POLS FINAL

What is the name given to the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution?

"Bill of Rights"

Make sure to know and understand the six design principles of the original U.S. Constitution (as discussed in the textbook chapter).

(1) Federalism Be sure to know and understand which areas of governance were controlled by the central government and those controlled by state governments, as well as those areas under both authorities. -STATES: the granting of hunting licences, family law, and much of criminal law -FED GOV: Diplomacy and the coining of money -BOTH: The authority to tax Where is the Constitution does it give the federal government superiority over state governments? What is this clause called? -Article VI Supremacy Clause of the Constitution declared that the federal government is supreme. The federal law takes precedence over state law. (2) Popular Sovereignty The Constitution's Preamble refers to the idea of "popular sovereignty." What does this term mean? -The people are the most sovereign. The US Constitution was enacted under the authority of the sovereign people. (3) Representative Democracy What is the difference between a direct democracy and representative democracy? Which of those two kinds of democracy did the Founders create? -DIRECT DEMOCRACY: All citizens directly take part in making and enforcing laws -REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY: a relatively small number of public officials make and enforce laws on behalf of the majority of citizen who are outside government. In Article I, the Founders expressed the control the people would have over the government. What controls does Article I give the people? -Members of the house serve two-year terms and that, for each state, -anyone who in eligible to vote for the lower house of the state legislature is eligible to vote for members of the US house of Reps. (4) Bicameralism What are the main features of a bicameral legislature and a unicameral legislature? -The purpose was to create an upper house that was a quasi-aristocratic (Intended to promote aristocratic values: knowledge, wisdom, experience, and patience) part of legislature that would counter-balance the more democratic lower house. Why did the Founders choose a bicameral legislature instead of a unicameral one? -It facilitated the great compromise by allowing states to be represented equally in one chamber (Senate) and based on population size in another. DIFFERENCES SENATE VS. HOUSE OF REPS Senate: Quasi-aristocratic, the upper house, 6-year terms, 2 persons per state. House of reps: represents persons, more democratic in nature. (5) Separation of Powers / Check and Balances What purposes were served by the system of checks and balances? -to try and keep the branches truly separate from one another somehow paradoxically giving them a bit of power over one another. (6) Small List of Civil Liberties · A small list of civil liberties can be found in Article I and Article III of the Constitution itself. What are these civil liberties outlined in these Articles? Article III -All criminal trials must be jury -No one may be convicted of treason unless a suspect confesses or two witnesses testify to having observed the "same overt act" of treason. Article I, Section 9 and 10 -Ex post facto laws or bills of attainder cannot be enacted. -The federal government cannot suspend the "privilege of the writ of Habeas Corpus" unless public safety may require it.

The textbook claims that both liberals and conservatives favor a limited role of government. Each group favors a limited role only in certain public policy areas though. Be sure to know and understand which group favors a limited government role in the following areas:

(1) Regulating the Market Capitalist Economy • Be able to identify someone as liberal or conservative based on how they stand on regulating the market capitalist economy. Liberals are more likely to support the market capitalist economy rather than conservatives. (2) Programs Promoting Economic Security, Welfare and Equality • What does the term "welfare state" mean? And which ideology is more likely to support it? Name given to a set of federal government programs that seek to promote the economic security, health and well-being of citizens, especially those in financial/ social needs. Established in the U.S. is the 1930s. Supported by liberals • Be sure to know and understand how each political ideology views socio economic rights. Liberals are more likely to think socioeconomic rights- rights to food, housing, education, healthcare actually are rights that the government should secure. Conservatives deny that those things are rights and instead they are things that should be provided voluntarily through private acts of charity Government provision of these rights are threats to the property rights and liberty of business owners and higher income Americans. (3) Promoting Social Equality of Historically Oppressed or Underprivileged Groups • Be able to identify someone as liberal or conservative based on how they stand on the promotion of social equality of historically oppressed or underprivileged groups. Liberals support laws and policies that intend to bring historically oppressed groups to a condition of social equality with historically privileged groups. Conservatives tend to be more concerned than liberals with maintaining the traditional statuses and roles of those who have been historically privileged (Cisgender white protestant men) (4) Upholding and Promoting Traditional Moral Values Conservatives: prohibitions on premarital sex, abortion, out-of-wedlock-birth, gambling, drug use, pornography, obscenity, and homosexuality. Conservatives support laws that prohibit these things to uphold traditional, moral values and Liberals are against the laws that prohibit these things. (5) Law Enforcement and the Criminal Justice System •Conservatives -Emphasize the need for punishing criminals who are guilty of crimes -Conservative favor empowering police to do their work with as few legal and procedural impediments as possible. Liberals -Emphasize the need for securing people's rights for those accused of committing crimes. -emphasize the importance of guarding against abuse of power by police.

