Program Exam

Students should have a sharp understanding of the definition and procedure of academic research. Once students learn the meaning of research, they should be able to apply the concept to the field of their interests. In other words, they should be able to identify a potential research topic and then, provide a brief proposal of the research question, hypotheses, and an appropriate methodology. Depending on the research idea or data they want to collect, they must choose a different methodology (e.g., qualitative or quantitative study), which must be specified in the answer.

Academic Research Definition: Systematic investigation into a problem or situation, where the intention is to identify facts and/or opinions that will assist in solving the problem or dealing with the situation Academic Research Procedure: 1) Define Problem, 2) Read Relevant Research, 3) Form Hypothesis, 4) Define method (Participants, data collection techniques, procedures and design) Proposal of a Research Plan: 1) Introduction 2) Problem & Hypothesis 3) Literature Review 4) Method: Participants, instruments & measurements, procedures , design and analysis Quantitative study: methods are set before and specify which ones may be used and the type of data collected. Observations are collected before analysis begins. After analysis, no more observations are to be collected. Qualitative Study: analysis begins as soon as data collection begins. Analysis and data collection proceed in cyclical fashion, where preliminary analysis informs subsequent data collection and so forth.

Complexity and problem solving

Complexity Leadership Theory: 1) Modern organizational leadership occurs within a complex adaptive system (Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2001). 2) Leadership is an emergent event and interactive dynamic where individuals in organizations can participate as both leaders and followers (Lichtenstein, Uhl-Bien, Marion, Seers, Orton, & Schreiber, 2006). Complexity in sport: Results from sociocultural changes and advances in technology and globalization, Requires new approaches to strategic problem solving, Demands specialized knowledge and multiple levels of leadership expertise, Expertise for problem solving may come from individuals and groups outside of the traditional leadership hierarchy. Skills and Competencies for Problem Solving: 1) Creative Problem Solving - defining problems and issues, gathering info on the problem, developing new or unique approaches or alternatives to the problem 2) Social Judgement Skills - working collaboratively with others in problem solving, social perceptiveness to the needs of various constituents, behavioral flexibility to adjust behaviors as needed to address the demands of the situation. 3) Knowledge - mental structures or schemas needed to diagnose or assess complex issues, knowledge of situational factors regarding tasks, the organization and the people, experiential knowledge helpful for defining problems, evaluating restrictions, and implementing. Sources of Complex problems in sport: 1) Economic issues: Impact of economic recessions on financial performance of major and minor league teams. Deficits in many intercollegiate athletic departments in United States. 2) Legal issues: Negligence, contractual disputes, discrimination, constitutional rights, Title IX. 3) Public relations: Overcoming incidents and crises situations with negative impact for organization. 4) Political issues: Sport in international settings, coalition building, influence of public policy, abuses of power. 5) Sociocultural issues: Address equity and inclusion in an increasingly diverse and global society. 2 Approaches to Complex Problem Solving: 1) Cynefin framework: Understanding contextual placement of problems from simple to complex. 2) Multiframe leadership: Framing and reframing organizational problems across four dimensions that can help leaders more clearly see solutions (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Bolman and Deal's Leadership Frames of Reference: Structural frame - views problems and solutions relative to task orientation, goal attainment, policies and procedures, coordination, and control. Human resource frame - views problems and solution relative to relationship building, facilitation, and empowerment of people. Political frame - views problems and solutions relative to competition over scarce resources, managing conflict, negotiation, and compromise. Symbolic frame - views problems and solutions relative to values and shared meaning. Attends to elements of organizational culture including symbols, rites, rituals, and communication of values. Model for levels of Involvement in Decision-Making: 1) A1 (autocratic I): Leader solves problem alone using information readily available. 2) A2 (autocratic II): Leader obtains information from group or team members and makes decision alone. 3) C1 (consultative I): Leader shares problem with group members individually, asks for information and evaluation, and makes decision alone. 4) C2 (consultative II): Leader shares problem collectively with group members but makes decision alone. 5) G2 (group II): Leader discusses situation with group. Leader directs discussion but does not impose will, and final decision is made by the group.

Diversity leadership in sport

Diversity: Composed of differing elements, such as inclusion of people of different races or cultures. Challenges for leading Diversity: Leaders must be prepared to design, implement, and evaluate organizational and communication strategies that embrace and value diversity. Leaders must recruit and retain diverse talent and create working environments conducive to reaching outcomes desired by the collective whole. Surface level diversity: Differences among group members that are observable, biological characteristics typically reflected in physical features (e.g., age, gender, race, ethnicity) Deep level diversity: Differences among group members' attitudes, beliefs, and values that are communicated only through extended individual interaction.

