Positive Psych

Negativity bias: consequence 3

'Neurones that fire together, wire together' The brain communicates through neuron -> neuron until a path is formed to allow messages to form. E.g golfers try to make a habitual swing to create pathways almost automatic. The ability to change your brain...stress - amygdala sends alarm signals to the hypothalamus - your hippocampus prioritises the storage of this experience in memory - stress can also decrease the size of your hypothalamus and make you vulnerable to stress - increased cortisol can damage the hypothalamus

What is the general research paradigm?

1. Individuals complete a self report measure of character strengths 2. Provide individual with feedback on their signature strengths 3. Ask them to use these strengths for at least a week in their daily lives

What are the consequences of the negativity bias?

1. Learned patterns of thinking and missed opportunities e.g Tetris effect 2. Your brain is like Velcro for the negative 3. The ability to change your brain

Evidence for the BUILD part of the Broaden and Build Theory

1. Positive emotions fuel psychological resilience e.g 9/11 2. Open hearts build lives 3. Positive emotions undo the effects of negative emotions

Gratitude is obtained from a 2-step process:

1. Recognising that one has obtained a positive outcome 2. Recognising that there is an external source for this positive outcome

The CSV demonstrates 3 surprising empirical findings. What are they?

1. Remarkable similarity of the 24 traits across the world 2. U.S adults and adolescents have more similarities than U.S adults with other adults. Hope, teamwork, zest are most common for U.S adolescents. Among adults, beauty, leadership and authenticity. 3. 'Heart strengths' e.g zest, gratitude and love are more associated with life satisfaction than cerebral strengths e.g. curiosity, love for learning

What is a zero-sum outcome?

Gain or loss of one is dependent on the gain or loss of the opposition

Evidence for the BROADEN in the broaden and build theory

Global vs local processing People are more creative as measured by the Remote Associates Test Positive and negative affective states have opposing influences on the informational bandwidth of perceptual encoding (bigger bandwidth in brain, ppa, responsible for FOV)

Antidote to the negativity bias

Gratitude Robert Emmons performed an experiment: Gratitude vs hassles vs events group for 9 weeks, once a week Gratitude group felt 25% happier with fewer health complaints and extra exercise Another exp. involved an experimental group (wrote about most traumatic experience) and a control group (what room looks like) - 20 mins a day for 4 days, exp. group had higher functioning immune systems and less visits to doctors

What is eudaimonic happiness?

Greek philosopher Aristotle offered an alternative that he referred to as the eudaimonic approach to well-being. Aristotle found the idea of happiness, at least as it was described by Aristippus, to be a crass concept. From his perspective, just because a person can do something and it may lead to pleasure, that doesn't mean that it should be done or would contribute to well-being. A eudaimonic approach, on the other hand, was the pursuit of personal fulfilment and a realising of a man's potential.

Negativity bias: consequence 2

Negative events get locked into the brain Positive events do not get noticed

What is the negativity bias?

Notion that we dwell on the negatives and focus on them more than the positives e.g journalists/news use headings

Why does the negativity bias occur?

Our brains are hardwired to notice the negative

What is loss aversion?

People detest losses more than they enjoy gains, about twice as much (2:1) e.g 'act now, 30 day MBG, don't miss out...2 left!'

3. Positive emotions undo the effects of negative emotions

People tend to get back to their baseline much quicker with a positive emotion

What is an operational definition?

The definition of a variable in terms of the actual procedures used by the researcher to measure and/or manipulate it.

What is hedonic happiness?

The first is the hedonic approach, which originated with the Greek philosopher Aristippus. From his perspective, a person's main objective in life was to experience as much pleasure as possible while generally avoiding any painful experiences. For instance, some people associate happiness with having lots of material wealth and spending as much time as they can socializing with friends. For these people, happiness could be achieved through buying things, going out to restaurants or bars, and generally having fun. In the case of the hedonic approach, the objective is to spend as much time having fun and as little time as possible doing things that aren't fun, pain avoidance, like working and engaging in boring or tedious tasks.

