Pop Music Exam 2
The development of Big Band Jazz: style and audience
From the 1920s-1940s, pop music in the US dominated by "big bands" Jazz and dance orchestras Rhythm section and 10-15 wind and brass instruments Relied on arrangement, with some space for improvisation Swing music⇒ perfect for accompanying dance Large sound to fill dance halls Coincided with Great Depression era Offered fun in time of malaise Aided in recovery of music industry Drew people back into nightclubs and music venues following the end of prohibition in 1933 Recovery from depression began in mid 1930s, full recovery by 1941 Big bands popular throughout the US By the late 1930's, some bands achieved national popularity, toured around the country ⇒ Benny Goodman Fletcher Henderson -Big band leader who led Cotton club band prior to Ellington -Style reflected regional dance trends, arranged style prominent in NYC -Arrangements purchased by other bandleaders such as Benny Goodman -Bouncing swing in riff oriented arrangement -Less arranged than Ellington, less free flowing than Baisie -Locally popular, started playing in 1920s Benny Goodman -Initially learned chicago and New Orleans style, later moved to big band style -Racially integrated band beginning in 1936 -Band had network radio exposure -Hard-swinging Duke Ellington ⇒ "exotic" music/stereotype of blacks Jungle music" ⇒ rich/dark Association with long engagement in a single city⇒ NYC Ellington⇒ "Jungle music" style NYC based and played in nightclubs like the cotton club Changed style in late 1930's to be more like Baisie Paul Whiteman's Jazz band was very popular→ Whispering "Sweet" style of symphonic jazz Count Baisie Territory band. Toured around territory and played regional style more of a "swing" style Loose, riff-based style with driving and prominent rhythm section Relied heavily on improvisation from band
British Invasion as musical industry response to Beatlemania
Record companies in the US tried to capitalize on the Beatles success by signing British bands. Influx of British bands in the US ⇒ elaboration and development of many styles. Many extended from British pop culture
Protest Songs and activism in folk music
"Which Side are you on" ⇒ written by Florence Reese, led by pete seeger Song's lyrics come from a traditional ballad "jack monroe" Reece's original lyrics make reference to the Harlan County War, a significant confrontation between the miners' union and mine ownership in Kentucky during the early 1930s. The song has become a pro-labor anthem and has been sung by musicians in the 80 years since to advocate for labor unions and working class politics. Seeger loved nothing more than for anyone and everyone to sing, believing musical performance was fundamental to both American identity and to being human. "I'd really rather put songs on people's lips than in their ears." 1960s was a period of upheavel in politics and society Assassination of JFK, RFK, MLK Vietnam war Civil rights Culture wars and generation gap Pop music did not initially speak to cultural events or politics, folk music acted as a voice of protest and historical record for many americans Looking to folk singers and songwriters to document and comment upon social ills Bob Dylan: blowing in the wind⇒ documentation of social ills in poetic terms Questions but no answers Unadorned musical style with memorable melody and simple accompanyment Speaking to the unrest, not necessarily to inspire activism Many folk singers were more strident than Dylan. Intended folk song as a pointed critique to inspire activism in the face of injustice and war Bob dylan was not a protest singer. More about noting the critique than actually inspiring activism Those who inspired activism: Joan Baez, Phil Ochs, and Ritchie Havens not as commercially successful but influential as populist icons and ideological leaders Phil Ochs⇒ I aint marching anymore. Criticism of vietnam war.