Emotional intelligence and leadership

Emotional Intelligence Definition: 1) Ability to understand oneself and others, relate to others, and adapt to and cope with immediate surroundings (Bar-On, 2006) 2) Ability to perceive, appraise, and express emotion; understand emotion; and regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) EI Competencies: Self-awareness, Self-management, Social awareness, Social skills Importance of EI for Sport Leaders: Leaders often operate in emotional environments (game settings, championships), Must deal with personal anxiety as well as anxiety of others, Often need to delay initial impulses to respond or react when trying to correct emerging problems (Hackman & Wageman, 2007). 4 Measurements Instruments for EI: 1) Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) (Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 2000) 2) Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) (Bar-On, 2000) 3) Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2002) 4) Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT version 2) Behaviors Measured: Self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, Social skills, Adaptability and perception, Integration, knowledge, and management of emotion Trait EI: is associated with self-perceptions of emotion within realm of personality. Ability EI: is associated with cognitive ability to perceive, express, and regulate emotions within oneself and others. EI Leadership: EI leaders able to change internal state of mind from negative to positive can profoundly affect those they influence and EI leaders can arouse parts of the brain in followers that allow development of relationships, improved attitudes, and motivation. •EI leaders able to change internal state of mind from negative to positive can profoundly affect those they influence. •EI leaders can arouse parts of the brain in followers that allow development of relationships, improved attitudes, and motivation. Mayer-Salovey Four-Branch Model of EI: First two branches are perception and facilitation - Involve capacity to perceive emotions in others and Ability to use emotions to enhance how we think Second two branches are understanding emotions and emotional management - Knowing how emotions will change behavior and How to combine logic and emotions to improve decision making Resonant leaders: Demonstrate high degrees of EI, Have upbeat and enthusiastic attitudes, Empathize and manage emotions of followers Dissonant leaders: Demonstrate low levels of EI, Are manipulative and demeaning and create toxic environments Four Domains of EI: 1) Self-awareness - Emotional self-awareness, Accurate self-assessment, Self-confidence 2) Self-management - Self-control, Trustworthiness and conscientiousness, Adaptability, Initiative and achievement orientation 3) Social awareness - Empathy Organizational awareness, Service orientation 4) Social skill - Visionary leadership and influence, Developing others and communication, Change catalyst, Conflict management, building bonds, teamwork and collaboration

Thoroughly explain in your own words federal statutes, pertinent legal cases (minimum 2) and concepts and issues related to Title IX of the 1972 Educational Amendments legislation, including issues in participation equality, coaching/administration issues, equity in pay, and sexual harassment laws and requirements of administrators on campuses. Include the various required elements in 1) Title IX case law, 2) compliance, and 3) enforcement.

Federal Statues are basically laws that prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex in any federally funded education program or activity. Federal funding for the program can be terminated if you are caught violating title IX by school. One exception to this though is that if a school or institution is being federally funded, but not all of the programs within that school are using the financial aid, then it does not apply to those programs. In the 1984 case Grove City v. Bell, 140 of Grove City's students were given a direct grant from the government, and so the Department of Education required that the school did a compliance report to show they were complying with title IX. The school refused to do so, and the students lost their grants. When brought to court, the court ruled that only the programs that are using federal aid are required to comply with title IX, and so in this case only the student financial aid program would need to show a compliance report, and not the institution as a whole. Another big part of Title IX is equal pay for males and females. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 prohibits employers from discriminating on the basis of sex. The act states that a female and male employee who do the same job, with the same skill set, effort, responsibility and working conditions need to be paid the same. There are instances where a male or female might have more experience or knowledge of a job then the other gender, and in that case the person with more experience and knowledge should be paid more. There is an example of this in the court case Stanley v. University of Southern California. Stanley was the USC's head basketball coach and she filed a lawsuit claiming that the athletic director engaged in sex discrimination. She stated that she was entitled to be paid the same salary as the men's basketball coach because her position required the same skill, effort and responsibility. USC argued though that the men's coach had substantially different qualifications and experience like best-selling novels and 9 years of marketing and recruiting experience. The court ruled in favor of USC, stating that factors other than gender caused the difference in salary. Another aspect of Title IX is sexual harassment. In the Title IX Education Act of 1972, they stated that unwelcome conduct of sexual nature rises to a level that denies or limits a student's ability to participate in or benefit from the schools program. If the harasser is an employee or a peer, the victim must prove 5 things: 1) he/she are a member or protected group based on his/her sex. 2) he/she was subjected to unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature. 3) conduct was so severe and offensive that it denied equal access to the schools opportunities. 4) school officials with authority to take corrective action had actual knowledge or notice of the behavior. 5) The school official was deliberately indifferent to the conduct and failed to reasonably respond. Examples of Sexual harassment cases that referenced Title IX in the ruling are Mercer v. Duke and Vivas v. Fresno State. To establish a Title IX claim in a civil lawsuit against a university, the plantiff must prove four elements: (1) the school must be a Title IX funding recipient; (2) an "appropriate person" must have actual knowledge of the harassment the plaintiff alleges occurred; (3) the school must act with deliberate indifference to known acts of harassment in its programs or activities; and (4) the discrimination must be so severe, pervasive, and objectively offensive that it effectively bars access to an equal opportunity to education. When it comes to title IX compliance, there are 3 required elements, of which only one needs to be met in order to comply. They are (1) participants opportunities for male and female students are provided in numbers substantially proportionate to their respective enrollments; (2) the institution can show a history and continuing practice of program expansion demonstrably responsive to the developing interest and abilities of the members of the underrepresented sex; (3) the institution can show that it is fully and effectively meering the interests and abilities of the underrepresented sex. The final part of Title IX is the enforcement. The 3 requirements of this aspect of the act are: (1) each institution under the jurisdiction of Title IX must have a Title IX officer; (2) office of civil rights of the U.S. department of education; (3) File a federal government lawsuit by someone with legal standing. An example of Title IX enforcement is in the court case Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools. In this case, victims of intentional gender discrimination were awarwed compensatory and punitive damages caused by members of the school district.