TT: magnifying or minimising

You blow things way out of proportion or you shrink their importance inappropriately. I.e you exaggerate the negatives or minimise the positives. E.g 'since I missed class today, it won't matter that I have As on the exams. The professor will fail me because he/she can see how irresponsible I really am.'

What are the 6 virtues?

Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, transcendence The strengths of each show how virtues can be achieved in multiple ways

TT: Labelling

You attach labels to self and others then block evidence that contradicts the label. You identify with your shortcoming. Instead of saying 'I made a mistake', you tell yourself 'I'm a jerk' or 'a fool' e.g 'she's too stuck-up to go out with a loser like me'

TT: emotional reasoning

You believe something because you feel it is true when evidence suggests it is not. You reason from how you feel. 'I feel like an idiot, so I really must be one'. Or 'I don't feel like doing this, so I'll put it off'. E.g even though he hasn't called me, my heart tells me that we're meant to be together'

TT: Personalisation

You blame yourself for something you weren't entirely responsible for. E.g 'the professor seemed to be in a hurry to get out of the classroom. He must have thought my question was really dumb'

Examples of the negativity bias

- Strong pull that negative stimuli exert on our attention - the primacy of loss aversion - the speed and intensity of conditioned taste aversion: single-trialed learning, e.g child and dog -> phobia

Define affective forecasting

predicting one's own emotional response to upcoming events

Define focalism

(sometimes called the focusing illusion) is the tendency for people to give too much weight to one particular piece of information when making judgments and predictions.

Gratitude: study 2

- 157 undergrad - 16 'daily experience rating forms' completed night before - gratitude, hassles and decreased social comparison conditions - were asked on health behaviours - no difference in health between groups. People in gratitude conditions more likely to provide emotional support

Gratitude: study 1

- 200 undergrad psych - 10 weekly reports and formed three groups: gratitude, hassles and events - listings were made at the start of each week. Included mood, physical symptoms etc. - people in gratitude spent more time exercising, were more optimistic

Gratitude: study 3

- 65 people - 21 'daily experience rating forms' - to fill out as close to end of day as possible - participants were assigned to one of two conditions: gratitude or a control - daily affect, health behaviours, activities of daily living - people in gratitude condition had more hrs of sleep

What is the happiness set point?

- Genetically determined and is assumed to be fixed and immune to influence over time - Twin studies show that happiness remains stable over time, a 0.4 difference in monozygotic twins over a 10 year period

What is intentional activity?

- Includes things people do in daily lives - means discrete actions/practices which one can choose to engage, although choice may have been habitual - one must put effort in to some degree - behavioural activity e.g exercise contributes to wellbeing

Application of the Broaden and Build Theory

- Positive emotions are a useful tool to incorporate into clinical interventions e.g BMAC (Broadminded Affective Coping Procedure) has been used with people suffering PTSD of trauma. - led to reduced feelings of anhedonia - boosted resilience

What is the CSV? (Character strengths and virtues)

- describes and classifies strengths and virtues that enable human thriving. Similar to DSM - relies on 6 overarching virtues: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance and transcendence. Under each lie certain strengths (24 altogether)

Internet-based interventions for strength building: procedure (6)

- designed 5 happiness exercises and one placebo - one on building gratitude, 2 on increasing awareness, 2 on strengths, compared to placebo which involved journaling for one week about early memories - followed participants for 6 months - included: placebo control exercise: early memories (every night for one week) Gratitude visit: one week to write and deliver a gratitude letter in person 3 good things in life: write 3 things that went well each day for one week You at your best: write about when you were at your best and reflect on personal strengths. Told to review everyday for one week and reflect. Using signature strengths in a new way: asked to take inventory of character strengths online and find out their top 5. Use one strength in a new way for a week. Identifying signature strengths: similar to previous but not to use strengths in new ways. Note highest strengths and to use them more often next week.