What is the Electoral College? How did it work? And how did the Electoral College give slave states extra voice in the selection of the President?

-ELECTORAL COLLEGE: system established by the US Constitution for selecting presidents. By this system, each state has allocated a number of individuals called Electors equal to the number of members each state is allocated in the House of Reps and senate. The person who becomes president is the person who wins the most votes from the Electors. -States would get more or fewer presidential electors depending on the number of reps allocated to the house of reps. Since the number of seats in the house is to be based on population, it followed that states with smaller populations would get fewer electors to vote for President- and larger states would get more electors. -The three-fifths clause served to increase the number of members each slave state had in the House of Reps by counting their slaves as three-fifths. Thus the more slaves a state had, the more seats they would get in the house, and by extension the more Electors they would get for selecting the President. Why did the founders choose the electoral college instead of direct popular election? -Founders thought that many people would be under-informed and easily manipulated -Thus, the direct popular voting would result in presidents with unfit character. -It was a compromise to give slave states more voice in presidential selections.

What was "the Great Compromise"? Why was the Constitutional Convention in a stalemate before it?

-Roger Sherman proposed the Conneticut Compromise for a bicameral legislature . As proposed by the virginia plan, but each chamber would have different scheme of representation. The lower chamber (house of Reps) would be based on proportional representation. (Virginia Plan) The upper chamber (Senate) would be based on equal state representation. (New Jersey Plan- Articles of Confed).

What is Government? According to the textbook, what are the defining features of "government"? What is Government?

A set of institutions that endure over time and that, in relation to the people of a particular territory, authoritatively makes and enforces laws. The defining features of the government are the legislative branch (Georgia General Assembly: Senate and representatives), Executive branch (Governor, luit. Governor, and bureaucratic agencies), and Judicial branch.

Make sure to know and understand the various ways governments exercise power over people.

A way in which the government seeks to exert power over people by affecting their heart's and mind's so they feel persuaded or genuinely feel a desire of duty to do what they would otherwise not do. -Example: Mandating labels be put on the back of cigarettes to discourage people from smoking. Example: promoting patriotic holidays and rituals by promoting recital of the Pledge. Using the "Power of the Purse" as "Positive Incentives" or "Negative Incentives" Power of the purse is the government's ability to influence behaviour by using money - through taxing (negative) and/or spending (Positive). The legislative branch controls POTP. Positive Incentives "carrot": Seeking to influence behavior by credibly promising to provide a benefit if a particular action is taken. Negative Incentives "stick": Seeking to influence behavior by credibly threatening to impose a burden if a particular action is taken.

Who is generally considered the president's closest advisor?

All three, but staff and Executive Office are closer than the Cabinet. (Chief of staff)

o Where in the Constitution are most of Congress' enumerated powers listed?

Article I, Section 8.

· What does the provision of public goods have to do with collective action problems and free riding?

Because public goods are usually free, many individuals lack motivation to help provide those goods and this is called Free riding. EXAMPLE: The government may ask residents to pay for the fireworks show voluntarily but they will likely not receive a lot of money because the people know that whether they pay or not, they will still be able to watch the fireworks show regardless. FREE RIDING: Enjoying the benefits of a public good without bearing part of the burden of providing it. When attempts at free riding threaten to prevent a group from providing a public good, the group faces a collective action problem. Sometimes the government will exercise power in order to prevent free riding and in turn overcome a collective action problem by seeking to lead individuals to contribute to providing public goods. EXAMPLE: Imposing small taxes on individuals in order to pay for the fireworks show.

· Over the past decade, have African American citizens tended to vote at higher, lower, or approximately the same rate as white Americans (i.e., non-Hispanic whites)?

Black voters have voted at the same rate as whites.

o In what case did the Supreme Court declare that the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place in public education?

Brown v. Board of Education The lead attorney on the case, Thurgood Marshall, would later become the first african american supreme court justice.

Be sure to know and understand the term "civic nationalism," what it entails, and how it differs from ethnonationalism.

CIVIC NATIONALISM: based on shared principles and values that transcend race, religion, and ethnicity. Rooted in shared american commitment in democracy, principles expressed in the Dec of Independence, and the promise of the american dream.

How does the textbook define "civil rights"? How does it define "civil liberties"? Civil rights and civil liberties are both types of legal rights. How are they different from each other?

