

Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde

-PAIGC had to operate in a very small territory, which gave them limited opportunities to maneuver -very united leadership under Amilcar Cabral (able to convert the movement's weaknesses into strengths)

How did Cabral prepare people for the struggle

-PAIGC members received political instruction and were taught how to mobilize the masses -they received intensive instruction that would enable them to return to the countryside and convince others to join in the struggle. they had to help the peasants discover for themselves why things had gone so badly for them

How did the Congo crisis deepen?

-PM Lumumba wanted to retake breakaway provinces; sought (...) UN "blue helmets" peacekeeping troops already in Congo -UN Secretary General General Hammarskjold refused -Lumumba then turned to Soviets; Premier Krushchev sent troops (...) planes to ferry Congolese troops southward -West now regarded Lumumba as a Soviet stooge whose elimination became a top priority -Lumumba had naively appointed Joseph Mobutu as Colonel (...) Chief-of-Staff of Congolese Army, ignoring reports that he was (...)

Portugal's counterinsurgency strategy: Outsourcing the war to Africans

-Portugal officially maintained a policy of multi-racialism and assim(...) wherby Africans could gain some rights, and even become citizens(...) -Portugal recruited Africans into its military, creating entire units of (....) -The Flechas ("arrows") were a notorious unit of African scouts in th(...) Portuguese army, deployed in all three colonies -in 1961, 18% of Portuguese troops were African; by 1974, this num(....) to over 50% -this was a typical facet of "divide and conquer" tactics: recruit Africans to fight each other

Mozambique's FRELIMO

-Portuguese atrocities such as the Mueda massacre of hundreds of protestors, gave impetus to armed struggle -1962: FRELIMO founded; headquartered in Dar es Salam, Tanzania -backed by China, USSR (militarily) and Nordic countries (polit......) -1964: first combat operation, infiltrating from Tanzania -1968: FRELIMO had established liberated zones in northern Mozambique where it held de facto political power -1969: founder Eduardo Mondlane assassinated in Dar es Salaam -1970: Portuguese "Gordian Knot" military offensive pushed FREL(...) -1974: FRELIMO had re-established control over much of northern central Mozambique

How was the Portuguese colonial system peculiar? (Davidson)

-Portuguese economic infrastructure couldn't allow itself the luxury of practicing a policy of Neo-colonialism -industrially underdeveloped, over half its population were illiterate, and governed by an ineffective bureaucracy -withdrawing Portuguese political power would mean losing Portuguese economic power and global prestige -this is why the Portuguese fought such intense wars to retain control of African colonies (no reformist option for African nationalists as a result) (could either surrender or fight)

Dependency theory

-Rodney -theory that Western Europe and America's great wealth arose from the exploitation of the global South -underdevelopment of countries in the global south is directly linked to the fact they were condemned to the periphery of the global economy

negative vs positive sovereignty

-S. Grovogui "Sovereignty in Africa" -conventional notions of sovereignty are shaped by "ideological, cultural, and political traditions" that have emerged from European conquest and expansion -previous scholars (ex. Jackson 1992) have argued that Africans have lacked "positive sovereignty"- the "capability to deliver domestic security and welfare" -instead, they have mostly remained intact due to "negative sovereignty," limited to "non-interference in their domestic affairs" -this has protected authoritarian African elites, propagating with corrupt, even chaotic states "unworthy" of sovereignty. HE GOES AGAINST THIS!!! uses belgium/switzerland as a way to COUNTER this.

First Chimurenga (revolutionary war): 1896

-Shona and Ndebele at first welcomed European settlers: "Don't be afraid of them, as they are only traders, but take a black cow and say, 'this is the meat with which we greet you" -But settlers soon imposed hut tax, forced relocations, forced (...) -no gold after all, so Europeans took African land and cattle in (...) -First conflict: Ndebele war of 1893 -Ndebele started a wider revolt in March 1896; Shona joined in (...) -Colonizers had the Maxim guns

three key women in struggle

-Teural Ropa (received military training, and was labelled the heroic symbol of African women warrior) -Naomi Nhiwtina: she gained her position through an overseas education and political action -Fay Chung: her involvement in the struggle was significant because she is a non-black Zimbabwean woman

Decolonization phase

-WWII as turning point -Africans served in European militaries, witnessed European vulnerability firsthand -Colonial powers were stretched to the limit, economically and militarily -African independence movements were organizing, domestically and internationally

"golden stool" (Davidson)

-Western Africa -became the seat that the ruler of the tribes would sit on -vessel of both political and spiritual power -could be compared to the English crown as it does not belong to the person who wears it or in this case sits on it

What is Davidson's puzzle

-Why did "that mature Asante of the late 19th century seem unable to adjust to problems raised by external challenges- above all, [...] challenges of European modernization?" -Why "no strong development of merchant capitalism to meet the thrust of European companies and corporations?"

What if Lumumba hadn't been killed?

-Would Congo have become a Soviet client state? (Paul Landau) -Lumumba, like Ho Chi Minh of Vietnam, Agostinho Neto of Angola sought to cultivate positive ties with West, but was rejected -During his tour of the United States in July-August 1960, US administrators ignored Lumumba, pushing him to Soviets -Could Congo have united and avoided cycles of war and impoverishment? -Maybe not, but Lumumba virtually guaranteed a chaotic future -"Lumumba died for attempting to uphold the constitutional order (...) unity, and territorial integrity" of Congo (Ntalaja)

Guerilla infiltration routes

-ZANLA and ZIPRA used bases in neighboring Zambia and Mozambique

2nd Chimurenga (1966-1980)

-ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Union) under Robert Muga(...) its military wing, Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (...) -ZAPU (Zimbabwe African People's Union) under Joshua Nkom(...) military wing, Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) -fought the Rhodesians in a protracted guerrilla war whites call "(....) bush war"

ZAPU vs ZANU training

-ZAPU separated women from the men in training -ZAPU women also better educated

What is a "dirty war"?

-a counter-insurgency campaign waged in near- or total secrecy (...) which massive human rights violations and killing of civilians (...) norm -colonial wars, waged far from the metropole and with limited (....) coverage at best- often under heavy censorship- were fought (....) in secrecy -local populations have often been the best source of knowledge about what happened under these conditions

anti-colonial struggle in Lusophone Africa

-by the early 1960s, all three of Portugal's African colonies had (....) armed struggles -Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde -Angola -Mozambique -1961: in Casablanca, Morocco, they form the Conference of (...) Nationalist Organizations of the Portuguese Colonies (CNOPC)

'Francafrique'

-a pejorative term that describes French Neo-colonial relations with(...) African colonies -originally coined by Ivoirian president Felix Houphouet -Boigny, des(...) country's relative prosperity and stability through its alliance with(...) -came to denote a shadowy network of military, intelligence, and (....) ties between French elites and their African counterparts, with no (....) or accountability -France has maintained permanent military bases to this day in Ga(...), Senegal, and Dijibouti, and a military presence in Chad, Somalia, Co(...), Mali, and Central African Republic

Phase three Mozambique

-a political crisis occurred within FRELIMO in 1968 -two competing political trends (compromise with the colonial system/compromise would only bring defeat; must fight for and win an unconditional independence) -a congress of leading militants in 1968 met and agreed to the second option overwhelmingly -Samora Machel, the prior army commander of FRELIMO, took over and closed ranks, solidifying FRELIMO and leading to the final phase of the conflict

"Selous Scouts"

-a unit described which is made up of both black and white soldiers who are trained to learn the customs of the various tribes, their dialects, and their behavior in order to blend in and perform special covert operations -such operations constitute disguising themselves as Mozambican troops or guerrilla fighters and carrying out attacks on villagers, travelers, and "church people" -these missions are part of a psychological war in which the Rhodesian army is seeking to discredit the guerrillas in the eyes of the civilian population

France and Britain in Portuguese conflict

-abstained -France: overseas province = "domestic matters and outside UN's purview" -Britain: increased weapons sales

The PAIGC's Amilcar Cabral

-adopted a marxist framework for understanding global economic(...) -he was also an African nationalist and.a humanist -motivated by a vision of social justice and an end to exploitation -his realism was rooted in pragmatism and his training and exp(....) an agronomist -He saw ideology as a means to the end of liberation, not an end in itself -"to have ideology does not necessarily mean that you are a com(...) socialist, or something like this. To have ideology is to know what you want in your own condition."

international aid (Davidson)

-african neighbors like French Guinea, Tanzania, Congo-Brazzaville (Congo)m, Senegal helped -international support too from Cuba, USSR, China

Nehanda and Kaguvi

-after their capture -"my bones shall rise again"

Popular support from local people (Davidson)

-again from effort to raise awareness and popular consciousness

Davidson's thoughts on guerrilla warfare in the colonial or comparable context

-always a form of people's warfare whenever it enjoyed success, being essentially defensive and political in its methods and liberating in its purposes -otherwise, would become corrupt banditry and terrorism (this is what happened to FNLA and UNITA in Angola)

How would socialism hold people together?