Globalization and leadership

Globalization definition: 1) The compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole (Robertson, 1992) 2) The process through which an increasingly free flow of ideas, peoples, goods, services, and capital leads to the integration of economies and societies (Aninat, 2002). 3) Occurs when every aspect of social reality—people's living conditions, beliefs, knowledge, and actions—is intertwined with unfolding globalization processes. The processes include the emergence of a global economy, a transnational cosmopolitan culture, and range of international social movements (Maguire, 1999). Related Terms: Internationalization - refers to increasing importance of international trade and international relations and the formation of treaties and alliances with other nations. Transnational - refers to anything extending or going beyond national boundaries. Glocalization - refers to products or services that benefit a local market while simultaneously being developed and distributed on a global level. Forms of Globalization: economic, political, cultural, ideological, technological, social EXAMPLES of globalization: - Opening ceremony of London 2012 Olympics watched by a global television audience estimated at 900 million viewers. - Global spending on sport estimated to be $145 billion by 2015 (Elser, 2011). - Nike, the world's most valuable sports brand, has over 500 factories worldwide with offices in 45 countries. Nike distributes goods to over 20,000 retailers in 100 countries. Dynamics of Contemporary Globalization: 1) Collapse of time and space 2) Migration and urbanization 3) Wealth creation and distribution 4) Transformation and global media 5) Primacy of trade and consumption 6) Transformation of values 4 Key Issues of Globalization in Sport: 1) Division of labor resulting from transnational sport corporations drawing on workforce of developing countries 2) Flow of athletes in and out of countries where origin of birth does not provide limitation to where one can compete 3) Increased involvement of global media conglomerates in sport 4) Environmental impact of sport Global Leadership: 1) Process of influencing individuals, groups, and organizations representing diverse cultural, political, and institutional systems to achieve the global organization's goals (Beechler & Javidan, 2007). 2) Anyone who operates in a context of multicultural, paradoxical complexity to achieve results where everyone is entitled to use global leadership skills (Holt & Seki, 2012). 6 Dimensions/Profiles of Leader Behaviors: 1) Charismatic/Values based(ability to inspire, motivate, and expect high performance outcomes from others, generally contributes to outstanding leadership) 2) Team Oriented (emphasizes effective team building and common purpose or goals among team members, generally contributes to outstanding leaderships) 3) Participative ( degree to which managers involve others in making and implementing decisions, generally reported to contribute to outstanding leadership with some differences in countries) 4) Humane Oriented (leadership that reflects support, consideration, compassion, and generosity) 5) Autonomous (refers to degree of independent and individualistic leadership, considered to impede outstanding leadership in some cultures and to slightly facilitate outstanding leadership in others) 6) Self-Protective (focuses on self-centered and face-saving behavior that ensures that safety and security of the individual, generally considered to impede outstanding leadership.) Stages & Associated Behaviors of Globalization: 1) Seeing differences (Cultural self-awareness (recognizing that there is more than one way to do things). Inviting the unexpected by learning to suspend or alter personal mental models) 2) Closing the gap (Achieving results through effective relationship building, Frame shifting - shifting perspectives to fit appropriate cultural context) 3) Opening the system (Expand ownership by creating sense of engagement and shared accountability. Identify high-potential leaders within the system.) 4) Preserving balance (Adapt and add value (adapt to local circumstances), Core values and flexibility (establish balance of leader values with values of foreign colleagues)) 5)Establishing solutions (Influence across boundaries (using diplomacy and political acumen without need for direct authority). Third-way solutions (bring all behaviors together to create real business solutions))

Leadership learning and development

Howard Gardner (1990, 1995) - Many people in society have untapped leadership capabilities. Leadership development is a lifelong process. Jay Conger (2004) - Leaders are both born and made. On-the-job experience and assisting with assignments help people learn about leading teams. Developing versatility and adaptability of leadership style is needed but difficult to develop. Key Sources of Learning: Formal and informal education and training programs. Observation, trial and error, job assignments, communicating with others, enduring hardships. Brown and Posner (2001): Research supports that the majority of leadership skills are learned from naturally occurring experiences. Ultimate act of leadership development is creation of a culture of leadership and learning in an organization. Leader Development Purposes: - Performance improvement: is helping leaders with individual improvement of leadership-related skills. - Succession management: is developing a strong bench of high-potential leaders. - Organizational change: is developing competencies needed to help an organization remain competitive, explore innovation, and use new strategies. Leadership Self-Development: - Gaining personal understanding of one's own need for development - 360-degree feedback Mentoring and Leadership Development: - Using individuals with advanced knowledge and experience to actively support the development and upward mobility of a junior individual's career - Mentoring can have a positive impact on job satisfaction and reduced turnover Leadership Learning Through Experience: - Identify developmental experiences. - Identify individuals in organization with leadership potential. - Provide right experience at the right time. - Increase odds that learning will occur by enhancing learning through ongoing experience. - Provide a career-long perspective and focus on leadership development in career transitions. Action Learning: 1. Assign a real organizational problem to leadership teams. 2. Teams begin research on problem. 3. Teams have access to managers and customers. 4. Teams evaluate problem, discuss plans and potential solutions, and develop draft solution. 5. Teams prepare draft plan for review. 6. Project concludes with presentation of plan to senior leadership.