Changes in American music industry after world war II
-Many male musicians conscripted into service, so women took over posts occupied by men. -Bands of only women popular in 1940's (though often marked as cheesecake despite women's talent) -Example: International Sweethearts of Rhythm⇒ Don't get it twisted -Baby boom⇒ dramatic rise in youth -Peak industry and rapid growth in economy More disposable income -"Homefront" sensibility of WWII, nuclear threat of cold war⇒ people seeking stability in pop culture -Radio stations were important during depression and peaked in postwar years -DJs became prominent personalities -Payola became a common practice→ DJs paid directly by record labels for airplay. Disputed legal status led to congress hearings in 50s -Billboard Magazine charts top 40 became radio format -Shellac preserved in war effort ⇒ creation of vinyl disks which were more durable and lighter, could hold more music in smaller amount of material. -More focus on singer as star of music over band -Sinatra and Nat King Cole -Country and Honky Tonk
Styles of early rock n roll, and public images of rock and pop stars (paying particular attention to Elvis Presley)
1954⇒ generally considered the start of the rock & roll era Music marketed toward a youth audience Earlier pop music had wide reception and appreciation among youth audiences, but rock and roll appeared primarily to teenagers as a demographic Teenager as social identity emerges with rock and roll Rock and roll viewed widely as music of youth Part of rock and roll's appeal was its sense of rebellion that made it distinct from previous generations Term "rock and roll" often credited to DJ Alan Freed who popularized rock n roll on his radio shows Sound of early rock n roll was NOT homogenous Chuck Berry: foregrounds with electric guitar, backbeat of R & B Bill Haley: uptempo light-textured rhythm section from country music, with blues guitar and saxophones on top Little Richard: Piano-based sound that is stylistically similar to jump Blues from Louis Jordan Characteristics that bind rock and roll Uptempto "rolling" rhythm section Backbeat on 2 and 4, often accentuated by snare drum Rhythm section with singer comprises typical ensemble Piano and guitar become lead instruments Generally relied on blues influence and blues-derived forms Rockabilly Country-style rock and roll. Origins in Nashville and Memphis Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis Points to the ways in which there was a racialized reception for rock and roll Many rockabilly musicians raised where there was country music alongside R&B Blues and country music circulated together, so influence on rock and roll. Public Images Sam Phillips and Sun records ⇒ recorded some of the most important early rock and roll figures Was in Memphis to take advantage of rich musical environment Chuck Berry Initially recorded for Chess records in Chicago: blues influence. Blues form, distorted language and coded language Uptempo and breathless performance appealed to youth audiences in energetic performances ⇒ Maybellene Wanda Jackson⇒ "Queen of Rockabilly" Many felt that the sexualized nature of rock n roll was for men Gritty voice, powerful presentation One of few women to succeed in rock n roll Richie Valens Mexican American. Brought musical experiences to early rock and roll Rock n roll, blues, influences of Mexican folk music Little Richard Pianist and songwriter ⇒ "attitude" of rock and roll Piano style from boogie woogie Double entendres⇒ coded sexuality Elvis compared to Buddy Holly Elvis ⇒ "King of Rock and Roll" Influenced by R&B, gospel, and country music Sun records. Many TV performances. His image was as important as his sound Simple melodies, forms and textures to his songs Charisma Didn't write songs, covered songs of others Managers and producers influenced his sound and image Buddy Holly singer/songwriter and guitarist from Texas Style influenced by country and R & B Developed a sound unique to rock and roll Launched career in Texas, came to public attention by touring Style Unique voice. Emphasis placed on texture and timbre unlike other musicians Jangly guitars with unusual and expressive timbres Textured (as opposed to bluesy) guitar solos Non-standard performance practices to draw colors out of the ensemble Used standard forms like verse/chorus but altered them in the service of his song. Ed Sullivan show ⇒ format was extension of vaudeville Comparison between Holly and Elvis Elvis much more charismatic, much more focus on image Holly is awkward, focus mainly on the singing itself.