Civil Rights: Focused on equality. Legal rights that aim at eliminating and remedying various forms of unequal treatment in American society. Primarily concerned with discrimination against people based on race, sex, gender, etc. Civil liberties: Legal rights designed to protect individuals from abuse of power by the government. civil liberties only apply to government actions, but civil rights are concerned not only with government actions, but also with Discriminination by private individuals such as business owners.

Be sure to know and understand these forms of political organizations: confederacy, unitary national government, and federalism.

Confederacy: A system with a central and state governments that is set up thats the states maintain as much autonomy and independence from the central government as possible. Most importantly, the federal government only claims authority over state governments rather than over individual persons, and this is the leading cause of the central's government's weakness. Central government is tightly controlled by the state governments. Unitary national government: A country with a supreme central government that either is the only government or does not share authority with lower state governments. In this form of government the central government can unilaterally alter the authority and geographic boundaries of member states. Federalism: Authority is partly divided and partly shared between central and state governments. Federalism combines some aspects from confederacy and unitary national government in order to enjoy the benefits of each while avoiding their retrospective shortcomings. Cannot alter legal powers or jurisdictions.

What are the competing theories of Presidential power and how are they different?

Constitutional: Presidents can only do that which they are permitted to do by a reasonable reading of the president's powers enumerated in the Constitution. Stewardship: President is authorized to do anything deemed necessary, short of what is expressly prohibited by the Constitution or other laws, in promoting the public interest.

Democratic socialism vs state socialism

DEMOCRATIC SOCIALISM Well-managed market capitalism can drive prosperity for everyone Against concentrating too much power in the government Promoted by Bernie Sanders and Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez STATE SOCIALISM Government dictates working class revolution Transform all society into a working-class and a single collective Must overthrow market capitalism to address inequality.

· What does sample size have to do with the margin of error?

Due to the laws of probability, researchers can influence the margin of error by altering the size samples.

o What do these terms—enumerated / implied powers—mean?

ENUMERATED POWERS: Specific legislative powers explicitly granted to Congress in the U.S. constitution. IMPLIED POWERS: Powers not explicitly granted but rather implied by the text. The primary source of Congress' implied powers is the Necessary and Proper Clause

o What is the resource model of voting and how does it relate to the rational choice model?

Emphasizes the importance of inequality in resources- particularly money, time, and the knowledge gained from formal education- in creating inequalities in the costs of voting.

Which group—the Federalists or the Anti-Federalists—supported ratification of the U.S. Constitution? Which opposed ratification?

FEDERALISTS: supported ratification of the constitution ANTI FEDS: Opposed the ratification

· What is meant by the "funnel of causality"? How does it relate to socialization?

FUNNEL OF CAUSALITY: Over the course of a lifetime the environmental factors that impact our political predispositions become fewer in number and more limited in impact- just as space becomes more limited as material moves from the wide end of a funnel towards the narrow end.

· What, according to the textbook, is the most influential agent of socialization on children?

Family is the first and most influential socialization influence on children The PRIMARY PRINCIPLE is the idea that early socialization creates a base of values, attitudes, and beliefs that tend to be quite stable. This early learning shapes and conditions all future learning. AGENTS OF POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION are those who have a formative influence on our political attitudes, values, beliefs, and identities.

· What, according to the textbook, are the "two vital functions a free press and independent media play in democracy"?

First, a free press promotes a free flow of information, which can inform the government about the needs of the public about the going on of the government. The former helps the government to better serve the people while the latter helps citizens to monitor government and hold it accountable. Second, the free press can facilitate public commentary and debate over the public interest and thereby enlighten and refine citizens' judgements about matters of public importance.

What, according to James Madison, is the "great difficulty" one must confront when "framing a government which is to be administered by men over men"?

GREAT DIFFICULTY: If human beings were perfectly virtuous then we would not need government because we would respect one another's rights and would voluntarily cooperate to promote everyone's happiness and contribute to providing public goods. On the other hand, if we could count on having rulers in government who are perfectly virtuous then we would not have to worry about the government threatening our rights. Because few of us are virtuous we need government but we also need to control the government.

· Make sure to know and understand why governments are necessary in terms of securing rights.

Government may legitimately use or threaten to use force to deprive us of life, liberty, or property in order to deter those who would otherwise deprive the innocent of their rights. It can use the threat of depriving us of some natural rights as negative incentives in order to lead us to not deprive one another of those things. Governments are therefore necessary so that those who violate rights are justly punished, and thereby, rights are made more secure in the future.