Thoroughly explain in your own words concepts of constitutional law as applied to sport. Include legal concepts as state action, due process, and equal protection. Lastly, include legal concepts as applied to participant conduct issues, drug testing, participants with disabilities, and private clubs in sport and recreation. Describe a pertinent legal case relating to any of the listed topic areas.

In sport, there are a lot of different concepts of constitutional law that are used everyday. The first term I want to touch on is State Action. State action is any action taken directly/indirectly by a state, municipal, or federal government. This acts as a prerequisite to establishing that constitutional protection of individual rights have been violated or broken. The Bill of Rights protect citizens from government abuse, so therefore sometimes we have what we call a state actor. This is a government entity, which due to joint action or entwinement to the government, is able to act with the authority of the government. This state actor will limit the regulatory authority of athletic associations. But you have to be careful with this because you cannot infringe on civil liberties of the athletes or others involved with the organization. They must also make sure to provide due process when trying to implement rules and disciplining other people of the organization. Due process in sport settings is the change or the provision of any opportunity for an individual to be heard, to defend personal actions, and be assured of fair treatment before a right or privilege is taken away. There are also 3 requirements in order to have due process, and those are state action, must infringe on life liberty or property, and lastly how much due process is due. Without due process, you will never really have a good chance in court. Equal Protection in sports settings comes from the 14th amendment, which states that no state can deny anyone within their jurisdiction the equal treatment and protection of the laws. There are a few key concepts that really define what exactly equal protection means in the court of law. The first is the State Actor. In this case government entities are the state actors and must comply with equal protection. The next key term is Standing. In order for the plaintiff to file a complaint or bring someone to court, they must have a direct stake in the outcome of the case. Purposeful discrimination shows us that the Equal Protection Clasue only protects people from purposeful discriminaiton. Lastly, Disparate Impact is when one group of people is more burdened by a classification that another. This is like when someone is told they cannot work for the fire department because they are not tall enough. Drug Testing is an examination of biological material such as urine, hair, saliva or sweat to determine if there is a presence of specific drugs in one's system. These can be performed to detect illegal drug use as well as the use of drugs and substances that are not allowed in certain jobs or sports. Participants with disabilities is another huge part of constitutional law in sports settings. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 was the first law passed by congress that provided individuals with disabilities the chance to participate in physical education and athletic programs or activities without being discriminated against due to their disability. Under this act, there are four elements that must be satisfied in order to successfully pursue a claim. These are: they are an individual with a disability, they are otherwise qualified for the athletic activity, they are being excluded from athletic participation only because of their disability, and lastly the school or institution is receiving federal financial assistance. Another act that congress passed in 1975 was the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The purpose of this act was to increase the educational opportunities for children with disabilities by providing a free appreciate public education that emphasizes special education and related to services that are designed to meet each of their unique needs. Under IDEA, local education agencies and teachers are required to develop a written statement or program that outlines the educational objectives unique to that student. One final act that was passed was the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). This the by far the most powerful act that individuals with disabilities have to fight to participate in interscholastic activities. The purpose of this act was to provide a clear and compresnhsive mandate for the elimination of the discrimiation of individuals with disabilities. It focuses on getting rid of the barriers by requiring public entities to consider whether reasonable accommodations can be made to remove any barriers a person with disabilities may face. One important thing to remember with this act is that if an individual poses a direct threat to the health or safety of others, then the act does not require an organization to accommodate that person. Private Clubs are based off of the idea of Freedom of Association. These clubs are selective by nature and they decide who joins and who does not. In most cases, this discrimination is legal becasue US citizens are free to join and associate with anyone they want to. Freedom of association includes also the right not to associate with certain people. The supreme court protects Freedom of Association under the first and 14th amendments using two things: Expressive Association and Intimate Association. Expressive Association is part of the first amendment, as they have ruled that your freedom to associate with veritan people or clubs is part of your right to freedom of expression. This allows a citizen of the US to freely associate with anyone they choose to. Intimate Association is your constitutional right to enter into and maintain certain intimate human relationships. This right comes from the right to privacy that is implied in the due process clause of the 14th amendment. In Roberts v. United States Jaycees, the Court ruled that any relationship between a small group of people that carries deep attachments and forms only because individuals share personal aspects of their lives with each other, if protected by intimate association. An example of Constitutional law being applied in a court case is in Southeastern Community College v. Davis. In this case, Davis was trying to get into the nursing program at the school, but she had a hearing disability. The court found that her hearing disability would make it impossible to safely complete all of the steps of the program that she needed. The severity of her disability would have caused the school to completely restructured their entire nursing program, which is not required by law. The court ruled in favor of the institution, saying that she was\ "otherwise qualified" in this case, meaning that she is someone who is able to meet all of the program's requirements in spite of his or her handicap.

Thoroughly explain the philosophical and ethical issues related to moral or ethical development in sport. Particularly, if moral development (or character development) is found in young, adolescent, and adult participants in various sport levels (i.e. youth sport programs, interscholastic athletics, intercollegiate athletics, and elite level). Provide results found in the literature. Explain any differences as it relates to gender, length of participation, and team v. individual sport. Explain what the research literature has found.