-as a pan-africanist, did not encourage/was ambivalent to a chauvinistic type of nationalism. wanted revolution to overflow over national boundaries. -injected the question of race into socialism. ignored by Marx and Lenin (another author brings this up) -rather than an ideological communist society or capitalist one, Fanon sought to establish a humanistic society in all of Africa

Why did France retain such close control?

-as in centuries past, economic benefits of (neo-)colonial ties (...) been key to French global might and stature -former colonies "supply at low prices the raw materials that are absolutely necessary for the survival of the economy: aluminum from Cameroon, phosphates from Senegal, oil from (..) Gabon, and uranium from Niger" (Van Meter) -this has meant propping up friendly regimes, and toppling African nationalist ones -France has intervened militarily in Africa over 30 times, more than any other former colonial power

What were the Belgians worried about?

-as they had not forgotten Kennedy's foreign policy speech in 1957 when he advocated the independence of Algeria while their ally, France, were engaged in war against the Algerian rebels (they were also uneasy that Kennedy was not part of the NATO oriented establishment and that he would be detrimental to the interests of the colonial powers of Europe)

the role of national culture

-asserting the existence of pre-colonial native culture is essential to the post-colonial native identity -colonialism "distorts, disfigures, and destroys" the natives' past -"the total result of colonial domination was indeed to convince the natives that colonialism came to lighten their darkness"

How did European colonial powers organize sovereignty according to hierarchy?

-because many EU states with same artificial features as African states had their "functions of legitimation" recognized by EU powers (unlike African states) and even profited from colonial enterprise that by design encroached on upon the autonomy (sovereignty) of the colonized

What was the gun-slave cycle? (Nunn)

-because of the environment of insecurity, weapons could be obtained from Europeans in exchange for slaves -further perpetuating the slave trade and insecurity that it caused increased the need to enslave others to protect one self -vicious cycle in which "communities not only raided other communities for slaves, but also member of a community raided and kidnapped others within the community"

Why hasn't the role of war been examined?

-because the vast majority of states in Africa and elsewhere gained independence w/o having to resort to combat and have not faced a serious security threat since independence

Phase two of Mozambique

-began in 1963 when the movement's leaders came to the conclusion that they must answer colonial violence with guerrilla warfare -sent small groups to Algeria for military training -in september 1964, war on the colonial system was declared -setup safe external bases in Tanzania -found support early on amongst the peasant cultivators of the northern districts of Cabo Delgado, as these folks had already begun to organise themselves -Portuguese still largely maintained control though, but the FRELIMO network was growing

MPLA and guerilla warfare

-began to develop -secured a Zambian base of operations in 1965, a year after Zambian independence -obtained a wide zone of influence in Angola's distant eastern districts by 1966

Fall of Patrice Lumumba (NN)

-charged w/sin of communism -fall and assassination a result of vast conspiracy involving US, Belgium, and UN asked whether they could get rid of the guy with a deadly substance made of cobra venom to be applied to food/toothpaste dismissal based on controversial/little understood article of the interim constitution handed down by the Belgian either by reconciling Lumumba (pan-African vision) and Kasa-Vubu (moderate) or by forcibly removing one of them from the political scene Congolese moderates now preoccupied with how to prevent him from regaining state power responsible authorities had the duty to render Lumumba harmless the Barracuda plan, like the CIA cobra venom plan, abandoned once Lumumba was placed under house arrest on 10 October Lumumba realized only way to regain power through popular support and armed struggle L captured on 1 December even in jail, L continued to pose a threat to the moderate leadership

What were the advantages of the liberation movements? (Davidson)

-clarity of the mind and strategic intelligence of the leaders -international aid -popular support from the local people -the Portuguese system was so repressive that it convinced wide populations to support anyone who could remove it -Portuguese were fighting three wars at once so couldn't focus on one

"The Primacy of Exit"

-coined by Herbst -Europe had more people than land -Africa had more land than people -african people dissatisfied with the governance in their land could just relocate elsewhere -this led to very "thin" political/territorial units -In Europe, the relative scarcity of land meant that it had to be administered strongly. This lead to the formation of "hard" territorial units: states. These states often fought wars against each other.

The Belgian Congo

-colonized by King Leopold II in 1895 -huge profits during rubber boom -Congo also has huge deposits of diamonds, uranium, copper, [...], zinc, radium, cadmium, germanium, manganese, silver, gold, a(...) -Belgians enforced slave labour -around 2 million Congolese perished between 1885-1908 -Congolese mining companies constituted a "state within a state"

Correspondence between ___ and ___ on the global scale

-color -power

Inversion of the usual "state and war" dynamic in Africa (Henderson)

-combination of low levels of interstate war and high levels of intrastate (i.e. civil) war suggests an inversion of conflict processes in Africa

What data does Nunn use?

-combines 2 sources of data 1.) shipping data- often inaccurate because it shows the number of slaves that were shipped from each coastal country but not an accurate indication of where slaves were initially captured 2.) ethnic identity- through a variety of sources the author has compiled, they've been able to record the described ethnic identity of slaves shipping from Africa (comes from 54 different samples, totaling 80, 656 slaves, with 229 distinct ethnic designations

Membership in the French community

-community member-states had autonomy and their own constitutions -the community had jurisdiction over foreign policy, defense, en(....), financial, and strategic policy -in 1960, members of the Community began gaining formal independence; the Community ceased to exist by 1963, but re(...) French Constitution until 1995 -After gaining formal independence, former French colonies in A(....) remained closely attached to France -Many still use the CFA (Communaute Financiere Africaine) Franc(...) currency, pegged first to the French Franc and now to the Euro(...)

Marxism (Rodney)

-concentrated on examining the evolution of capitalism out of feudalism inside Europe, with only marginal reference to the massive exploitations of Africans, Asians, and American Indians

repression of Portuguese people

-convinced wide population to support -as such, the problem was not to persuade peasants that the system was bad, but rather to persuade them that revolution could be achieved -required lots of patient political work, especially in rural areas -early fighting groups helped prove that the system could be attacked w/success (had to then transition this guerrilla war into an armed resistance that used guerrilla tactics but it was centrally planned) -required raising the level of political consciousness from the tribe to a national loyalty (this transformation was critical as soldiers needed to be able to take orders from members of other tribes) (where this didn't occur, like the Congo rebellion, they failed) -so the advantage was the ability to transform popular support into popular participation

Neopatrimonialism

-core feature of African states -describes a personalist political system in which 'relationships of loyalty and dependence pervade a formal political and administrative system in which leaders occupy bureaucratic offices less to perform public service than to acquire personal wealth and status

Fanon thoughts on violence

-decolonization involves 'vomiting up' foreign values and this produces new men. through violence Africans Africans come to realize that the colonialists are no different from themselves, and that their lives and their skin are the same (violence makes it possible for the masses to understand social truths and gives the key to them)

Cabral and national construction

-defend liberated areas, ensure their stability, and develop them for the benefit of the community -develop strong bonds of friendship with other African nations as well as other anti-colonialist and anti-imperialist groups

African dependency in foreign trade (Rodney)

-dependent on what Europeans were prepared to buy and sell -Europe selecting what Africa should export in accordance with European needs -since gold was limited, principle export was human beings (Africa had a population accustomed to settled agriculture/disciplined labour)

Enslaving of people of same/similar ethnicity (nunn)

-detrimental -most common way slaves taken through villages of states raiding one another (ties between villages weakened/impeded formation of larger communities and broader ethnic identities) -constricted/constructed spheres of interaction -may be an important factor in explaining Africa's level of ethnic fractionalization today

How did some leaders act against nationalism of the invaders? (Davidson)

-developing an idea of nationalism that was bigger than clan or tribe -the result of the collapse of pre-colonial loyalties under colonialism, as well as common awareness of their shared condition under colonialism -but the development of nationalism could mean one thing for one group or class of persons and another thing for another (led to new forms of intra-national conflicts that were forms of class conflict)

domesticated vs internationalized IR in Africa (Henderson)

-domesticated: interstate conflicts often resolved non-violently in the way that one would expect of domestic conflicts -domestic politics has been 'internationalized' with domestic disputes often resolved violently in a manner usually reserved for interstate disputes -essentially, inter-state wars are extremely uncommon in Africa while intra-state wars (coups, civil wars) the norm in the continent

3 main focuses on Garvey

-efforts to construct a transnational 'imagined community' of 'black peoples' -notion of sovereignty of people rather than sovereignty of states -persistent campaign to disarticulate the discursive framework of legitimacy which had underpinned a colonial and imperial world order

Importance of ideology (Davidson)

-either a people's sympathy with a resistance movement develops into participation or it withers and disappears -must develop the people's revolutionary consciousness (if leaders move too fast in developing this sympathy then support will fail to develop) (move too slow and old traditions maintain hold) -without this, you lack harmony and the result is Africans helping the colonizers oppose de-colonial movements (as was the case with the Embu and the Nandi being picked off one by one by the British because of the assistance of neighbors, in Kenya)("in a large sense, Africa was conquered for Europe by Africans"

Ashanti Golden Stool

-embodiment of (nationhood?)