What, according to the textbook, did Madison mean by saying "auxiliary precautions" are also needed for controlling government?

He is referring to the principle of checks and balances: different parts of government exert enough power over one another to keep each other within their proper constitutional limits.

Be sure to understand what is meant by these roles of the president and the differences between them:

Head of State and Head of Government- President serves as both. Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces- President is top of chain of command in every military branch. Chief Diplomat and Chief Foreign Policy Maker- Represent U.S. effectively on world stage. Accorded primary responsibility for making and implementing foreign policy. Crisis Manager- Must be able to act quickly and effectively when events at home and abroad require American response. Chief Legislator- Congress looks to them to set the legislative agenda. Americans expect the president, not Congress, to initiate major policies. Party Leader- Presidents and presidential nominees serve as the preeminent leaders of their political parties.

What is the process to remove a president from office? Which presidents have been impeached by the House? Which, if any, of those presidents were removed from office?

House of Representatives impeaches by a simple majority vote, then full trial is ran in Senate w/ Chief Justice of Supreme Court presiding. 2/3 of Senate must vote to convict and impeach President. Andrew Johnson (1868), Bill Clinton (1998), and Trump (2019) have been impeached in the House; none have every been removed by Senate.

· At the same time, have Hispanic (Latino / Latina) citizens tended to vote at higher, lower, or approximately the same rate as African Americans?

Huspanics have voted lower that african americans by 10 and/or 20 percent.

What is "Incorporation"? What does it have to do with the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment?

INCORPORATION: The Supreme Court declares a civil liberty from the Bill of Right to be protected against state and Local Government Abuse through the Due process clause of the 14th Amendment.

According to the textbook, what are "three (sometimes overlapping) ... ubiquitous sources of conflict in American democracy."

Ideology, Interests, and Identity

What makes a federal system, like that of the United States, different from a confederacy and unitary national government?

In federalism, the house of representatives and President have always been held accountable to the people rather than to state governments, and the senate serves long 6-year terms and cannot be recalled. This contrasts to confederacies since the Central government is tightly controlled by the state governments in confederacies. In a federal government, power is also shared and divided between the member states and the central government. The central government does not have a unilateral authority to alter legal power or geographic jurisdiction of member state governments. In contrast, in unitary national governments, either there is no separate member states or the central government can alter the authority or geographic jurisdictions and their will.

These two concepts are closely tied to the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment: (1) Incorporation and (2) Unenumerated Constitutional Rights. What's the difference between those two constitutional sources of civil liberties?

Incorporation Incorporation is about the rights explicitly listed. The Supreme Court declares a civil liberty from the Bill of Right to be protected against state and Local Government Abuse through the Due process clause of the 14th Amendment. Unenumerated Constitutional Rights Rights that are implied in the Constitution but are not actually mentioned. The US Supreme Court typically holds these rights are protected by the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

· What are the main differences between political parties and interest groups as discussed in the textbook? What do they have in common?

Interest groups seek to influence government from the outside and advance a common cause shared by members and Interest groups tend to have narrower sets of goals than parties. Political parties are focused on influencing government from the inside by directly controlling the elected offices within government and getting members elected to office.

What is judicial review? What does it have to do with how civil liberties are enforced in practice?

JUDICIAL REVIEW: The authority of courts to decide whether an act of government is constitutional or unconstitutional. -Decisions made via judicial review apply to all lower courts and jurisdictions.

Which branch of the government has the power to declare war?

Legislative branch.

· What is "limited government"? What does it have to do with "securing rights"?

Limited government: A principle of government that holds government must be empowered to serve its legitimate purposes, including the protection of rights, but it must be limited and controlled in its powers so that it does not pose an unacceptable risk to rights. The principle of limited government in relation to securing rights means that the government should protect rights and respect rights through not abusing their power of authority while protecting rights. A basic principle of the American system of government.

· Make sure to know and understand what we mean by "market" and why there is mainstream support in America for a market-based economy ·What are the two hallmarks of capitalism?

MARKET: A system in which voluntary exchanges between private buyers and sellers affect the price of good and services sold, and these prices, in turn affect how many goods and services are produced and consumed. There is mainstream support in America for a market-based economy because markets are thought to be a relatively efficient way to produce and distribute goods and services. The government has a responsibility to secure the right to private property. • What are the two hallmarks of capitalism? MEANS OF PRODUCTION: Items that are produced in order to produce more items. It includes the accumulated financial wealth that is used to invest in the items that are produced in order to produce more items. Means of production are privately owned The owners of the means of production purchase labor hours from workers in exchange for wages.