Moral development is something that is very important in kids and teenagers as they start to grow up and mature. In sports, there are many factors that can help them start to develop those characteristics and really start to see a change in the way that they carry themselves. In a study done by Stoll and Beller, they wanted to track or study the moral development of over 10,000 student-athletes, who all ranged from 9th grade through college level and even into the professional level. They were able to find lots of different findings and results from their study over the years, and there are four main ones that really tell us how we do or don't develop our moral character through sports. The first thing they found is that athletes scored lower than non athletes on the moral development scores. That is a very big point of this study, but that does not mean there is no moral development in sport. They also found that male athletes scored lower than female athletes in the moral development scores. Females tend to mature quicker and therefore start to develop moral character sooner and faster than most males. The next finding was that moral reasoning scores for athletics populations in general steadily decline from the 9th grade through college, while the scores for non-athletes tend to increase over the same period. The final thing they found was that the longer an individual is engaged in competitive sports, the more his or her moral values and ethical behaviors decline. The study really showed us that sports do not develop our moral characters faster than people who do not participate in sports, but that does not mean they don't at all. The study concluded with the theory that sports will build moral character if defined as loyalty, dedication, sacrifice and teamwork, but it does not build the morals of honesty, responsibility, and justice. Sports do develop moral and ethical behaviors in teens and young adults, but in different ways than what is considered standard.

Collegiate athletics (Ch 14). Include financial operations of NCAA, conference and institution. Explain revenue distribution areas and how it is distributed. Explain current and emerging revenue sources including fundraising strategies and endowments. Include any statistics or figures to support your responses.

NCAA FINANCIAL OPS: The NCAA's primary source of revenue is television and marketing rights fees, accounting for nearly 76% of total revenue. Contracts with CBS, Turner Broadcasting and ESPN provide most of this revenue. The NCAA's main expenses are the distribution of revenues to member institutions, association-wide programs, and costs associated with conducting championships. REVENUE DISTRIBUTION: Revenue is distributed annually to Division I and Division II schools only. The amount of money that each school receives is determined from a formula created by the NCAA. For Division I members funds are distributed based on 7 criteria. 1) Basketball distribution fund - based on the schools historical performance in the Division I Men's basketball championship. 2) Schools receive funs based on the number of sports they sponsor. 3) The number of sport related scholarships they give. 4) Academic enhancement of student athletes. 5) Provision of student-athlete opportunities. 6) Conference grants. 7) Special assistance fund that assists student-athletes in emergency situations. Revenue is distributed to Division II schools by: 1) The schools historic performance in the Division II Men's & Women's basketball championships. 2) the number of sports sponsored. 3) An equal amount given to all active members. CONFERENCES: Revenue distributed to member schools flows from the NCAA to the conferences. Each conference sets policy to determine to amount that each individual schools receives. Policies vary from conference to conference. SCHOOLS: The revenues that member schools receive from the conference are a small percentage of overall revenue (about 19%). Schools largest revenue comes from football. However, it is still very hard for schools to earn an actual revenue. Most Division I Athletic Programs sponsor many sports so the expenses exceed the revenues most years. FUNDRAISING: Many institutions use fundraising techniques to offset the expenses institutions may be facing due to cuts in state appropriations. Common fundraisers that institutions use are: capital campaigns and annual giving programs. Capital campaign - an intensive effort to raise funds in a defined time frame through gifts and pledges for a specific purpose. Capital campaigns are usually used when athletic departments need to start replacing older facilities. Research should take place before the goal of the campaign is set to determine the level of giving alumni and friends of the athletic program can provide. Then they must identify major donors and prospects. Campaign case statement - answers all critical questions regarding the campaign. 1) Institutional Mission 2) record of accomplishment 3) directions for the future 4) urgent & continuing development 5) plan of action to accomplish future objectives. 6) the institutions sponsorship. MAJOR GIFTS: are a huge part of capital campaigns and are needed to reach the goal. Most major gifts are usually classified as being more than $25,000. ANNUAL GIVING PROGRAMS: In most athletic departments, the athletic support group (or booster club) is responsible for the annual giving program. Annual giving programs are more focused toward providing funds to sustain operating revenues. For Division I programs, funds from alumni and others is the currently the third largest source of revenue and is the fastest growing revenue source for athletic departments. CURRENT REVENUE SOURCES: ticket sales, NCAA & Conference distributions, concessions, parking, merchandise sales, and sport camps. ENDOWMENT FUND: Made up of endowed gifts. Gifts are invested, only a portion of the investment return is used for the funds specific purpose, the reaming investment return is put back into the fund to maintain the value of the principal. Endowment funds are typically used for scholarships, coach salaries, or program-specific support.

Thoroughly explain in your own words negligence theory, definition, available defenses against negligence, immunity concepts, and other negligence related applications related to sport organizations. Include issues as product liability, supervision, transportation, and exculpatory agreements. Describe a pertinent legal case to illustrate comprehensive of negligence case law.