Rock and Pop styles associated w/British Invasion
3 directions pop⇒ Peter and Gordon, Dave Clark Five, Hermin's Hermits Rockers⇒ Rolling stones, The pretty things Mods⇒ the Who, the kinks, the yardbirds
Relationship of 1960s soul with Civil Rights movement and and social commentary
A burgeoning folk protest movement in the 1950s brought awareness to the political efficacy of music Music was used in protests for civil rights, as collective singing could give voice to things that couldn't be said "A change is gonna come" ⇒ Sam cooke Call for civil rights was accompanied by a focus on African American cultural practices. "Soul" became a general description "Soul" food, soul music, etc. Relationship between sacred and secular in African American cultural practices Aretha Franklin's song Respect. Demand for respect as a black woman. She recorded under Atlantic records Funk music Mid 60s: funk developed as stylistic itinerary of soul Downbeat, repetitive, interlocking groove Distillation of jazz-blues aesthetic into simplified rhythm drive emphasizing tension and release Example: James Brown Emphasis on driving rhythm and repetition Distilled sound of funk associated w/civil rights 1970s motown: responding to challenge of soul music and political valence of the civil rights era More presence and individual autonomy to artists Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye, the temptations Marvin Gaye: What's going on: Little association with motown sound Addressed systemic racism in the US/political turmoil in vietnam
Development of Soul Music from R & B and the idea of the changing same
Amiri Baraka's essay "The changing same" ⇒ describes process by which African American music changes in response to co opting by mainstream Referred to changing outward forms of black music, and aesthetics that bind such music. Soul music⇒ African American music of the 1950s and 60s. Stylistic relationship to gospel and blues. "Jazz-blues aesthetics" Relationship African American church had with pop culture became more pronounced with soul music Many soul musicians had their most formative musical experiences in church Sanctified experience of church reflected in popular music: music had element of preaching and testifying Sam Cooke Gospel singer who transitioned to R and B/soul Early pop style relies on bringing gestures of gospel singing to R and B/soul Velvet crooning style: early songs had themes of romantic love
Early 1960s pop music practices: The Brill building and Motown
Brill building located on 49th and Broadway in Manhattan Home to a number of song publishing companies mid century. Continues to operate as an office building in the entertainment industry. Large number of singer-songwriter teams: Lieber and Stoller, Goffin and King, Mann and Weill. Similar to Tin Pan Alley, but more centralized Don Kirschner: many songwriting teams were published by Don Kirschner. Became closely identified with sound/business practice of Brill building Songs from Brill Building "Will you love me tomorrow"==> the Shirelles Phil Specter and his "wall of sound" worked with girl groups like the Ronettes Motown Berry Gordy⇒ founder of Motown Named for Detroit (Motor city or Motor town) R & B influenced pop music became known as the "Motown sound" Maintained tight control of artists on Motown label Motown sound Not as dense as wall of sound, but richer/more identifiable than previous pop production styles Took advantage of studio technology, but Motown sound achieved by "tight" band that played in lock-step with each other Dance groove from rhythm section, melodic and prominent basslines Funk Brothers⇒ backing band that played on nearly every motown record Example: My Girl by the temptations backed by Funk Bros Motown Image Gordy maintained tight control over images Counter to stereotypes of R & B as "wild" Insisted that Motown musicians present themselves as sophisticated and well appointed Meticulous presentation, choreography Suits for men, elegant gowns for women
The beach boys "California sound" and other stylistic developments
California sound -1920-1960: the population in California of greater LA area increased by 6 million -Such rapid growth fueled the cultural imagination of California in the US. Popular culture reflected this imagination. -Beach party-themed movies, and songs taking the themes of sun,sand, and surf were prominent in late 1950s and early 60s pop culture. -Popular music referencing such images, and featuring clean, "twangy" guitar sounds has often been referred to as the "California sound." "California sound" band had 3 brothers. Carl, Dennis and Brian Wilson. Mike Love and Al Jardine Managed by father Murry who meticulously managed the boys Early record⇒ quintessential california sound w/ lush vocal harmonies Vocal harmony Became known for a particular style Lush, doo-wop derived harmonies and soaring falsetto sung by Brian Wilson Widely imitated, vocal harmony became part of california sound Brian Wilson Creative force and chief songwriter behind the beach boys Lush harmonies hint a more ambitious musical aesthetic By mid-1960's, beach boys reflect growing musical vision of wilson Fun.Fun.Fun (early style) ⇒ california girls represents transition to a later style of music Pet Sounds Experimentation with longer forms of media Conceived as a unified artwork Related by aesthetics and lyrical themes Wouldn't it be nice ⇒ first song After pet sounds Beatles Sgt pepper lonely heart was less than a year later Challenge of competing with beatles took a toll on them Wilson embraced psychodelia Smile was never completed Loss of California sound Wilson retreated from spotlight, Mike Love took over Less popular by 1970s, and continued to tour as a nostalgia act. Good vibrations Initially released on smiley smile Features a theremin⇒ psychodelic sounds Image on Ed Sullivan embraces psychodelia⇒ movement away from earlier image Brian wilson doesn't perform