Cecil John Rhodes

-emigrated from UK to South Africa at 17 -founded the De Beers diamond company and made a fortune -founded the British South Africa Company -PM of British Cape Colony, 1890-96 -Wanted to build a "Cape to Cairo" railway -regarded Africans as "savages", inferior -BSAC named Northern and Southern Rhodesia (today Zambia and Zimbabwe) for him Rhodes Scholarship funded by his estate

Who did the US encourage in regards to Lumumba?

-encouraged Lumumba's Congolese opponents to kill him when it appeared that he might resume his role as PM, whether elected or through a coup d'etat -Lumumba was not particularly keen on working with the US considering the mistreatment of black people overseas, and had ties with Russian influences

International dynamics in the US civil rights struggle

-end of WWII saw creation of United Nationals Universal Declaration of Human Rights -decline of colonialism in Africa and Asia -in Cold War context, US wanted to app(...) newly-independent countries; to "save (...) Third World for democracy" -BUT racism stateside made African states doubtful of US (Dudziak) -Soviets took advantage of this

Nordic countries in Portuguese conflict

-established close relationships w/liberation movements and were their main source of humanitarian assistance

relationship between slave exports and a measure of ethnic fractionalization today

-ethnic fractionalization is an important determinant of a variety of factors necessary for economic development -ethnic fractionalization reduces the provision of public goods, such as education, health facilities, access to water and transportation infrastructure

Ashanti as a nation-state

-europeans coming into contact with Ashanti regarded it is a nation state -it had "a given territory, known territorial limits, a central government with police and army, a national language and [...] a form of constitution and parliament -its strength also lay in its government's legitimacy among its [...] -like its European counterparts, "it went to war with neighbors [...], subdued them, obliged them to pay tribute, and otherwise [...] them" (Davidson) -controlled the entire territory of modern-day Ghana by 1750

Monetary mechanisms of colonialism

-expatriation of surplus -trading companies profiting from peasant cash crop farming -deteriorating terms of trade -no access to financial institutions -taxation of African labour and dwellings

who is to blame for Neo-colonialism?

-fanon was certainly critical of colonial governments and their agents -but he was equally scathing in his condemnation of their indigenous collaborators -he saw unity as the only means of protection against predation by powerful external forces

Independence for Angola and Mozambique

-fighting the colonial wars had put immense economic strain on Portugal -Salazar had a stroke in 1968; replaced by Marcelo Caetano -by 1974, 200,000 Portuguese troops were deployed abroad; n(...) were conscripted from working-class backgrounds -in April 1974, young army officers disenchanted with the war overthrew Caetano in a coup, and quickly ended the wars -Guinea-Bissau gained independence in September 1974, following Mozambique, Cape Verde, and Angola in 1975

NAACP petition

-filed on October 23, 1947 -protesting the treatment of blacks in the U.S. called 'An Appeal to the World" -claims that racism harms the world as a whole -"it is not Russia that threatens the US so much as Mississippi [...] internal injustice done to one's brothers is far more dangerous than the aggressive strangers abroad" denotes that racial injustice towards Negroes makes the functioning of democracy difficult; and as a democracy fails to function in the leading democracy in the world, it fails to function in the world

Guinea's Ahmed Sekou Toure

-find notes

reaction to proposition that African democracies should be more likely to fight each other

-findings generally support the political inversion thesis that more politically open- if not necessarily full-scale democratic- African regimes are more likely to fight each other -ironically, absence of support for the democratic peace thesis among African dyads suggest the greater similarity of African political processes with those prevalent within most regions of the world, given that democratic peace is not operative in any region of the world other than the West -theoretical argument suggests that African democratic leaders often enjoy greater domestic legitimacy than leaders of autocratic regimes; and the latter are more likely to resist deploying troops from the capital for fear of insurgency. -less constrained by such fears, democratic leaders should be more willing to deploy troops abroad or at least to the borders of their states to engage in international conflict -therefore, two relatively open African states- both similarly unconstrained by problems of illegitimacy- should be more likely (ceteris paribus) to become involved in MIDs and to fight each other

Slavery and underdevelopment: which way the causal arrow?

-what if the societies that were already economically and politically weakest selected into the slave trade, and remain weak today? -Nunn finds that the most developed societies pre-slavery were the ones hardest hit by the slave trade

village investigations

-for 'terror' threats -herding the women and children one side and men to the other -searching the huts for liberationist literature , or other signs of sedition -those who were found with such contraband were arrested, and the process of doing so involved "beating poor people with your rifle butt" or "kicking them" -"supposed terrorists" were turned over to the special intelligence branch who then "took care of making them talk" using all methods- "electricity, burning their feet, and others you can well imagine"

The "colonial regime of sovereignty"

-for Grovogui, European colonial powers organized global sovereignty according to a hierarchy -as self-appointed enactors of international morality, Western powers "extracted compliance from their subordinates" by using "political skills- including negotiations or accommodations- and [...] military means" -non-european states were granted sovereignty to the degree with which they complied with the hegemonies' objectives- this ignored [...] populations' priorities and expectations

UN and Congo Crisis

-for plot against Lumumba to succeed, support of UN Secretariat was indispensable -United Nations mission in the Congo- in an international context dominated by national liberation struggles and the Cold War -the danger of external interference in domestic affairs did materialize in the Congo -the Belgians and other Europeans who had feared a Congo under progressive nationalists such as Lumumba and his followers were relieved that the country was now securely in the hands of pro-Western moderates led by General Mobutu

"The Negro World"

-forum of debate on issues concerning the positions of the 'colored world' -connecting thread among the colored peoples of the world -sense of collective identity

Portuguese colonialists in Rhodesia

-from Angola and Mozambique -treated "only a little better than the blacks" by the white Rhodesians

How did the judicial system disintegrate?

-further political instability was caused by corruption of previously established legal structures -former judicial penalties now converted to enslavement -to protect themselves and their community from being raided, leaders often chose to pay slaves as tribute, which were often obtained through the judicial system

CIA Station Chief Larry Devlin

-google/look at class notes

"Garveyism"

-had all the ingredients for nationalism, BUT was not "official" was the intent to promote the interests of a state -Community and identity were not tied to the "emergence and reproduction of state sovereignty" -The UNIA aimed at the production of global imagined community

Patrice Lumumba (1925-61)

-helped to found National Congolese Movement (MNC) in 1958 -Lumumba became a staunch pan-Africanist, believed in international African solidarity -visited Kwame Nkrumah's 1958 pan-African conference in Ghana where his consciousness was formed and strengthened -1960: Congolese elected Patrice Lumumba as Prime Minister -Lumumba wanted to nationalize Congolese resources: his priority was "creating a national economy and ensuring our economic independence" -he was widely demonized by Western media, "part of the necessary psychological preparation for a major coup in the Congo" (Ntalaja, p. 117)

congress agreeing to second option

-however, a group of dissidents led by a Cabo Delgado leader, Lazar Nkavandame, opposed this and called for the separation of Cabo Delgado from Mozambique -led to an open clash and, in February 1969, Mondlane was murdered -Nkavandame then defected to the Portuguese

What are conventional notions of sovereignty shaped by? (Grovugi)

-ideological, cultural, and political traditions emerging from European conquest/expansion

Herbst' conclusion

-important not to glorify war -doubtful that if African states do start fighting wars that they'll undergo the exact same processes of state consolidation that war engendered in Europe -but should be recognized---there is little evidence that African countries, or many others in the Third World, will be able to find peaceful ways to strengthen the state and develop national identities -need to develop the prospects for states that will not disappear but simply cannot develop -a possibility that some African leaders in the future may come to believe that the costs of peace are so high that war may not seem like such an undesirable alternative

The role of the intellectual

-in a context of oppression, native intellectuals were a minority -"the native intellectual who decides to give battle to colonial lies fights on the field of the whole continent" -what does this mean?

Fanon and peasants

-in colonial countries, "have nothing to lose and everything to gain" "they are first among the exploited to discover that only violence pays" (merge peasant violence into an angry awareness of injustices by merging it with revolutionary leadership) -even in the post-revolutionary society, they should play central and pivotal roles

How is Ethiopia a centralized state?