Negligence theory is the failure to exercise the standard of care that any reasonable person would have exercised in the same or similar position. It is basically unintentional torts committed by a person or organization. There are many different defenses toward negligence, and it varies what will work depending what kind of law is being disrupted, whether it be Common Law, Contract Law, and Statutory Law. The first defense is Assumption of Risk. There are many different ways to prove Assumption of Risk, like implied, express, secondary, and the most common which is Primary Assumption of Risk. This is where the plaintiff voluntarily exposed him/herself to a known and appreciated risk. This depends heavily on the nature of the activity and the relationship of the parties. Another defense is called the Ultra Vires Act. This is when someone is injured doing an action that is not within the scope of the job of the employee. One key to this though is that the employer can be held liable is they do not take action to correct the negligence of the employee. When it comes to cases dealing with Contract law, there are three defenses to protect yourself from being held liable for negligence. They are: (1) waiver- this relinquishes the right to sue you; (2) informed consent- provides full disclosure of risks and anticipated outcomes; (3) agreement to participate- signer understands nature and demand of activity, types of injuries incurred, participation is voluntary and assumes inherent risks of activity. With Common law, you can have a facility lease agreement, which gives permission to use the facility, or an equipment rental agreement, which gives the permission to use the equipment, or you can have an indemnification agreement, which will reimburse or repay the anticipated losses. Lastly, with Statutory law, a Pure Comparative Fault apportioning the damages based on fault or degree of responsibility. Legislation is another defense, and it is a based immunity for people working with charitable immunity, federal or state torts, recreational, or also volunteer and good samaritan statutes. Immunity is another big part of negligence, and there are a few different kinds. The first is Sovereign immunity which refers to all agencies, departments and boards of the state. All local government entities are also protected under Governmental immunities. There are a few limitations to this, like how it only applies to governmental entities and it does not extend to officers, agents or employees of the governing entity. Charitable immunity gives protection to all charitable organizations from being held liable. Recreational User Statues give protection to property owners where parties may be injured on premises for recreational purposes. Another aspect of negligence is product liability. This is also considered defectiveness, and it can be caused by three actions: negligence (design and failure to warn), strict liability (liability regardless of fault), and Breach of warranty. Supervision is another aspect of liability, and many supervisors are held liable for committing negligence because they did not fulfill their duty to supervise. In fact, the failure to supervise is the number one most common form of negligence in sports. Another area of negligence is exculpatory agreements, which there are three different types of. The first is Informed Consent Agreements. This is a document used to protect the provider and is based on contract law, which also means that signing parties must be of legal age. The informed consent offers little or no protection against liability for injuries resulting from negligence. The next type of agreement is the agreement to participate, which is a document intended to strengthen the defenses against liability for injuries resulting from the inherent risks of the activity. These are often used when people are about to participate in an activity, sport, or class. Unlike the informed consent, this agreement is not a contract, rather just an agreement. The final type of exculpatory agreement is the assumption of risk agreement. This is a pact by which the participant or client is informed of the inherent risks of the activity. This document can often be a stand-alone document, but is often included as part of a liability waiver. A court case that has to do with negligence is Parisi v. Harpursville Central School District. In this case, a coach did not suggest or require a player to wear a catcher's mask when she volunteered to help warm up a pitcher. The pitcher was considered to be a very hard throwing pitcher who has been pitching for a long time. The players are required to wear protective gear when warming up a pitcher, whether they be on or off the field according to the handbook that was issued by the state public high school athletic association. The court ruled in favor of the school district, stating that the plaintiff voluntarily took part in the practice, and she chose to help warm up the hard throwing pitcher. If the coach told her to go do it and did not give her or tell her to get a mask, then we would most likely have a different result. The biggest key in this case is that she was voluntarily participating in the sport and the practice.