Stylistic influences including psychedelia and aesthetics associated with counter culture
Counterculture Late 60s phenomenon to counter mainstream Their Satanic Majesties request⇒ Rolling stones rock/pop mainstream adopting counter culture "Shes a rainbow" ⇒ synesthetic imagery, lush, surreal soundscapes Psychodelia⇒ alternate modes of perception LSD Confront mainstream through consideration of other perspectives in all modes of life Soundscape that provides a sense of place for listener. Senses beyond listening Very synthetic experience Hippies=most prominent. Youth group Radical individualism and communal living Haight Ashbury San Francisco neighborhood tied to hippies Roots influenced music (folk, blues, country) in a psychodelic, rock infused lens Piece of My Heart Janis Joplin (Big Brother and the Holding Company) Swirling guitar tone hints at psychedelic context Sunset strip Counterculture of L.A.==> noir atmosphere Psychodelia with a darker tone Less hippie influence "other side" modes of perception The Doors⇒ counter culture in L.A. Singer Jim Morrison: inscrutable lyrics with dark imagery Music exoticism: unique rhythms. Afro-latin rhythms and simple instrumentation London was a center of 1960s counterculture Influenced by all fashions and countercultures in the US and UK Pop culture influenced by the sounds and symbols of psychedelia Bright atmosphere with music, fashion, and the free love movement Centered on London's West End Swinging London Experimentation with counterculture and psychedelic----Beatles, Rolling Stones, and the Who American blues styles performed with a harder psychedelic edge Jimi Hendrix Began as a guitarist for R+B Associated with the London scene Developed a psychedelic blues sound that maintained an influence over many rock guitarists Sang Purple Haze Describing the effects of an acid trip Dissonant, and swirling soundscape Avant Garde and NYC Darker and gritty take on late 60s counterculture Rock musicians cast as outsiders to conventional and traditional pop culture Forerunner of punk Live Performance Most music associated with counter culture circulated with pop music Independent production companies for concerts and records imagine themselves as an alternative ALternative live performance spaces
Business model and musical style associated w/Southern Soul music
Countering motowns sound and production model, Atlantic records used a number of Southern recording studios to record soul artists Memphis (Stax records) and muscle shoals, AL (FAME and muscle shoals sound studio) were the primary studios Motown⇒ emphasized top-down business model. Gordy as the powerful executive who dictated style, image, and presentation of music on label Altantic records⇒ bottom up business model Executives based in NYC frequently sent their artists to Memphis or muscle Shoals to record, releasing the records on the artist's term Example: Aretha Franklin
Crooning as a singing style
Crooning style -More personal feeling, like the singer is singing directly to you -After the invention of the electric microphone Gentle, nuanced voice of the singer creates a more intimate feel -Electric microphone invented in 1925 -Gene Austin (My Blue heaven) was one of the first to use crooning style -Related to the change from bands to the singer as the star in the post-war period -During AFM Strike, singers continued to record -Increasing importance of film and television in late 1940's as media emphasized images of musicians -Postwar popularity of vocal music over instrumental music -Emphasis on private entertainment over nightlife 2 popular Crooners: Sinatra and Nat King Cole -Frank Sinatra -Youth idol in 30s/40s. Adult star in the 50s Film star and pop/jazz singer Nat King Cole Jazz pianist who led his own trio, eventually coming to be known as a crooner Radio popularity in 40's First African American TV host Crooning style and smooth presentation "Nature Boy"
Contribution to popular music composition and style
England rebuilt from the devastation of air raids during the war. End of postwar rationing ⇒ more disposable income Youth subcultures The Teddy boys: emulated American pop culture as a way to escape working class Split into the mods and the rockers Mods⇒ break with past and previous generations Countered class conflict through escapism of bourgeois dress and consumption Expensive taste and conspicuous consumption Rockers⇒ escapism through identification w/US pop culture Demonstrated pride in working class ID American rock and roll and biker fashion Beatles⇒ working class from liverpool: rockers Manager Brian Epstein wanted them to adopt fashion and presentation that would appeal to both groups. Accessibility and appeal across subcultures in England foretells success in the US Beatles on Ed Sullivan in the US