-in mid-19th century, Ethiopia had followed a state-formation trajectory similar to European powers: power centralization and consolidation -Ethiopia exchanged prisoners captured at Adwa for a treaty recognizing its sovereignty -this would hold until Mussolini's 1935 invasion

Attempt at treaty between Asante/British

-in the 1880s the Asante offered commercial rights to the British similar to those of Rhodesia and South Africa -the British declined and invaded militarily in turn, replacing all previous institutions with British rule and Asante was renamed the Gold Coast colony and protectorate

Impact of absence of truly competitive state system in Africa

-in the past wars would case weak states to be absorbed by stronger powers -the absence of a truly competitive state system that penalizes military weakness means that even those that have no other prospects than long-term dependence on int'l aid will survive in their crippled form for the foreseeable future

How did governments collapse? (Nunn)

-internal conflict increased political instability and in many cases the collapse of pre-existing forms of government -uses the example of the Kongo Kingdom (had centralized government, national currency, and well-developed markets and trading networks) -pre-existing governance structures were generally replaced by small bands of slave raiders, controlled by an established ruler or warlord -these bands generally unable to develop into large, stable states. both the bands and the new states they created retained an air of improvisation---few band leaders were able to hand power to a legitimate successor

Degree of nationalism (in countries south of the Sahara)

-lack of a popular consensus over national purpose aggravates the state's poor efforts to extract resources and is exacerbated by an insecure/authoritarian elite -majority of states have difficulty creating viable systems to attract the loyalties of their citizens -today---few attempts in African countries to forge a national consensus on major issues

Wars in Africa in contrast to Europe

-lack of strong states made interstate war unlikely -this deprived sub-saharan Africa of taxation, conscription, and nationalism -instead, Africa has had mainly intra-state (i.e., civil) wars -this has made state formation and consolidation that much harder to achieve

How was it that more prosperous societies selected into the slave trades?

-large proportion of the early trade between Africans and Europeans was in commodities other than slaves- the Kongo Kingdom traded with the Portuguese -when European demand turned almost exclusively to slaves, the preference to trade with the most developed parts of Africa continued -because the most prosperous areas were also the most densely populated, large numbers of slaves could be efficiently obtained if civil wars or conflicts could be instigated -increased extraction during the slave trades resulted in worse economic performance

No Compromise

-led by President Eduardo Mondlane -this group was large majority

How are African democracies more likely to become involved in international conflict?

-less constrained by the fear of insurgency prevalent among autocratic leaders and less constrained from deploying their troops abroad

Lack of unity that could be inspired (Davidson)

-less of an issue in Guinea-Bissau because it was a smaller country -bigger in Angola and Mozambique (each had groups who sided with the Portuguese to undermine them) (especially prevalent in Angola where the UPA and FNLA turned on the MPLA before then aligning with South Africa)

Cabral thoughts on violence

-less preoccupied with the subject compared to Fanon, but realized that it was an essential instrument of imperialist domination (it should only be used in response to the violence of imperialism and in the fight to ensure true national independence because there cannot be any compromises) (terrorism need not be deployed. a military struggle is often sufficient)

Angola first and second uprisings

-liberation started in 1960 with the country's first uprising, consisting of peasant cultivators (didn't go anywhere though) (in the city of Luanda) -second uprising in February 1961 when the city of Luanda was shaken by a consciously nationalist rising spurred by the MPLA (quickly put down by the colonial powers but was still the origin from which the long struggle for independence would develop)

Challenges in developing an ideology (Davidson)

-local tribalism and belief in magic and deities (ex: belief that charms could render bullets harmless) "the unity that brought success was the unity that could achieve participation"

Cabral "tell no lies and claim no easy victories"

-look at class notes

National liberation mural, Maputo

-look at class notes

Portuguese government (red) and military (white) expenditures during ar years

-look at class notes

Major handicap for MPLA

-majority of the Angola population lived far away in the center and west of the country, which is where the MPLA needed to develop wide support (reached '74 without a strong fighting presence in the center and west)

What is the likelihood of war in Africa?

-maybe states will seek to seize assets of other countries to reverse their economic decline -a possible recalculation of the benefits of peace from colonial boundaries

Domestic impacts of the African slave trade

-members of the same ethnicities and regions enslaved one another, causing fear and ethnic fractionalization -"insecurity confined people within ethnic boundaries constructing spheres of interaction" (Kusimba cited in Nunn) -complex state systems (ex: Joloff Confederation in Senegambia) disintegrated -entire communities degenerated into predatory societies -warlords and slave raiders became the new leaders, altered previously existing institutions to facilitate their needs

Portuguese and three wars

-mentioned later in text! not one of central three! -primitive political culture that thought they were dealing with a bunch of savages that couldn't possibly win

"Dogs of war" (Backmann)

-mercenaries known as this -employed by various European powers w/various colonial interests in order to overthrow, install, and maintain regimes in their colonial holdings

External actors in Portuguese conflict

-minimal soviet influence in Portuguese territories in 60s BUT -Lisbon claimed that it faced a soviet-backed insurgency and sought support from its NATO allies

Difficulties of state consolidation without war

-minor changes like altercations in the level of taxation or shifts in the tax burden engender political battles (greater changes in the nature of the system are even more difficult) (other than war- no type of crisis demands that the state increase taxes with such forcefulness, and few other situations would impel citizens to accept those demands) (domestic security threats which are common in Africa may force the state to increase revenue, but these crises are almost never as grave as the type that European states confronted bc they don't threaten the existence of the state) (and because domestic conflicts result in fragmentation and hostility among different segments of the population---less efficient tax collection) -since independence, no colonial power for African states to oppose---making it more difficult to create nation-wide symbols of identity

Military power (Rodney)

-mistake to believe it was overwhelmingly military power (may counter someone here) -Europeans found it impossible to conquer Africans during the early centuries of trade

Modern slave-trade legacies

-more slave exports correlates with lower per capita GDP in 2000 -correlation between slave exports and current ethnic fractionalization

Three levels Cabral believed the struggle must take place at

1.) political action 2.) armed action 3.) national construction -still believed that having a revolutionary theory was a prerequisite to successful revolution

Portuguese willingness to crush movements (Davidson)

-more than half of Portugal's GDP dedicated -conscription in place led to at least 130,000 troops in Africa (likely higher though) (1971) -depended on constant aid from NATO allies to support this (formally, this aid was meant to be used for NATA defense, but this condition was easily evaded as Portugal simply said their territory extended to Africa (the Provinces of Portugal) -used napalm -lacked neither the manpower nor the weaponry (what ultimately defeated them 'were the courage, skill, and determination of the liberation movements') -P undermined by two key weaknesses (primitive political culture led them to believe they were facing a few communist agitators, so they chronically underestimated the chances of Africans winning until the end---based on racist beliefs that Africans were less intelligent) -3 wars at once (dispersal effect---couldn't cut losses because giving up one colony would inspire those fighting for liberation elsewhere)

White Rhodesians

-most have left the country -those who remain are generally property owners, owners of large and small farms who are armed to the teeth and linked by radio to military alert centers -larger farms have African forced labour and military personnel serving as armed guard -the white Rhodesians don't acknowledge it but their situation is dire, once outside of the immediate proximity of military bases they are in constant danger of guerrilla attack -the white Rhodesians abuse the African population, calling them monkeys, using everything as a pretext to insult and degrade them -every car driven by an African is stopped and systematically searched while whites "drive right through police roadblocks as if nothing were there" -whites and africans are completely segregated, "it's de facto apartheid"

Obstacles facing liberation movements (Davidson)

-most of the people who were asked to mobilize were rural people whose loyalties were tied to their traditions -portuguese military's willingness to crush the movements -lack of unity that could be inspired

Practice and ideology (Davidson)

-must also have a theory of practice for actually implementing this ideology of liberation though

clarity of the mind and strategic intelligence of the leaders (Davidson)

-must have incredible courage as leaders -realized that it was the act of the struggle that taught them how to win and formed the ideology -spread an ideology of liberation and enlarged their movements

national culture and violence

-national culture forged through violence -"the national Algerian culture is taking on form and content as the battles are being fought out, in prisons, under the guillotine, and in every French outpost that it captured or destroyed" -there is no middle ground: a colonized population must either define itself or be defined by its colonizer

The Ndebele Reserves

-native relocation -the Europeans established the Matabele Order-in-Council in 1(...) -this allocated most Ndebele land to European settlers -Ndebele were forcibly relocated on two 'native reserves', Gwa(...) Shangani -'6500 square miles of waterless and infertile land, which the (...) Ndebeles regarded as cemeteries and not homes" (Phimister) -by 1898 an estimated 38% of Ndebele had been forced into (...) -relocation onto reserves would later become a key counterinsurgency strategy

How did efforts to promote civil rights accompany US foreign policy?

-needed to up their foreign influence -consistent with and important to the US mission of fighting world communism -aka Brown v board of education and the like in part motivated by this

Phase four Mozambique

-newly uniformed FRELIMO under Machel -outfighting every Portuguese effort to stop them -by April 1974, when the officers' coup to Lisbon overthrew the Salazarist dictatorship, FRELIMO was prepared to cross the Savi ricer into southernmost Mozambique -the post-coup Portuguese asked for a ceasefire, trying to save the chance of a Neo-colonial arrangement -FRELIMO rejected this offer demanding freedom -Lisbon agreed and Mozambique became free in 1975

How to apply Fanon today?

-newly-independent African countries were economically and politically vulnerable -many still are -unity is a factor contributing to state strength -indigenous collaborators under colonialism have a parallel in corrupt elites post-independence

How did the UNIA spread propaganda?