Building a culture of success in sport leadership

Organizational Culture Definition: 1) A system of shared values, meaning, and assumptions that guide organizational members' attitudes and behaviors (Robbins, 1996; Schein, 2004; O'Reilly & Chatman, 1996) 2) The way things get done (Deal & Kennedy, 1982) 3) A pattern of shared assumptions learned by a group that has worked well enough to be valid and is taught to new members as a correct way to perceive, think, and feel (Schein, 2004) Strong Cultures: Espoused values are widely shared, Enhance performance by energizing employees to rally around meaningful and unified goals, They are difficult to change, May be positive or negative(Positive - Organization is highly functional with individuals and groups all working well together, Negative - Values are widely shared but may be destructive or illegal) Weak Cultures: Internal disagreement with organizational mission, Little evidence of widely shared values, May be positive or negative(positive - Functional and moving toward positive outcomes, negative - Evidence of dysfunction where some individuals and groups support each other and others do not) 3 Levels of culture: 1) Artifacts exist on the surface (stories, metaphors, rites, rituals, ceremonies, and symbols). Often referred to as elements of organizational climate. 2) Espoused beliefs, values, and attitudes exist just below the surface in organizations. What is stated to be important but might not be what occurs. 3) Fundamental assumptions exist at the deepest level of organizations. Deeply rooted values often referred to as elements of organizational culture. Organizational culture has powerful effect on organizational performance and long-term effectiveness. Positive organizational culture can affect employee morale, commitment, productivity, physical health, and emotional well-being. Organizational Culture & Leadership: Leaders create and manage culture (when groups and organizations are first created), Culture can also define and create leaders when organization is strong and well established, Culture can be embedded and strengthened by leaders, Leaders need to intervene and help groups unlearn cultural assumptions when organization becomes dysfunctional. Modes of Communicating Organizational Culture: 1) Stories anchor present to past. Ex: Jackie Robinson became first African American major league baseball player in U.S. 2) Rituals offer repetitive sequences of activities that reinforce key values. Ex: The Haka Ka Mate dance performed by the New Zealand All Blacks national rugby team. 3) Symbols include acceptable attire, office size, opulence of furnishings, executive perks. Ex: Sign in Notre Dame football locker room is "Play Like a Champion Today." 4) Language is jargon and special ways of communication to indicate organizational membership. Ex: Slogans and sayings used by intercollegiate athletic teams (e.g. "Roll Tide," "Sparty On," "Gig-Em Aggies," "Boomer Sooner"). How leaders Influence Culture: 1) Attention: Priorities and values leaders give attention. 2) Reaction to crises: Leaders' response sends message about what is valued. 3) Role modeling: Leaders act in accordance with policies and are consistent with organizational values and expectations. 4) Allocation of rewards: Leaders communicate what is valued by what is formally or informally rewarded. 5) Employee selection and dismissal: Leaders influence culture through criteria used for recruitment, selection, promotion, and dismissal of group members. 6) Design of systems and procedures: The way leaders develop and implement internal processes, planning, performance reviews 7) Design of organizational structure: Extent of centralization vs. decentralization in decision making and responsibility 8) Design of facilities: Leaders can reflect basic values through design and layout of facilities. 9) Stories, legends, myths: Leaders use these to transmit core values and assumptions. 10) Formal statements: Oral and written statements provided to the public about organizational values. **1-5 are primary ways and 6-10 are secondary ways** Steps to Initiate Culture Change: Reach consensus regarding current culture, Reach consensus on preferred future culture, Determine meaning of changes, Identify illustrative stories, Determine strategic action agenda, Identify and pursue small wins. Identify leadership implications, Determine measures, metrics, and milestones, Identify appropriate new organizational culture communication strategy.

Results, relationships, and responsibility

Results: Failure to deliver results leads to dissatisfaction and ultimate intent to change leaders in organizations. Results are typically measured in two dimensions: 1. Organizational performance - Financial performance: profits, return on investment, return on assets, Product performance: sales, market share, Shareholder return: total shareholder return, economic value added 2. Organizational effectiveness - beyond outcome measures: Employee or athlete satisfaction, Organizational citizenship, Organizational commitment, Community service and outreach **second in importance** To Achieve results: Begin with absolute focus on results, Take complete personal responsibility for results, Clearly communicate expectations and targets., Determine what you need to do personally to improve results, Use results as the litmus test for continuing or implementing leadership practice, Engage in developmental activities that will help produce better results, Know and use every group member's capabilities to the fullest, Experiment and innovate in every realm under your influence, Measure the right standards and increase the rigor with which you measure them, Constantly take action, Increase the pace or tempo of the group, Seek feedback from others in the organization about ways to improve outcomes, Ensure that followers and colleagues perceive that your motivation is the achievement of positive results, not personal or political gain, Model the methods and strive for the results you want your group to use and attain. Relationships: 1) The quality of relationships between leaders and followers is critical to getting things done (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). 2) Leaders must attend to developing and sustaining high-quality and trusting relationships that build mutual respect and confidence (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). 3) Achieving results without tending to relationships is not effective in long term. Interpersonal Relations and Communication: Needed for daily interaction with internal and external stakeholders, Effective personal and public relations in crisis situations, Careful interpersonal and group relations in situations dealing with ethical, moral, or legal issues. Enhancing Relationships: 1) don't criticize, condemn, or complain, 2) become genuinely interested in other people 3) be a good listener 4) give honest, sincere appreciation 5) smile 6) talk about the other person's interests 7) make clear how your ideas benefit the other person Four C's of Creating Trust: 1) Competence: Followers must believe leaders are capable 2) Congruity: Actions are congruent with words 3) Constancy: Followers look to leaders to support and defend them 4) Caring: Sincerely care about lives of followers and how your actions affect them. Conflict Competence: Recognize conflict - Monitor environment and try to address conflict before it escalates. Understand intensity of conflict - Ranges from differences of opinion to complete polarization. Respond and react in appropriate ways. Responsibility: 1) Professional, ethical, moral, and social responsibilities are part of leader's job. 2) News in sports almost daily regarding ethical issues, violations, and scandals. 3) Leader and organizational effectiveness in producing results and managing relationships must be supported by responsibility-based leadership. Professionalism: 1) Internalized strengths of character and high-quality service (sound judgment, good manners, know-how, perseverance, ingenuity) 2) Self-respect and commitment to excellence 3) See work as service to others and respect the rights of others 4) Approach problems confidently and optimistically 5) Make efficient use of resources Moral and Ethical Leadership: 1) All motives must be consistent with justifiable moral principles. Actions should have no intent to harm or exploit followers. 2) Demonstrate behaviors aligned with values of fair play, honesty, dedication, and teamwork. 3) Demonstrate commitment to not compromising personal integrity and values. Authentic Leaders: Understand their purpose, Practice solid values consistently, Lead with the heart, Establish connected relationships, Demonstrate self-discipline, Practice introspection. Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership: 1) Model the way: Set examples by aligning actions with shared values. 2) Inspire a shared vision: Envision exciting, ennobling, and shared aspirations. 3) Challenge the process: Search for opportunities to seize initiative and take risks. 4) Enable others to act: Foster collaboration and strengthen others. 5) Encourage the heart: Show appreciation, celebrate victories, create spirit of community.