How does intentional activity increase chronic happiness?

- engaging in a new activity can boost one's mood and vitality for as long as 6 months - self-concordant goals (goals that 'fit' person) increase well-being - gains in well-being only last if progress is sustained and maintained

What factors influence resilience?

- genetics - self-awareness - self regulation being able to manage self in situations - flexible thinking style: how easy can you take a wider perspective - optimism; realistic optimism - self-efficacy/mastery - belief that you can achieve what you're aiming towards: -> self-discipline, willpower - relationships - institutions e.g difficulties can arise in toxic work environment - tapping into character strengths

Internet-based interventions: for the future

- happiness levels could increase when using multiple exercises - believe that in the hands of a skilled clinician/coach, even more beneficial effects may occur. - also believed that one week was not long enough for 3 good things/sig strengths to develop sufficient skills - are there certain tasks that are more effective based on personality

How do circumstances increase chronic happiness?

- happiness-relevant circumstances may include the geographical or cultural environment, age, gender, ethnicity etc. - life status variables particularly seem to increase chronic happiness (as people often have control) - New happiness may not last forever e.g changing appearance may be a temporary satisfaction as people tend to adapt to constant circumstances - satisfying basic needs can only move up one's happiness to set point, not beyond

Cognition ( beliefs and thoughts) create emotions

- if you struggle to identify beliefs, possible to work back and observe their thoughts - 'work back from your emotions' - what is underpinning e.g anger is a violation of one's rights Violation of one's rights -> anger Real world loss -> sadness Violation of another's rights -> guilt Future threat -> anxiety/fear

Evolutionary perspectives

- modern environment is different from ancestral environment - evolved distress mechanisms e.g jealousy alerts one to make sure of the fidelity of their partner - selection of memes (artefacts and values) determines individuality, shaping the future of the culture - psychological selection is not solely based on pressures of adaptation/survival but also to how people choose behaviours to enhance own experiences

What are the benefits of intentional activity?

- one can vary the way they engage in an activity, reducing adaptation to activity. Change is pleasurable and stimulating - pausing to savour the good moments can directly counteract effects of hedonic (considered in terms of pleasant or unpleasant sensations) adaptation - intentional activity seems to be most effective for increasing happiness

How is intentional activity episodic?

- one may adapt less readily to new activities than new circumstances - length of time before one re-engages in happiness boosting activities is important. Routine can get boring - refractory period: recently performed activity regains its full happiness-inducing potential. One must be careful to not overuse, rather should strive to discover the optimal timing for each activity, to allow it to remain meaningful to the individual.

B+B Theory: existing empirical evidence

- people experiencing (+) affect show patterns of thought flexible and inclusive, creative and open - e.g subjects saw fringe exemplars of a given category, 'elevator' and 'camel' from vehicle - an increase in dopamine and pre-frontal cortex Experiment: - breadth of attention assessed using 8-item global-local visual processing task: stimulus triad with a standard figure on top and 2 figures below - 8 test items embedded in 24 total, 16 filler items - participants circled A or B in which figure was most similar to original. - high scores = broadened scope of attention

The broaden-and-build theory (in detail)

- positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires - negative emotions tend to induce specific action tendencies e.g flight vs fight - positive emotions don't narrow thought action repertoires, rather they are broadened, allowing them to pursue a wider range of thoughts and actions. They can build a variety of personal resources e.g physical, intellectual, psychological Therefore, positive emotions = an increase in personal resources

What is the difference between thoughts and beliefs?

- thoughts are more transient - beliefs are more stable - we can question our beliefs but this is difficult - thoughts and beliefs influence our consequences

Internet-based interventions for strength building: results

- using signature and 3 good things increased happiness and decrease depressive symptoms for 6 months - the gratitude visit caused positive changes for a month - the others, including placebo created (+) but transient effects What caused the long-term benefits? - depended on whether they continued the exercise after one week

What are the three levels of happiness?