-not by public lectures but by establishing personal relations with radical natives

NAACP petition/the UN

-not introduced -out of concern that it would harm the international reputation of the United States -no action was taken on the petition -however, the petition has "accomplished the purpose of arousing interest in discrimination" -international criticism of the USA cumulated in the United Nations condemning their practices of racial discrimination

Relationship between development/underdevelopment (Rodney)

-not only comparative terms -dialectical relationship

MPLA and opposition

-opposed by FNLA (former UPA) and UNITA -and yet, most of the districts along the western seaboard were strongly pro-MPLA, so the movement transferred to this western base of power with strong political support

What is ZAPU?

-organization which fought for women to be able to join the struggle for liberation

fanon and leadership

-peasants lack the intellectual leadership needed to make a revolution succeed -believed national political parties in colonial countries were alienated from the peasants -opposed single-party regimes; considered them to be the modern form of dictatorship (came up with an idea of a minority or illegal party, composed of urban radicals acting as the ideological vanguard and the masses as the ideological vanguard

National identity in Africa

-people believe they have a common identity and heritage

Who was Amilcar Cabral

-political organizer for P.A.I.G.C. and leader of the revolution in Guinea-Bissau -national liberation will lead to the regaining of historical personality of the people concerned. the struggle is aimed not only at ending imperialist domination, but Neo-colonialism as well.

Portugal in Africa (basics)

-portugal had colonies in Africa dating back to 1415; by 1500s, Portugal (...) had occupied parts of Angola -while other European countries were granting independence to their former colonies, Portugal clung to theirs in devastating wars -portugal regarded its colonies as overseas territorial extensions -overseas colonies gave Portugal prestige, much needed natural resources (...) -"without the cheap labour and raw materials that resulted from a forced labour regime, Portugal's industries would not be profitable" -as opposed to other European colonizers, Portugal was ruled by the authoritarian Estado Novo regime

Systems of government (Davidson)

-portuguese (came in 1620) thought there might be as many as 20 states/clans present in the region at the time -after the initial European contact cultivation of food began to change with farming taking prevalence (theorizes this is due to both a natural advancement in agriculture internally and the import of tropical crops from the new world) -The English observed in 1886 there was a robust political system similar to that of any European national language

Salazar's Portugal at war in Africa

-portuguese counterinsurgency soldier -Antonio Salazar -check class notes for more info

Jackson argument

-post-colonization, African nations had negative sovereignty (non-interference in domestic affairs; quasi-state that protects corrupt, brutal dictator) but NOT positive sovereignty (the capacity to deliver public goods and welfare) -this has protected authoritarian African elites, propagating weak, corrupt, even chaotic states "unworthy" of sovereignty

How does war impact nationalism?

-presence of a palpable external threat may be the strongest way to generate a common association between the state and the population -external threats make people realize that they are under threat because of who they are as a nation -causes population to unite around common symbols and memories which contributed to formation of national identity

Counter-hegemony is....

-productive and constitutive

What are two impacts of war on state finances?

-puts strains on leaders to find new and more regular sources of income -citizens are much more likely to acquiesce to increased taxation when the nation is at war because a threat to their survival will overwhelm other concerns that they might have about increased taxation

What does neopatrimonialism result from and is reinforced by?

-quasi-statehood (a condition in which a state is legally sovereign even though it might fail to exercise effective control over its territory and/or its inhabitants)

White racism and capitalist modes of production (Rodney)

-racism rationalized in theology/biology (but had no scientific basis) -oppression of African people on racial grounds accompanied, strengthened, and became indistinguishable from oppression for economic reasons -by 19th century, white racism had become so institutionalized that it sometimes ranked above the maximization of profit as a motive for oppressing black people

More benefits for Colonizers

-rapid development of technology in colonizing states -accelerated industrialization and job creation -increase in workers' skill level -strengthening and expansion of colonial Military

Cabral and peasants

-recognized the importance of them to PAIGC's struggle, but had more of a challenge recruiting them to participate. difficult to convince they were being exploited -in Guinea-Bissau, peasants had no tradition of revolt and didn't welcome revolutionists immediately -ultimately, Cabral saw them as being vital but difficult to persuade while Fanon saw them a spontaneous revolutionary force

Garvey and sovereignty/the state

-rejected idea of limiting sovereignty to the state -sovereign states do not necessarily translate into sovereign people (having to democratize US' democracy) (notion of "all men are created equal") -dual nature of sovereignty (state/the people) -no 'natural' foundation of sovereignty (who the people are/who legitimately speak for them is contested and constructed) -the concept of sovereignty not only assures a continuity between inside and outside but a simultaneous continuity between knowledge and reality -power away from the body of the sovereign king/queen to people in the form of citizenship. But people of African descent denied the fundamental rights which were constitutionally guaranteed to other citizens. rather than forming the basis of sovereignty of (black) people, state sovereignty allowed for systematic disenfranchisement under the protocols of Westphalian non-intervention -effort to ruin the prestige of hegemonic/supremacist discourses synonymous with black pride

What must the ideology go beyond? (Davidson)

-removing colonial systems to resolve the underlying class conflict -must dismantle the entire colonial apparatus, not simply swap one ruler for another -must resolve the class conflict within the new nation state and resolve it in favor of the many, not the few

Did capitalism develop democracy? (Rodney)

-responsible for a rhetoric of freedom but never extended from the bourgeois to the oppressed workers (bring in Garveyism here!)

What were Nunn's findings?

-robust negative relationship between the number of slaves taken from a country and its subsequent economic development -it was usually the societies that were the most prosperous, not the most undeveloped, that selected into slave trades -the least developed societies were usually the most violent/hostile and were often best able to resist European efforts to purchase slaves -if a country had been part of one of the past slave trades there was a possibility that they had developed their own system of domestic slavery- this had a negative relationship with economic development -strong positive relationship between slave exports and a measure of ethnic fractionalization today -the slave trade weakened and underdeveloped states

What was the point of Nunn's paper and what did he find?

-seeks to better understand the relationship between slave exports and current economic performance in African countries -finds that it was the most developed areas of Africa that tended to select into the slave trades

How did Western powers extract compliance from their subordinated?

-self-appointed enactors of international morality -using political skills- including negotiations or accommodations- and military means

How and why is there an absence of interstate war in the modern era?

-since the end of WWII, very few third world states have fought interstate wars of the type that affected the evolution of European states -because a vast majority of Third World state most of the time do not face significant external threats -most conflicts in Africa since independence era have been lesser issues that were resolved without threatening the existence of another state -independent African leaders have continued the system of boundary maintenance that the colonial powers developed to regulate the scramble for Africa in the late 1800s- created a system of explicit norms who declared any change in the inherited colonial boundaries to be illegitimate (has been successful in preserving African national boundaries) (has so far deterred almost all countries from initiating conquest wars)

Congo's independence

-six months elapsed between Belgium's decision to grant Congo independence and the actual date of independence, 30 June (....) -congo had less than two dozen African university graduates in the entire population; no infrastructure and few professionals -unresolved questions: would Congo be a federation? would power be shared among various ethnic groups? -Belgium wanted to ensure that the new leaders would toe the (....) allow continued access to resource wealth

Impacts of the African Slave Trade 1400-1900 (Nunn)

-slave trade impacted the entire continent (coastal and inland regions) -12 million people exported during trans-Atlantic slave trade; 6 million during the 3 others -untold others were killed during slave raids or died on the way to the coast -by 1850, Africa's population was half what it would have been without slavery -can go against Herbst w this!

How did the slave trade weaken and underdevelopment states?

-slave trades caused long term political instability and the failure of state centralization

First phase of Mozambique

-small nationalist group formed among exiles and migrant workers in Rhodesia, Nyasaland, and Tanganyika -formally came together in 1962 as FRELIMO under the leadership of Eduaordo Mondlane -some initial limited success finding sympathizers

Possibility for compromise? (Davidson)

-some in leadership still preferred to compromise, but those who won out knew this would mean defeat -leaders knew they needed to destroy the colonial system and build a new system, while transforming themselves from movements into revolutions -their actions resulted not only in the destruction of the colonial system but also in the Portuguese dictatorship too (a case where the periphery decided the fate of the center)

How did war effect state formation in Europe?

-special attention to two crucial developments -the creation of centralized and efficient structures to collect taxes -the development of nationalism

Cabral as an agronomist

-spent a significant amount of time studying social structures in local towns, the relationships between villagers and their Chiefs, and the consequences of Portuguese colonial exploitation on daily life (consultation with the grassroots was an important factor in the struggle's success)

Fallacies regarding pre-colonial Africa (Davidson)

-states that for centuries Europeans had regular contact with the Kingdoms but conducted both trade of crops and the slave trade without attempting full on colonization. Davidson argues this is a key reason for limited development in Africa following European contact- the contact was irregular and surface level

Rhodesian Foreign Policy

-strikes on guerilla bases in Zambia and Mozambique - raids on Ny(....) (1976) and Chimoio (1977) killed hundreds each, mostly civilians -forced villagization of rural African populations -close cooperation with Portuguese (until 1975) and with apartheid south Africa -Rhodesia's economy and society were increasingly under pressure as the guerilla war wore on -the UK brokered an independence agreement in London, known as the Lancaster House Accords -ZANU came to power; a number of parliamentary seats reserved

Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC)

-strongest and most effective -led by anilcar cabral -included western-educated intellectuals, urban workers, city dwellers whose informal sector activities subjected them to continuous police harassment -not communist, but convinced that Marxism provided useful tools for analyzing colonial problems -Cabral sought support from diverse actors in the international community -he was demanding the elimination of the system of colonial domination

Compromise within the colonial system

-supported by men who, for the most part, were looking for individual gains from compromise -saw armed struggle as a way to get leverage -ready to end the war provided they could get some amount of the power and privilege within the system that Portugal would continue to dominate

What did international focus on US racial problems do to America's image?