Race records and hillbilly music
Hillbilly music ⇒ COUNTRY Race Records ⇒ R & B -Race records were specifically marketed to black audiences -Some labels were race record labels (Paramount, Okeh, Black Swan) -Other major labels had race divisions (Decca, Columbia) -"Raceman" was a common term to describe an upstanding black man such as Ellington -Spirituals and Gospel→ sacred musical practices that affect the content and presentation of the blues and African American music. -Jazz/Ragtime/Coon songs aimed at white audiences -Great migration of blacks to new areas made this music more popular -Hillbilly music→ made for rural, Southern audiences. -Popular imagination of white south as backward, yet also "authentic" -Reflected narrative context of balladry -Also circulation with blues and other folk music in South -South lagged behind North in industrialization "Hillbilly music" presented cultural identity of the South to listeners in North, while preserving self-imagination for listeners in South -Many poor southerners could not afford a phonograph ⇒ listened to hillbilly music on radio -Race records not played on radio but hillbilly music was (controlled by whites) =South changed rapidly in early 20th century Link to authentic country life in a rapidly changing place because of industrial music -Jimmie Rogers⇒ first star of Hillbilly music "Singing brakeman"==> popularized romanticized identity of country trabadour. -Popularized sound that drew on ballad tradition "Father of country music" ⇒ due to popularity in 20s/30s -Group harmony in hillbilly records The Carter family (AP, Sara, Maybelle) Associated w/gospel music of white, southern, protestant churches
Bob Dylan "Going electric" and Its significance in the folk music revival
Most well-known among folk singers A bit less strident than Gurthrie and seeger⇒ not a class warrior imagined by folk music revivalists Tensions: those who viewed him as a spokesman for a generation Dylan saw himself as documenting/commenting on social ills, but not as emblematic of a larger generational ethos or ideology Bob Dylan Goes electric: 1965 Newport Folk Festival Betraying style and sound of folk music revival, seen as a traitor by many fans Called Judas Electric sound paid respect to influence from blues and other musics and demonstrated his agency as an artist Dylan pushed folk music further into commercial/popular realm
The Motown Sound
Not as dense as wall of sound production, but still richer and more identifiable than previous pop production styles Motown took advantage of studio technologies, but motown sound was achieved through "tight" band that played in lock-step with eachother Dance groove from rhythm section Anchored by prominent and melodic basslines Created by Funk Brothers, who backed nearly every motown recording
Phil Specter and "Wall of Sound" Production
Phil Spector's "wall of sound" style of production influenced pop music throughout 60's and later Many artists who worked with Specter (predominantly "girl groups") recorded songs written at the Brill Building "Wall of Sound" Advances in technology allowed for separate tracking while recording Recording instruments separately, one at a time "Teenage symphonies" rendered by wall of sound style became popular in early 1960s Often performed by "girl groups" ⇒ 3-5 attractive young women singing in harmony Example: "Be my Baby" by the Ronettes
The Beatles Career Trajectory: Particular focus on the effects of beatlemania
Redefined image of a pop star after Elvis 3 beatles periods Beatlemania: 1963-1965 Imitative music style: live performances and concert tours Exceeded popularity of Elvis Beatles style and image dominated pop culture in the US, the UK and elsewhere 1964 Film: A hard Day's night ⇒ A hard day's night song represents restlessness of beatlemania Beatlemania led to the British invasion in the US Middle Period: 1965-1967 End of live performances, touring took a toll on the band Individual songwriting voices emerge with greater experimentation in style Effects of live performances led to Beatles stopping live performances in 1965 John Lennon's observation that pop culture had become more prominent Doesn't know what will go first: rock and roll or Christianity Studio band Turn away from Beatlemania sound Emphasis on songwriting and production as a craft More varied instrumentation and arrangements, broader lyrical themes Some argued that the Beatles advancing style brought death to rock and roll, along with Bob dylan and the beach boys Advancing style infantilized rock and pop ⇒ now heard as bubble gum pop. new set of aesthetics in rock Sgt peppers lonely heart ⇒ psychodelia 1968-1971: Late beatles Using recording studio as an instrument Individual musicians acting as backing band for eachother, essentially acting as a collective. The white album More experimental aesthetics More individuality Abbey road 11 songs total 8 songs in 16 minute medley "The end"==> each beatle coming together Beatles influenced many pop musicians Each has successful career, not as successful as individual
covering as an industry practice