What is meant by the term "mega-identity"?

MEGA-IDENTITY: Form of partisan identity through which multiple social identities reinforce and magnify each other.

o What does Oliver Wendell Holmes' notion of a "marketplace of ideas" have to do with the Court's insistence that content-based restrictions are almost always in violation of the constitutional right to free expression?

Marketplace of ideas means that the government should not suppress expression of popular ideas but rather should let different viewpoints compete for social acceptance. Since the best test of truth is the power of thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market. Content based restrictions on political speech are usually considered unconstitutional, with a preference towards competition in the marketplace of ideas.

· How does the textbook define media?

Means of mass communication. E.g newspapers, magazines, radio, television and the Internet etc who use these channels of communication to inform the general public.

According to the textbook, the mediating role of the media has always been of concern. Make sure to understand what is meant by "mediating role" and the two general reasons it is of concern.

Mediating role means that the media stands between powerful authorities and people. the two general reasons it is of concern. The mediating role has been of concern because of its potential to either enlighten or mislead the public.

What does it mean to have an ethnonationalist identity? And what is the most common ethnonationalist identity in America today?

Membership based in a racial, ethnic, and/or religious group White Christian Nationalism

· Do younger Americans and older Americans tend to vote at approximately the same rate, or does one age group tend to vote at a significantly higher rate than the other (and if so, which one)?

The young generation vote less than the older generation.

o What is the Necessary and Proper Clause? What are "amendment-enforcing provisions"? How are they sources of implied powers?

NECESSARY AND PROPER CLAUSE: A clause that grants Congress authority to "to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution. AMENDMENT ENFORCING PROVISIONS: Provisions in the 13th, 14, 15, 19, 23rd, 26th Amendments that rant authority (with proper legislation) to enforce the rights guaranteed by the amendments. With the necessary and proper clause these amendment enforcing provisions are the major sources of the federal government implied powers. Congress has the ability to enact laws that are appropriate for enforcing amendments.

· Be sure to know and understand nonresponse bias and how it can lead to an unrepresentative sample.

NONRESPONSE BIAS: Occurs when individuals with certain characteristics are less likely to respond to surveys than others, thus resulting in a sample that under-represents those who are less likely to respond.

Natural vs. Legal Rights

Natural Rights Discoverable through reason Moral rights Inherent to all human beings Legal rights Human-made A part of written laws

· What is the difference between natural rights and legal rights? And what is their relationship: do governments always respect and protect natural rights?

Natural rights: All human beings are "endowed" by God with natural rights which are the moral rights that all human beings have even when the government does not recognize or secure them. Legal rights: Rights written in ordinance or constitutional law. Legal rights are a part of written, human-made laws whereas natural rights are said to exist by nature and are discoverable through reason. Thus, the legal rights recognized by the government may be consistent with or may be opposed to natural rights. The government has authority to take some natural rights away (life, liberty, property).

· What is meant by "political predispositions"?

One's pre-existing attitudes, values, beliefs, and social identities that condition how one formulates opinions about public affairs.

What is party polarization and what happens as a result of this phenomenon?

PARTY POLARIZATION: Psychological process of forming opinions based on partisan bias rather than an effort to be fair-minded and accurate. Increasing differences between the two major parties based on ideology and social group identity. The result is greater disagreement and antagonism and less common ground to make compromises.

What is the main difference between primary and general elections?

PRIMARY ELECTIONS: Held to determine parties' nominees GENERAL ELECTIONS: Where the parties' nominees run against each other to determine who serves in office.

o According to the Supreme Court, which of the following forms of expression are entitled to less First Amendment protection than ordinary forms of political expression:

PROTECTED Broadcasting over television or radio airwaves Creating an attack ad criticising a politicians voting record Political candidates personally funding their own campaign Burning the national flag. Organizing a protest against the government. RESTRICTED Using words intended to provoke others into fighting Shouting active shooters in a crowded theatre. Setting loudspeaker to maximum at protest event Students wearing objectifiable clothing at a school event Promoting and trying to incite imminent lawless action Making false statements that harm someone's reputation.

· How does the textbook define public opinion?

PUBLIC OPINION: Political sciences view it as an aggregate measure of the beliefs, attitudes, judgements, and/or preferences of a population over matters of public concern. Public opinion is always divided. For this reason, it is typically expressed as an aggregate measure.

· Why are peace and order considered public goods rather than private goods?