-tarnished their image of democracy -just as they were trying to promote democracy and "contain" communism

convictions that come with notion of sovereignty as natural

-that the oppressive conditions of Africans worldwide was guaranteed by the working of the international system and the authoritative explanations of how this system works

US concerns about the UN Conciliation Commission

-that they would call for a resumption of parliament or the establishment of a government including Lumumba -thought this would mean the end of the UN operation of the Congo

Independence under the 5th Republic

-the 5th republic's constitution, voted on in a referendum across the French Union, allowed for colonies' independence -French Guinea under Ahmed Sekou Toure opted for full independence-----France withdrew all aid and infrastructure, and persuaded Western countries not to recognize Guinea -Chad, Dahomey (Benin), French Sudan (Mali), Cote d'Ivoire, Madagascar, Mauritania, Middle Congo (Congo-Brazzaville and Niger, Senegal, Ubangi-Shari (Central African republic) and Upp(....) Volta (Burkina Faso) opted to become states of the French Com(...)

Where is this relationship evident?

-the African MIDs involving democratic Botswana and anoretic Rhodesia from 1967 to 1977 -after launching Operation Thrasher in February '76

What did documents reveal about Lumumba's assassination?

-the CIA did want to assassinate Lumumba but ultimately left the job to the Belgians and the Katangans -US officials encouraged Lumumba's Congolese opponents to eliminate him when it appeared he might resume his position as PM and restore Russians to influence

Sovereignty and the Congo

-the Congo, a huge territory in Central Africa, was colonized by the Belgian King Leopold as a personal fiefdom in 1884 -Belgium extracted massive quantities of natural resources, [....] this became Leopold's personal wealth -the international community sanctioned Belgium's occupation [...] exploitation during the Berlin conference -After Congolese independence in 1960, Belgium retained greater control over its natural resources and installed dictator Mobutu[...] Seko -NATO powers facilitated Mobutu's plunder of Congolese wealth

The British Colonization of Southern Africa

-the Dutch East India Company first settled in the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa) in 1652 -the British established a toehold in the Cape Colony in 1795, displacing Dutch settlers (Boers), who moved further inland -British settlers arrived in waves, starting in 1820 (Port Elizabeth); (...) Africans was abolished in 1833; Africans were granted certain rights (...) -The discovery of diamonds around Kimberley (1870) and gold in [...] region changed everything- colonization and conquest went into h(...) -The British South Africa Company was formed (1888) and granted (....) Charter

The status of French colonies after WWII

-the French union, created in 1948, held that there were no colo(...) such, only Metropolitan France, the overseas departments, and overseas territories- in reality, colonies had virtually no power -a 1956 law provided for greater autonomy as a way to address (....) the Algerian War (1954-62) -the 1 million French settlers in Algeria ('pieds noirs') were oppo(....) form of independence for Algeria -the debate over Algeria threatened to cause civil war in France -this led to the collapse of the 4th Republic and formation of the 5th Republic, with Charles de Gaulle brought back as president

Could structural adjustments help state-making in Africa?

-the IMF cannot produce the feeling of being threatened that war does -- the cost to the state itself in failing to adopt its programs can be severe but not as bad as from war - it also doesn't produce any changes in national identity- is not a "relevant other"

Guinea-Bissau: road to liberation

-the PAIGC received key support from Sekou Toure's Guinea -PAIGC cadres received training in Guinea, Ghana, Algeria, Morocco, and Czechoslovakia -1962: the USSR began supplying PAIGC with weaponry -1965: Cuba sent doctors, instructors, and weapons -1970: Portugal launches amphibious invasion of Guinea, aiming to (...) -Jan. 1973: Cabral assassinated in Conakry, Guinea, in plot by Portuguese secret services -1973: PAIGC's new Soviet shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles (SA-7) (...) Portuguese air power, shooting down 18 aircrafts in four months -they defeated the Portuguese and forced unconditional Portuguese (...) in 1973; gained independence in 1974

Role of NATO Defense Pact

-the US provided military equipment to Portugal for European defense -although specified American equipment could not be used in Portugal's African wars, Lisbon violated the terms and Washington did nothing to enforce it -from Kennedy to Nixon American weapons were used against Africans in the Portuguese colonies, while American military personnel trained thousands of Portuguese soldiers in counterinsurgency techniques

"ethical imaginary"

-the colonial regime of sovereignty was based on an "ethical imaginary" of "moral solicitude" according to "ethnic, racial, ideological, political, and/or economic" considerations

Volume of slaves (nunn)

-the effect was that by 1850 Africa's population was only half of what it would have been had there been no slave trade

What does Davidson's article outline?

-the main conditions determining whether a country fails or succeeds in its attempts at liberation

Sovereignty as 'natural'

-the natives' challenge to the colonial world is not a rational confrontation of points of view. it is not a treatise on the universal, but the untidy affirmation of an original idea propounded as absolute. -disarticulating the signifying system which had inscribed a radicalized global 'common sense'

"Transition" from Lumumba to Mobutu

-the new Congolese government was divided over the Soviet involvement (...) Kasavubu, a darling of the West, opposed it -Supported by the West, Kasavubu illegally dismissed Lumumba as (...) -Congolese Army Col. Joseph Desire Mobutu, a Belgian agent who had been recruited by the CIA, staged a coup and seized power, expelling (....) -many Lumumba loyalists in Congolese army; CIA worried they'd re(...) -Lumumba was captured, escaped, was recaptured by Mobutu's (....) to Katanga, and murdered by the Belgians -Lumumba supporters led by Antoine Gizenga established the Free (...) Congo in the east, but were defeated by Western mercenaries

Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde

-the party for the independence (....) Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) founded 1956

Cabral on parties & leadership

-the party is the people -all the group of Guinea-Bissau need to be united (not just the peasants and the urban leadership as Fanon believed) -PAIGC would minimize the conflicts and contradictions among the various groups -leaders should organize liberated areas so they can replace colonial rule post-liberation -revolutionists must show the masses they are at least as powerful as the colonial army -care must be taken to keep guerrillas in contact with the masses and to encourage local participation in the struggle- Cabral believed this is task for which the party is responsible

Who did Cabral believe the struggle was against?

-the ruling class of the imperialist countries -Cabral's modification of the Marxian class struggle...since Marxism doesn't work in colonial countries

why were Africa's slave trades unique/consequences of this?

-the total volume of slave trade was unprecedented -individuals of the same or similar ethnicities enslaved each other -gun-slave cycle -governments collapse -judicial system disintegrates

Africa's ability to extract taxes:

-weak state power causes the state to institute desperate and self-defeating economic policies in the areas of government revenue -African states have little revenue for state services and need more extensive/efficient tax systems bc to develop they need large expenditures on infastructure to promote economic activity and handle the ramifications of development -because of this----many govts rely on taxation of foreign trade (average African state depends on revenue from tariffs for 20.5% of total revenue) -this damages national economies bc leaders are compelled to erect greater administrative controls in imports, promoting corruption/smuggling/overvalued exchange rates

What is one of the significant variants in African political institutions?

-their varying level of domestic political legitimacy -interaction of patriomonialism and legitimacy within domestic politics that encourages a broader range of foreign policy practices emanating from neopatrimonial decision making -implications for international conflict in general and democratic peace thesis in particular -example: w/domestic legitimacy contested, neopatrimonial leaders generally demur from deploying their troops abroad out of fear that it will leave their urban centers vulnerable to insurgency in an African context wherein those who control the capital city can largely control the country like the 'greater constraint' argument it mirrors, neglects how lack of domestic legitimacy of many neopatrimonial leaders puts additional constraints on their ability and willingness to take their states to war

anti-colonial wars

-there is a rich history of African anti-colonial warfare throughout the continent -Africans resisted taxation and the imposition of the European nation-state -superior European weaponry was the difference-maker

Cabral views of the native petty bourgeoise

-they emerge from foreign domination and crucial cogs in the system of colonial exploitation -playing important roles in the African bureaucracy -they are a buffer between the masses and the local representation of the colonial power -they inherit power as a result of their European education and service to the colonial power (nevertheless, Cabral believed that eventually they would join forces with the masses at the end of the day and become reincarnated in the condition of workers and peasants to bring about a successful revolution)

White women in war

-they were needed to support the Rhodesian government and white minority state -in a position to know what was going on in the war (possibly through overhearing conversations with their husbands) but were told to keep quiet -many actively rallied behind the Rhodesian government and their men -found at the rear