Term has origins among record companies Various versions of songs recorded by a label to "cover" their markets Came to be used as a generic term to describe recording a song made famous by another artist Today, "Covering" refers to a number of processes or remaking or re recording a song Economics of covering were favorable to a label Established hit ⇒ less risk Pay just one songwriter for multiple recordings Could sell the same song to multiple markets Very common practice throughout 1950s and into 1960s By the mid 1960s⇒ the aesthetics of rock and roll shift to privilege singer-songwriters The practice of covering becomes more of a novelty than the rule Relation to R & B and rock and roll Example: Big Mama Thornton "Hound Dog" was an R & B hit, while Elvis's version was rock and roll
Folk Revival as response to popular music and rock n roll
The music industry became a prevalent and dominant force in American culture during the 50s and 60s Some musicians, fans and critics wanted a more authentic musical expression Folk music and balladry maintained a tradition that spoke to a fundamental American identity for many fans of this music Desire for a more "pure" sounding music represented a populist sentiment that existed throughout the history of American folk musics from as early as the eighteenth century history of balladry For many folk musicians, playing "traditional musics" reflected non-commercialized and unadulterated take on American musical life Pete Seeger Most prominent advocate for and performer of folk music Son of charles seeger, a musicologist who collected and studied American folk song Focus as a performer was on maintaining the traditional ballads that had become part of American musical identity, while also writing and performing new songs that spoke to issues of American working class Many musicologists and archivists took part in a number of projects in mid 20th century to record and collect folk songs John and Alan Lomax, woody guthrie, Harry smith Many musicians took up the mantle of performing many of these songs and musics as well. Musicians and collectors felt that the encroachment of the music industry and commercial music production and broadcast threatened the maintenance of folk traditions in the US. They made a pointed effort to keep folk song alive. Recording folk songs as a commercial enterprise began in the late 1950s to capitalize on the ascending popularity of folk song. For fans of folk music, it countered the manufactured images of pop stars, and was presented as a mature and thoughtful alternative to rock and roll. The folk music revival was primarily located in urban centers among young intellectuals and artists. Greenwich Village in NYC was a primary site of the folk music revival in the 1960s. There was a relationship to the music industry of NYC, though. Some of the folk music revival artists, like Paul Simon, were also songwriters for the Brill Building.
Rhythm & Blues as precursor to Rock and Roll, including various styles labelled as R&B (Jump Blues, Chicago Electric Blues, etc.)
What were originally known as race records⇒ marketed in late 1940's as Rhythm and Blues Umbrella term for many African American pop musics and pop styles Jump blues, electric blues, Blues Crooners, doo wop, soul All influenced by blues to some extent, either instrumental or vocal style During great depression, many record labels folded Mid 40's⇒ music industry dominated by a handful of large companies (Columbia, RCA Victor, Decca) These large companies ignored "peripheral" music like country and R & B⇒ independent record companies proliferated to capitalize on these musics in 1940s/50s Sun record, Chess Records, Sterling Records R&B primarily in Northern Cities where population grew after great migration Detroit, Chicago, Pittsburgh Some Southern cities still remained forces for black music ⇒ Atlanta and Memphis The "Chitlin circuit" ⇒ loose association of black clubs and music venues in South that became a common touring route for blues and R & B musicians Jump Blues Closely related to Big band jazz, but more accessible and geared toward more popular reception Smaller ensemble: rhythm section, vocalist and small horn section Driving rhythm section that would make an audience want to "jump" and dance Example: Choo Choo Ch'Boogie Chicago electric Blues City Blues styles in the North turned toward a more gritty and aggressive style Essentially combining the tough sound and hard-living imagery of country blues with city blues ensemble Updated with electric instrumentation Often distorted to bring a sense of grit and power to instrumental timbres Example: Muddy Waters Born in Mississippi, played country blues style Relocated to Chicago for performing opportunities Image and sound closely related to Chicago electric blues Blues Crooning Singers influenced by crooning of singers like Nat King Cole Smoothly produced blues sound with darker harmonic language (minor key) and tone colors Usually performed in small ensemble, similar to electric blues. More sophisticated and less gritty Rock and Roll Era began in 1954 Music marketed toward youth audience Early Rock and Roll had influences from R & B music
Country Style and its relation to the "High Lonesome" Sound
ineffable quality in southern musics like country and bluegrass. Bluegrass - Virtuosic instrumental music based on Appalachian dance traditions. One identifies the high lonesome in solitary (usually male) voices that sound distant and with intense emotion. In the case of Jimmie Rodgers, the yodel exemplifies the high lonesome sound. Gene Autry, the singing cowboy, imitated Jimmie Rodgers yodel