Peace and order is public good because everyone can live secure in the belief that the country is stable and unlikely to break into violence and chaos. Security from foreign military threats is a public good because once the security is provided for a country, no resident in the country can be excluded from benefiting from it. Because it is non-excludable, that also means that many people are tempted to free ride it by not serving in the military or contributing money to the military thus creating a collective action problem. The government aims to resolve this by using conscription to compel people to join the military and imposing taxes for the military.

· Do highly educated Americans and less-educated Americans tend to vote at approximately the same rate, or does one education-level group tend to vote at a significantly higher rate than the other (and if so, which one)?

People who have higher levels of education vote more often than those who do not.

How does the textbook define "politics"? According to this account, is politics more or less likely to be found in a stable democratic government or in an unstable and/or authoritarian government?

Politics is a set of nonviolent, open, and free activities through which people are bound by the same stable government and who often have different opinions, interests, and identities- struggle to exert power over what government does.

· What do "the power of the sword" and "the power of the purse" have to do with the separation of powers in American government?

Power of the sword: the government's ability to influence behavior by using or threatening physical force through police or military. Separation of power of the power of the sword(executive) from the power of the purse since only they can pass laws that impose taxes or authorize spending (legislative).

What is a line item veto? Is it still used today? Why or why not?

President can reject particular provisions of a bill without vetoing the entire bill. No, Supreme Court deemed it unconstitutional.

What is executive privilege? Is executive privilege limitless?

Presidents' asserted right to withhold information from Congress and the courts. Seemingly, yes.

There are many ways Americans can engage in activities outside the normal democratic process to try to influence it and improve it. Be sure to know what those activities are and why they are generally called acts of civil disobedience.

Protesting Demonstrating Producing political art and music Boycotting Writing books Producing documentaries Engaging in sit-ins CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE: Deliberate open acts of lawbreaking intended to create awareness of unjust laws or government practices and thereby catalyze reforms on those laws or practices.

· Which kind of discrimination (public or private) is prohibited by the Constitution? Which kind can only be prohibited by laws passed by legislatures or regulatory agencies?

Public discrimination is made illegal by either constitutions or egislative statutes, private discrimination is only made illegal by legislative statutes.

· According to the textbook, one reason governments exercise power is to provide "public goods." What are public goods? How do they differ from so-called "private goods"?

Public good: goods that once provided, nobody can be excluded from enjoying. EXAMPLE: When a city government conducts a firework show, it can be seen from several different locations, therefore no one is excluded from being able to see it. Private good: goods that are excludable. EXAMPLE: If you produce pencils and want to sell them, you will refrain from giving them to anyone who doesn't pay so this is a private good.

· How does the textbook define a representative sample? Be sure to know and understand when and how a sample is demographically representative.

REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE: One which proportionately reflects the relevant diversity of opinions in the population from which it is drawn. One way to approximate a representative sample is to make sure it is demographically representative: proportionally reflects the racial, ethnic, regious, gender, and class diversity on the population. SELECTION BIAS occurs when researchers fail to choose a representative sample of potential respondents.

· What does "freedom of the press" typically mean today?

Refers to the freedom of journalists and news media organizations to report information without fear of censorship, financial penalty, imprisonment, physical abuse, or intimidation by government.

· What is meant by "political socialization"? How does it relate to political predispositions?

Refers to the process by which our social environment leads us to develop attitudes, beliefs, and social identities that shape our orientation toward government and politics.

What is the information revolution and how has it impacted democracy in general and local political affairs in particular?

Refers to the radical increase in humans-beings ability to communicate with each other, access, analyse, and share information due to the rise of the internet and advances in computing power, data storage, communication systems, software, and data science in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century. Information revolution has enabled democratic citizens to be more informed, expressive, and connected which are three key elements of a healthy democracy. More high quality information about public affairs More access to spread propaganda, conspiracies, and misinformation Information revolution has made it easier for like minded violent extremists to find each other, organize, and recruit new members. It is much easier for citizens to become informed about national and international affairs and policies than to learn about the goings on in their own state, county, and city government. ...in general and local political affairs in particular? Local newspapers have gone out of business resulting in a deficit in information about local affairs.

o When expressed as a formula, what does the D-Term variable represent?

Represents all the direct benefits from voting that are independent from whether one's vote is the decisive factor in the election. The direct benefit to Voter I from the act of voting

In 1896, in Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court established the doctrine of separate but equal. What was this doctrine? What was its significance for the Jim Crow system of segregation?

SEPARATE BUT EQUAL: whites and blacks can be forcibly separated but still treated equal, therefore such separation does not necessarily lead to a denial of equal protection laws. · How did the state action doctrine impact civil rights? The court ruled that banning private descrimination is unconstitutional because the state action doctrine only gives Congress the authority to regulate public discrimination.