The 4 slave trades the African continent experienced

-trans-atlantic (largest) -trans-saharan -red sea -indian ocean

Estimates consistent with general view of African historians where primary slaving areas were (Nunn)

-trans-atlantic: 'slave coast' (Benin and Nigeria), West Central Africa (Zaire, Congo, and Angola) and the 'Gold Coast' (Ghana) (top exporting countries) -Red Sea and Saharan: Ethiopia and Sudan were primary suppliers for this...therefore these countries are also at the top of the list -lowest number of slaves came from: South Africa and Namibia

Guinea-B and CV first phase

-tried to achieve a peaceful process but soon saw that peaceful protests brought only greater repression (dockers killed in 1959 while demonstrating capped this off----after, Cabral and his fellows decided to end all peaceful protests) -prepared instead for insurrectionary warfare based on their 90% rural population (PAIGC moved from Bissau, where the police could repress them, to the neighboring capital of Conakry in Guinea) (began to train militants in political work, which Cabral insisted was necessary before insurrection) (then sent militants back to gain peasant support and transform this support gradually into participation) (sent a few volunteers for military training in Algeria, and eventually to the Soviet Union and East Germany and Cuba) (PAIGC leaders travelled to the US and Europe to try to get a political hearing, but this failed except for in Sweden)

Fanon thoughts on culture

-tried to minimize the difference between Arab and Black Africa (divisions of Africa did not accurately reflect tribal/geographical/economic/social realities

How did Europeans try to ease their consciounce?

-try to throw the major responsibility for the slave trade onto Africans -to be clear however the trade would have been impossible if certain Africans did not cooperate with the slave trips

Fanon vs Cabral on everyday work

-unlike Fanon, Cabral had an appreciation for the crucial everyday work of the struggle -fought for more than just ideas; he fought for real material benefits, improved conditions, and a better future for his children. Why? The struggle for liberation is useless if the people are left with nothing but the bare necessities of life

How did women begin?

-used to carry supplies and weapons (dangerous)

Taxes in Europe (Herbst)

-war allowed efficiency in collecting significantly more revenue and less public resistance to this -freedom of Euro states to attack each other allowed the states that could raise money quickly the ability to successfully threaten their neighbors with a war that might lead to significant damage -choice = be conquered or centralize authority/raise taxes -post-War revenues that have increased do not decline to the level they were at before war

Herbst research question

-war in Europe played an important role in their consolidation (caused them to have more efficient revenue collection, forced leaders to dramatically improve administrative capabilities, and it created a climate and important symbols around which a disparate population could unify -can developing countries accomplish in times of peace what war enabled Euro countries to do?

War and national myth in Africa

-war is a very good way of creating a national myth -Africans often organized together in the fight against the colonizers; after independence, they frequently turned on each other within the confines of the state

What is missing in Africa according to Herbst?

-war is an important cause of state formation missing in Africa today -war was crucial in the formation of European states (Huntington, Tilly)

How is war related to taxation?

-war provides an imperative to collect taxes -establishing internal taxation is usually a difficult task -during war, leaders have to find the most efficient way of collecting taxes -people are more willing to pay taxes -once taxation is in place, it continues post-war

Lumumba's Independence Speech

-watch video -30/6/1960

Various forms of sovereignty Grovogui

-western hegemons envisioned various forms of sovereignty: [...] gave small European countries like Belgium and Switzerland [...] roles in international affairs out of proportion with their size and domestic resources -these same global powers allocated a different kind of sovereign{...] African states: a subordinate role in the international system -Hence sovereignty has historically been based on "rules, norms [...] mechanisms determined by Western powers, not a universal [...] of ethical standards

Impacts of Brown on American Foreign Policy Interests

-when brown v BoE was decided, the opinion gave the State Department the counter to Soviet propaganda it had been looking for -within an hour after the decision was handed down, the Voice of America broadcast the news to Eastern Europe (emphasized that the issue was settled by law under democratic processes rather than by mob rule or dictatorial fiat") -favorable reaction to the decision spanned the globe (Brazil sent a letter to the US embassy to celebrate the decision) (newspapers in Africa noted that Brown was 'greeted with enthusiasm in French West Africa') (Africa Nouvelle carried an article under the title "At last! Whites and Blacks in the United States on the same school benches") -Eisenhower administration notes: "human equality at home is a weapon of freedom...It helps guarantee the Free World's cause"

How did Tsombe plan to combat the Lumumbist invasion of North Katanga?

-with hundreds of European mercenaries who had arrived in Elisabethville -Tsombe had lost confidence in his troops who were "frequently undisciplined, given to inter-tribal disputes, and increasingly suspicious of white officers" so much so that "several minor mutinies had occurred" -Tsombe thus organised a white company which was to be recruited in Belgium, France, etc which would serve as protection if African forces got out of hand

Why socialism for Fanon?

-would hold people together -felt that peasants should be included in revolutionary struggle (capable of uncontrollable rage when confronted with provocation/injustice)

Why didn't the US act (to prevent Lumumba's killing)?

1.) UN conciliation commission: there were negotiations for Lumumba to reassume his title as PM, which would mean the end of UN operation in Congo under a new Lumumba regime 2.) Round Table Conference coming up would force Tshombe to release Lumumba in time for him to participate in the conference 3.) Rumors that Casablanca powers had agreed to use their troops in the UN force to support a Lumumba coup d'erat 4.) Uncertainty about the legitimacy of the troops in Leopoldville where Lumumba was imprisoned

What are the two different ways in which Grovugi argues sovereignty can be applied?

1.) in the EU that gives disproportionate role to states in international affairs relative to their capability (size, power, and domestic resources)

Battle of Isandlwana

22/1/1879 -Zulu forces surprised and routed British troops, killing over 1300 -Britain responded by subjugating Zululand, consolidating control over much of southern Africa -this was a key event in the formation of modern South Africa

Where was US racism specifically problematic?

African and Asian countries issues of race, nationalism, and anti-colonialism more important than Cold War tensions

Fanon involved in

Algerian revolution

Patrimonialism

An arrangement whereby a ruler depends on a collection of supporters within the state who gain direct benefits in return for enforcing the ruler's will

Katanga secession (NN)

Belgium intervened Katanga province declared its secession from the Congo, service in the Katanga Gendarmerie Britain, France, and apartheid South Africa gave active support to the secession, as their ruling classes shared Belgium's fear of Lumumba's commitment to genuine independence and radical social change Belgian and Western alliance determined that they could do profitable business in the Congo with the anti-communist and pro-Western moderates they had helped put in power

Anderson vs Garvey on 'imagined community'

Garveyism was a transnationalism movement aimed at the production of a global imagined community

How does Grovugi argue against Jackson's argument?

Grovugi argues that Jackson's argument is flawed because 1.) neglects context of Africa's exclusion from the politically significant relationships of the global order amid its claims to sovereignty post-colonization 2.) neglects context of the "material structures of political power and subordination" (32) within the post-colonial international order

Congo mineral richness

Katanga province

When did fighting cease

May 1974 Portuguese pulled out quickly

Mozambique

Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) found(...)

July 1974

PAIGC militants in CV came into the open and developed a political campaign for Cape Verde independence became clear that the PAIGC had major support there and they won a general election in June 1975, harkening in independence

"the day will come when history will speak....Africa will write its own history...it will be a history of glory and dignity"

Patrice Lumumba (think about what would have been done if JFK stayed) --differentiate different accounts of L's assassination. know where each author stands.

How is interstate war a state-building mechanism?

Quote by Herbst illustrates this "Fighting wars may be the only way where it is possible to have people pay more taxes and at the same time feel more closely associated with the state"

How does Switzerland support this argument?

Switzerland 20th C -never ethnically unified and lacked "internal political authorization" (Jackson) -controlled the banks that reaped rewards of the colonial enterprise

Herbst thesis

They probably cannot because fundamental changes in economic structures and societal beliefs are difficult, if not impossible, to bring about when countries are not being disrupted or under severe external threat

what did the crisis of decolonization require

US and UN interventions plan to eliminate Lumumba and his radical followers from the political scene and replace them with moderate leaders

'62 US and Portugal

US sought closer relationship w/Portugal due to cold ar and strategic concerns Johnson admin: preoccupied w/war in Vietnam, took little interest in Africa (benign neglect) Nixon and Ford admin: titled increasingly toward Portugal and its colonial regimes. embraced the regime of Marcello Caetono in '68. relaxed prohibition of use of American arms. the US bolstered Portugal's war, weakening economy. Gulf oil became the largest single investor in the Portuguese colonies- revenues provided Portugal w/approx 60% of its Angola war budget

UN and US interest in the Congo

US wanted no time (?) in getting involved in the Congo crisis Lumumba died for attempting to uphold the consitutional order, national unity, and territorial integrity -Lumumba felt compelled to seek military assistance elsewhere -the UN was also useful in the American drive to eliminate his followers from the political scene

South Africa in dirty wars

a lot of the soldiers were white South Africans who could do their mandatory military service by fighting in Rhodesia

fanon and socialism

affinity w/socialism not doctrinaire about it believed energies of revolutions should be directed at building a socialist state post-independence