1. A positive emotion and pleasure (the pleasant life) 2. Engagement (the engaged life) 3. Meaning (the meaningful life) More satisfied people are those who orient their pursuits to all 3, with greatest focus on 2&3

Why do we naturally overpredict our emotional response?

1. Affective forecasting and the impact bias - focalism, neglect that we have a psychological immune system 2. The reference points we use

The three aims of psychology

1. Cure mental illness 2. Increase productivity for individuals 3. Identify and nurture high talent

Using the ABC model and thinking traps

1. Identify what pushes your buttons (A) 2. What are the consequences (C) 3. Looking at the consequences try to connect BC connections in the ABC mod 4. Ask yourself two questions: 'do you have a radar you use often' and 'is this thought a thinking trap?' 5. If so, then look to challenge your thinking trap or reduce the power of this thinking trap

What are the three levels in positive psych?

1. Subjective level: about subjective experiences e.g well-being, satisfaction (past), hope (future), flow + happiness (present) 2. Individual level: positive individual traits e.g originality, capacity for love and vocation, courage + perseverance 3. Group level: civic virtues and how institutions move individuals toward better citizenship e.g responsibility, work ethic, civility

Challenges for the future

1. What makes one happy as a teen may not as an adult 2. Does too much positive experience create a fragile person? 3. By what mechanisms does courage buffer against schizophrenia?

Develop of a common language of strengths

2000-2003; 35 scientists set about to find: - what is best about us and - what constitutes a good and meaningful life - looked across the major traditions/philosophies; Aristotle, Plato, samurai code, Old Testament, Buddha - found a common language: 6 virtues and 24 strengths that are consistent across time and space

Difference between strengths and talents

A strength isn't: A talent: inherent abilities that are hardwired within us A skill: what can be built upon. Might be something you're good at but can be draining An interest: passions A resource: outside of ourselves A signature strength IS: Energising. They are the engine that brings the above together. Seems quite natural to use.

CBT: ABC model

A: activating event or adversity B: beliefs or thoughts about event or adversity C: consequences (emotion or behaviour)

What is the aim of positive psychology?

Aims to move from a focus on repairing the worst to building up positive qualities

CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy): influential thinkers

Albert Ellis: - he argued that people can upset themselves by thinking irrationally - started Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) and later changed to Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) - today this approach is widely used by mental health practitioners around the world Aaron Beck: - he argued that distorted thinking patterns contribute to depression, anxiety and other psychological problems - focus was to recognise and change distorted thinking patterns and self-defeating behaviour

What is a phasic strength?

Comes out in certain contexts There is a dark side of strengths; using strengths for a bad motive There can be an overuse or underplay of strengths.

What are the different types of studies?

Correlational: relationship between two events, however it is difficult to determine causation e.g does X cause Y, does Y cause X, or is there a third unrelated factor? Longitudinal: looking over a long period of time Experimental: manipulation of emotions to see any responses There is a consistent positive correlation between happiness and successful outcomes

1. Positive emotions fuel psychological resilience

Hypothesis 1: resilient people are buffered from depression by positive emotions Hypothesis 2: resilient people thrive through positive emotions

2. Open hearts build lives

Hypothesis: Becoming skilled in LKM -> positive emotions -> increases resources -> life satisfaction LKM: a technique used to increase feeling of warmth and caring for the self and others

Cognitions can also generate behaviours

I must be loved -> wanting to please others I must have it now -> addiction I work better under pressure -> procrastination I am competent -> won't try to learn new things Behaviour can also influence emotion directly Behaviour can influence emotion indirectly (via cognition) Typically a common view is an AC world (assumption that A causes C) E.g A: someone stands you up on a date B: irrational appraisal: I'll never find anyone. I must be a worthless person C: emotional upheaval: you feel anxious, angry and rejected

Define impact bias

Impact bias is the tendency to overestimate the emotional impact of a future event both in terms of its intensity and its duration.

What is the self-determination theory?