· Be able to define and give characteristics of "state socialism" and how it differs from "democratic socialism"

STATE SOCIALISM: Seeks the overthrow of market capitalism and replaces it with an equal society free of all class oppression. To achieve the revolution it calls for government command and control of economic activity, including government ownership and control of the means of production. State socialism is the aspiration of a government dictated working class revolution that overthrows a market economy turning everyone into the working class and transforming all of society into a single collective. Democratic socialists accept the basic principles of market capitalism, but state socialists reject and seek to overthrow this system. MARKET CAPITALISM: An economic system based on market exchanges and the private ownership of the means of production, and in which the private owners of the means of production purchase labor hours from workers in exchange for wages.

What's the difference between "selective incorporation" and "total corporation"? Which approach has the U.S. Supreme Court used?

Selective Incorporation Followed by the Supreme Court Gradual process and one liberty at a time Total Corporation All civil liberties automatically incorporated via Due Process Clause.

What are the different options for a president when legislation is sitting at his or her desk?

Sign bill into law, veto the bill (subject to override), or neither sign nor veto the bill (bill automatically becomes law after ten days).

why do news organizations often fall short of the aspiration of providing relevant and useful information that helps citizens make wise and just decisions?

Simply reporting true information is not sufficient for journalism to fulfill its purpose The news media is afflicted by market bias. The media too often falls short of this standard due to the need to contend with competitive market pressures Which of the following describe market bias? High-quality programming costs more money and organizations want to save Lack of audience demand discourages investment in high quality programming

· How, according to the textbook, can social media provide a third democratic function?

Social media helps coordinate collective political action such as voting, protests, signing petitions, donating money to causes and campaigns etc. It does this by helping like-minded people find one another, notify each other of political events and participation opportunities, and encourage each other to take action and contribute.

4.2 The Supreme Court and Presidential Power

Supreme Court has mostly been willing to allow the expansion of executive power. Court has invalidated particular exercises of executive power that it found excessive under the Constitution.

Make sure to know and understand the "separation of powers" principle in American government. What are the branches of government and what general functions do they perform?

The American government deviates from the strict separation of powers principal (bureaucratic agency). Legislature: An institution of government that makes laws (legislates) Executive branch: A set of institutions in government with authority to put laws into effect, including, but not limited to, through the use of force by police and military, Implementing and enforcing laws. Judicial branch: The branch of government consisting of Courts of Laws that makes authoritative judgements and Implements and enforces laws.

· Which amendment of the U.S. Constitution and which section of the Georgia Constitution provide protections for the freedom of the press?

The First Amendment of the U.S Constitution and Section 1 of the Constitution of the State of Georgia.

Which part of the Constitution establishes the two-term limit for presidents? Who is the only president who served for more than two terms?

The Twenty-Second Amendment (1951). FDR.

· What is meant by unmediated communication?

The ability made possible by social media for powerful officials to directly communicate with the public without going through traditional media filters.

· What is margin of error?

The amount within a specified level of confidence, (typically 95% or higher) that a measured sample value can be expected to deviate from the true population value.

What, according to the textbook, did Madison mean by saying "a dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government."

The key to controlling the government is to make sure first and foremost there is a dependence on the people. This is done through democracy.

In Georgia, are elections administered by a single centralized agency, or are they administered by each county in the state?

The primary responsibility for administering elections is placed on each of the 159 counties in the state.

· Be sure to know and understand the rational choice model of voting. oHow does it create the "paradox of voting"?

The puzzle of why anyone incurs costs to vote even though the probability of casting the deciding vote in an election is typically zero. Bi=p(Yi-Zi)-Ci

· What does it mean that public opinion is focused on a target population?

This means that the researcher wants to seek information from a specific group of people in order to get the most factual information regarding the topic.

What is the difference between a treaty and an executive agreement? Which is harder to put into effect for a president?

Treaty: Agreement between two or more nations, in which they promise to behave in specified ways. Executive agreement: Enables president to enter into agreement with another country w/o need for Senate approval.

To which level of government (local, state, national) does the U.S. Constitution give primary responsibility for regulating and administering elections for federal office?

Two provisions of the US Constitutions establish that state governments have primary responsibility.

· Make sure to know and understand the "upside" and "downside" of unmediated communication according to the textbook.

UPSIDE: Politicians can escape unfair negative portrayals if themselves created by biases in the media. DOWNSIDE: -They can escape scrutiny from journalists who hold them accountable for corrupt activity, imcompetent governance, and/or for making false or misleading statements. -Government officials avoid unfair coverage from traditional media outlets

Be sure to know the design features of the presidency laid out by the framers at the constitutional convention.