Democratic peace thesis

argues that democracies are less likely to fight each other than are other polities garnered so much support in the quantitative literature in IR that it has been hailed as virtually an 'empirical law' however, quantitative analysis show this does not hold in all regions although the empirical evidence in support of the contention that democracies rarely if ever fight each other voluminous, the democratic peace thesis has not been systematically applied to the individual regions that comprise the global system

How did plan change?

as L's captors were afraid UN troops in B would intervene and rescue him. sent him to Elizabethville instead. some believe this had been the intended destination following negotiations between Kasavubu/Mobutu/Tshombe in Elizabethville, approx. 500 supporters of L were arrested between the 14th-17th Jan (suggests T knew of this in advance) if the plan was not last minute, the CIA station chief in Leopoldville (who had excellent sources) should have been informed of the switch of plans but he insisted he was not informed about it it is suggested that the CIA decided it was better to admit an intelligence failure than admit involvement station chief in Elizabethville also maintained they were not informed Delvin's immediate superior, Bronson Tweedy also said CIA had no involvement in Lumumba's death Whether it was Bakwanga or Elisabethville, the result would have been identical..."I think there was a general assumption, once we learned he had been sent to Katanga, that his goose was cooked, because Tshombe hated him and looked on him as a danger and a rival"

Secession of South Kasai (NN)

atrocities committed by the ANC against the Luba-Kasai as an act of genocide Lumumba was put on house arrest, imprisoned like a common criminal, and assassinated a few months later political exploitation of inter-ethnic conflict on the Kasai provinces rise and fall of the Luba empire unlike the Hutu-Tutsi conflict (Kigali), whose ideological configuration involves a myth of separate origins- Hamitic myth the Lula-Baluba conflict arose in the context of the ethnic identity construction and mobilization within the colonial political economy colonialists invented the stereotype of the Luba as progressive and hardworking with the double aim of improving the socio-economic position of the Lulua so they could catch up with the Baluba and promote a Lulua counter-elite the creation of South Kasai coincided with the launching of a major drive by the ANC to move into the Katanga province for the purposes of crushing the secession heinous crimes against humanity committed by ANC troops against unarmed civilians

More reactions

communist countries, Soviet Union, Cuba, and China responded to the Portuguese aggression w/military assistance to the various liberation organizations

What was the Congo Crisis a crisis of? (Nzongola-Ntalaja)

decolonization decolonization is favorable to their economic and strategic interests with the help of more conservative African leaders

FNLA and UNITA

defeated and joined alliances with Zaire and South Africa South Africa, with covert US encouragement, invaded Angola in October MPLA called for help from its old ally, Cuba

Bell suggestion of civil rights

desegregation was a result of a convergence of interests on the parts of whites and blacks -white interests rooted partially in response to foreign policy and also an effort to suppress potential black radicalism -in reality, this is NOT the case; it is important to contextualize historically

Kasa Vubu's nomination as PM (NN)

designated by the Belgian official in charge of the transition, African affairs minister Ganshof van Der Meersch

the OAU

established 32 independent African countries in 1963 to unite the continent and eradicate colonialism, mobilize the military, economic and diplomatic support

How does Belgium support this argument?

example: Belgium 19th C (cites Clapham: Belgium = "prototypical artificial state") (given outsized role to colonize abroad and reaped riches and gained generational wealth at the expense of Congolese human capital, natural resource wealth, and social capital) (ordained by EU and US powers at the Berlin Conference 1884-85---Congo is 77 times larger than Belgium)

fanon and colonial proletariat

fanon had no use for them; he was contemptuous towards African workers who, he insisted, were like the bourgeoisie in industrial countries (a favored class)

Rhodesian army was universally

feared and loathed

general mercenaries

former soldiers recruited through circles of veterans looking for odd-jobs and security work generally finding such jobs as security for political figures like Giscard, the former French president a lot of the soldiers that made up these regiments were "kind of there like for a crusade....to kill commies and blacks"

Women as war propaganda

from both Rhodesians and nationalists as images of women were used to create tensions in a masculine discourse women were presented as "victims" to a male terrorist campaign Rhodesians soon did not want to kill women terrorists, but capture them instead

Beginning of January

generally accepted by officials and diplomats in the Congo that a change could be expected from the new Administration

leaders of mercenaries

had connections to a French extreme-right party a lot of the behind the scenes organizing necessary to assemble a mercenary army to fight France's dirty wars in Africa took place through back channels in French politics---often involving figures affiliated with the military bureaucracy and right wing political parties

How does Grovugi define sovereignty?

historical regimes or social compacts, real or imagined, that give form to power and legitimacy

Rodney and Nunn similarity

in the simplest societies with no kings, impossible for Europeans to strike up the alliance necessary to carry on trade in captives on the coast

Neo-patrimonialism

leaders use government revenue and resources to favor their own ethnic group

Incompetence of commanding officers

led to a failed counter-attack and panic among his regiment also describes how he found the combat potential of the guerrillas to be much higher than he had been led to believe

Moderate actions? (Davidson)

like strikes would result in the destruction of those who took part and nothing more

voluntary recruits

many obductions

Operations considered successful by the Rhodesian army

massacres of civilians

-role of neighboring countries

more likely to fight if more legitimate (opposite of democratic/peace agreement)

Fanon theory

more of an abstract theorist concern was encouraging revolution to take place writings meant to arouse the public and their anger

"protected villages"

people herded into these essentially prison camps surrounded by barbed wire and military personnel -officially, the system is meant to protect the villagers but in reality it serves to stop the infiltration of guerrillas, preventing contact between them and the civilian population -such villages common -interviewee cited 15 in his section alone which all housed hundreds of people -the villagers were only let out during the day to do their fieldwork and their huts were systematically searched daily

Angola

popular movement for the liberation of Angola (MP....) founded 1956; FNLA (Angola National Liberation Front) founded in 1962; and UNITA (Union for the Total Independence of Angola) founded 1966

quasi statehood

seen/considered as states officially states but do not have empirical attributes of statehood don't have monopoly of legitimate violence, etc. congo 90s international law vs domestic conditions

Delvin

sent message to Washington that the govt would fall resulting in chaos and Lumumba back to power

What is Herbst' conclusion?

some states will probably be unsuccessful in finding ways of building the state in times of peace and will therefore remain permanently weak

How do the micro-states support this argument?

states like Liechtenstein were not invaded

Cabral and political action

strengthen the party organization and the level of discipline within it

Cabral and armed action

strengthened the armed forces and give them capability to isolate the enemy

State department warned Tsombe

that his recruitment of European mercenaries- after his brutal treatment of Lumumba- would further isolate him from moderate Africans and further discredit all pro western moderates in the Congo

What was the US wary of?

that if the matter of Lumumba's treatment was taken up with Tsombe himself it would remove the little remaining influence of the US govt had in ELisabethville and also believed that any attempt to prevent the Katanga govt from using the mercenaries was pointless

What's possible about the death of Lumumba?

that the death did not come from an internal situation in Congo but from fear of the impending change in Washington

Non-European states were granted sovereignty to the degree.....

that they complied with the hegemonies' objectives- this ignored domestic populations' priorities and expectations

Katanga govt vs the Consulate

the Katanga govt had attempted to conceal the arrival of these recruits but the Consulate were informed that the recruits were taken from the airport to camps and operation units farther north

What does Henderson article work to test

the applicability of the democratic peace thesis to sub-saharan African states by examining a 'political inversion' thesis this suggests that the domestic political framework of African states compels their leaders to engage in international conflict, contrary to what the democratic peace thesis suggests: namely, politically open African states are more likely to fight each other

Black Zimbabwean women symbolizing

the nation as mothers

What does Schmidt's reading examine?

the national liberation movements and external actors in Portugal's three mainland colonies, the transformation in American policy towards its NATO ally and the contours in Portuguese Guinea, Mozambique and Angola

Realpolitik

the primacy of the reason of the state and the national interest as well as the sovereign monopoly on the means and use of violence

What is the second way in which sovereignty can be applied?

these same global powers allocated a different kind of sovereignty to African states: a subordinate role in the international system (because of supposed disqualifying artificial features of African states)

grenades

they were provided with grenades lacking national trademarks, which are forbidden by the Geneva Convention this is representative of the brutal measures the Rhodesian forces were willing to go to in order to maintain colonial control

gendered stereotypes

white women reminded of their "female" roles of providing emotional support for the "real" soldiers -had to "maintain the morale of their menfolk" -they had to provide the men with their "recuperative female touch"

Interconnections between national economies and world (Rodney)

without African labour the West Indies were valueless what was good for Europeans was obtained at the expense of suffering by Africans and American Indians African gold helped Amsterdam become financial capital of Europe American economic development dependent on foreign commerce, of which slavery was a pivot. northern capitalists ended slavery to advance to a higher level of capitalism.

common thoughts about women in war

women had no control and were not central nor important to war HOWEVER, both black and white women challenged stereotypes of women as being essentially nurturers