Individuals have 3 basic psychological needs that must be met in order to be motivated to engage behavior. Autonomy, a sense of belongingness and competence are key with this theory. The person must feel that they have a sense of control. Must also feel challenged yet successful.

Examples of the BUILD in broad and build theory

Joy: 1. Physical resources: develop cardiovascular strength, develop coordination 2. Psychological resources: develop resilience and optimism, develop sense of identity and goal orientation 3. Social resources: solidify bonds, make new bonds 4. Cognitive resources: develop problem-solving skills, learn new information

What is the difference between pleasure and enjoyment?

Pleasure: good feeling from homeostatic needs e.g sex, hunger Enjoyment: good feeling when they break through limits of homeostasis e.g athleticism, artistic performance. Enjoyment leads to personal growth.

Thought action tendency on emotion

Positive: broadens - positive emotions carry adaptive significance not in the immediate moment but later through the building of resources Negative: narrows - negative emotions carry adaptive significance in the moment they are experienced

What is the broaden and build theory?

Proposes that positive emotions broaden people's thought-action tendencies and build their enduring personal resources they are important for our survival

What is prospect theory?

Prospect theory is a behavioral model that shows how people decide between alternatives that involve risk and uncertainty (e.g. % likelihood of gains or losses). It demonstrates that people think in terms of expected utility relative to a reference point (e.g. current wealth) rather than absolute outcomes. Prospect theory was developed by framing risky choices and indicates that people are loss-averse; since individuals dislike losses more than equivalent gains, they are more willing to take risks to avoid a loss.

What have prevention researchers discovered?

Qualities such as courage, future mindedness, and optimism can act as buffers against mental illness

Define subjective well-being

Refers to what people think and how they feel about their lives It's not about what happens to people that determines their happiness, but how they interpret what happens

Negativity bias: consequence 1

Tetris effect: The Tetris effect (also known as Tetris syndrome) occurs when people devote so much time and attention to an activity that it begins to pattern their thoughts, mental images, and dreams. Participants played Tetris for extended periods of time, 7 hours over 3 days. Upon falling asleep the participants claimed to have seen the falling blocks from Tetris. The experimental group in this study were people with amnesia with extensive bilateral medial temporal lobe damage. Interestingly, these participants could not remember playing the game, but they experienced the effect and hypnogogic images all the same.

What is a signature strength?

Signature strengths are those that we use consistently across contests and situations - using your signature strengths is energising and easy

What are the three factors that affect the chronic happiness level?

The set point, life circumstances and intentional activity

Implications for mental and physical health

Unrealistically optimistic beliefs about the future can protect people from illness e.g numerous studies for AIDS

TT: jumping to conclusions

We assume that we know what someone else is thinking (mind reading) and when we make predictions about what it going to happen in the future (predictive thinking). An example of mind reading would be 'since I said "call me anytime" they probably think I'm desperate'

TT: mental filter

You focus on one small detail instead of the overall situation. You dwell on the negatives and ignore the positives. E.g 'I can't go on any interviews because I still haven't found the right shoes to go with my back suit'

TT: should'ing and must'ing

You have rigid beliefs about how you and others should behave. You criticise yourself or other people with 'shoulds' or 'shouldn'ts', 'musts' and 'have tos'. E.g a 'good' daughter should call her mother every day and report everything that she has done in the last 24 hours'

TT: Black and white thinking

You look at things in absolute, black and white categories, seeing only two options e.g 'if I'm not the best at what I do then I'm a failure'

TT: Overgeneralising

You make a general conclusion about yourself based on one situation or event i.e you view a negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat. E.g 'I didn't do well in that interview. I'm not a 'people person' I guess'

TT: catastrophising

You predict negative future outcomes e.g 'if I don't find a partner by the time I get out of uni, I'll be single forever'

What is the psychological immune system?

an integrated system of cognitive, motivational and behavioral personality dimensions that should provide immunity. against stress, promote healthy development and serve as stress resistance resources.