Unitary executive serving four-year-terms, empowered with a veto (subject to override, eligible for reelection, and removable through impeachment).

What is the difference between a unitary executive and a plural executive?

Unitary: An executive branch headed by a single individual. Plural: Two or more individuals serving jointly.

Who becomes president if the president is unable to fulfill their term due to death, resignation, or removal? Be sure to know the first three positions in this line of succession. If the president will be temporarily unable to fulfill their duties, who functions as the acting president?

Vice President, Speaker of the House, then President Pro Tempore of Senate. Vice President acts as President during periods of presidential disability.

The Declaration of Independence expressed philosophical principles that are sometimes referred to as "America's Creed."

What does that creed say about the legitimate ends (i.e., purpose) of government? -The purpose of government is to secure our rights to Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of happiness. According to that creed, what is the source of government's legitimate authority? -The people (Popular sovereignty) According to that creed, what do the people have the right to do when confronted with a government that is destructive of the ends which governments should serve? -it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new Government (Right of Revolution).

Make sure to know and understand how the Article VI Supremacy Clause and the Tenth Amendment help to define American federalism.

What is the Supremacy Clause? All federal laws including those of the US Constitution, congressional statutes, executive orders, and treaties - are supreme over state and local laws. What are the two important principles found in the Tenth Amendment? The authority of the federal government is limited to only those legal powers that are delegated to it by the U.S. Constitution. The second principle of Federalism states that unless the U.S. or state constitution prohibits a state from exercising a specific power, then the state is presumed to have that power.

What is a veto override?

When 2/3 of both chambers of Congress vote to pass a bill, the president vetoed.

What is a pocket veto?

When Congress adjourns before ten days have expired and the president has still not signed the bill.

Reconstruction Amendments and the Second Founding

Which three amendments are referred to as the Reconstruction Amendments? -13th -14th -15th What did each of those amendments declare? 13th: Abolished slavery in the US 14th: Affirms birthright citizenship 15th: Declared unconstitutional that anyone be denied the right to vote based on race. In what ways did these transform the Founders' Constitution—particularly with respect to slavery and white supremacist views of American citizenship? While the Founders constitution assures slave states that the federal government would not interfere with slavery in the states where it existed, The 13th Amendment categorically bans slavery everywhere in the US and empowers the federal government to make and enforce laws designed to assure its permanent abolition. While the Bill of Rights was focused on protecting individuals' from abuse of power by the federal government, the Reconstruction Amendments gave the federal government a new responsibility for protecting the fundamental liberties and freedoms of individuals against abuse by state governments. While the founders' constitution was vague enough on the question of citizenship that it was able to be interpreted as endorsing the doctrine that only white people can be citizens of the US, the 14th and 15th Amendment each in their own way make it clear that the US Constitution enacts the principle that all men are created equal everywhere in the union and rejects white supremacist views of American citizenship

What are the three main sources of staff assistance to the president?

White House staff, Executive Office of the President, and the Cabinet.

· Generally speaking, has the power and authority of the national government increased or decreased over time?

increased

· Be sure to know and understand each of the following types of media effects (and how they differ from each other):

o Agenda setting: The power of the media to influence what the public thinks about or vice versa through its decisions Cover some events and issues more than others o Priming: Where media influences how we think about an issue by Leading us to unconsciously bring certain considerations to the top of our head when we evaluate the issue o Framing: Where the media influences how we think about an issue by Highlighting particular considerations or aspects of the issue

o What is the "watchdog role" of the press?

o What is the "watchdog role" of the press? Role of the press/media investigating and alerting the public about government wrongdoings o What is the "marketplace of ideas"? Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes: Government should not suppress expressions of unpopular ideas but rather should let different viewpoints compete for social acceptance o How do those two concepts relate to the two vital democratic functions of the free press mentioned previously? For there to be a marketplace of ideas, there need to be producers of ideas a forum in which to freely express them. The free press is crucial for facilitating open espousal and debate of ideas.

How did Anti-Federalists help to bring about those amendments? the argument made by Anti-Federalists against the Constitution:

the argument made by Anti-Federalists against the Constitution: -The constitution created a federal government that was too powerful -The central gov. Was too distant and complex to be effectively controlled by the people. -It lacked a list of civil liberties · How did the Federalists convince the Anti-Federalists to ratify the Constitution? -Convinced them that it was better to adopt the Constitution in its current form and then later fix any problems through amendments.