Change, turnaround, and crisis leadership

Sport Leadership and Change: Sport organization leaders must have the capacity to respond to a rapidly changing business, political, social, and technological environment. 8 Stage Process for Leading Change: 1) Establish a sense of urgency(evaluate market and competitive environment for opportunities and potential crises, overcome complacency and convince majority of managers that change must occur) 2) Create a guiding coalition(build a guiding learn with a high level of trust, commitment, and shared goals and objective, team must have enough power to lead the change effort) 3) Develop vision and strategy (create a clear vision to effectively direct changes, develop and implement appropriate strategies aligned with the vision, develop and implement appropriate strategies aligned with the vision) 4) Communicate the change vision ( make use of every communication vehicle available to communicate the new vision and strategies, model the new behaviors and send consistent messages) 5) Empower employees or others for action (remove obstacles or alter structures and systems that might undermine the vision, encourage followers to take risks and develop new ideas and actions) 6) Generate short-term wins (define and monitor visible performance improvements, recognize and reward individuals for their contributions to the improvements) 7) Consolidate gains and produce more change (use the increased credibility from early wins to continue changing systems, structures and policies, hire and develop personnel who are capable of implementing the changes) 8) Anchor new approaches in the culture (explain the connections between the change-related behavior and success, create further leadership development and succession consistent with the change) Turnaround: Reversal of performance from negative to positive. 2 Stages of Turnaround: 1) Retrenchment - Strong emphasis placed on cost and asset reduction to mitigate what led to financial downturn. 2) Recovery - Process whereby organization shifts from retrenchment toward a new growth and development objective. EXAMPLE: 2007-2009 NHL Chicago Blackhawks, 2000-2010 MLB Minnesota Twins, 1989-2005 Kansas State University college football program 6 Stages of Team Turnaround: 1) Leading past losing 2)Commitment to growth 3)Behavioral change 4)Embracing adversity 5) Achievement of success 6)Nurturing a culture of excellence Leadership Style and Turnarounds: Situations may require different styles, Some research supports that major turnaround may require more directive and autocratic leadership style, Turnaround often results in termination and replacement of managers and employees, Urgency of turnaround may not easily support participative and democratic approach, It's still important to treat organizational members with courtesy, dignity, and respect. Leading Psychological turnaround: Smart financial and strategic decisions are important, Ability to restore individuals' confidence in themselves and others is vital, Leaders introduce interventions that begin to shift momentum back in favor of organization, Must replace old attitudes and feelings with new ones (see next slide). Crisis Leadership: Visibility, influence, and accountability of leaders peak in times of organizational crisis. Large sport organizations may have crisis management teams to assist. In small organizations all elements of crisis leadership often fall on one or a small group of individuals. Navigating Crisis: Most effective approach is proactive and purposeful avoidance or reduction of risk where possible. Recognize that there is no fail-safe assurance of physical and financial safety. Leading organizations in times of crisis are often defining moments for sport organization leaders. 3 levels of Crisis: Level 1 - Public embarrassment resulting from wrongdoing; lawsuits; or unethical, politically, or socially irresponsible behavior Level 2 - Situations that result in personal injury, property loss, possible loss of life Level 3 - Situations that result in multiple injuries or loss of life, significant property damage, and other threats to the survival of an organization (may result from natural disasters, accidents, or terrorism) Crisis Leadership Competencies and Actions: Sense making - Look for precrisis warning signals, take action to prevent crisis. Perspective taking - Focus on needs and well-being of those affected. Issue selling - Direct strategy of organization toward crisis planning. Organizational agility - Develop thorough knowledge of all aspects of business. Work with all departments in crisis prevention, preparation, and response. Creativity - Brainstorm about ways to be prepared and deal with crises. Decision making under pressure - Ability to work with and around negative emotions. Effective communication - Attempt to restore calm and provide reassurance to those affected by crisis. Risk taking - Work at not becoming too risk-averse in crisis situations. Promoting organizational resilience - Use crisis to promote moving organization beyond where it was before crisis. Act with Integrity - Engage in ethical decision making. Learning and reflection - Engage in purposeful activities to reflect on crisis and develop new ideas for future improvement.

Public Sector Sport (Ch 13). High school and community parks & recreation sport activities. Include financial trends in public sector sport, sources of funds, and collaborative financing. Explain expenses, and financial challenges in interscholastic athletics or parks & recreation sport programs.

TRENDS: Many areas of the public sector sport are facing budget cuts which is forcing them to rely on innovative programming. Public sector sports are also dealing with a change in culture to focus on competition and elite performance. The types of facilities and programming are increasing to meet consumer desire. Back in the day, parks were big open grass fields. Now, they cannot jungle gyms, workout equipment, sports courts and even advanced trail systems. With the recent budget cuts, parks and rec agencies are having to return to partnerships with cities and local school districts to provide programming and optimal facilities. High school facilities are mainly used for athletes participating in interscholastic sports. Parks and recreation facilities are intended for the use of all. Because of this, they need to develop facilities and programs that appeal to a broad demographic. This results in a pricing paradox as some private clubs offer more specific and less broad programs for a lesser price. So those looking for just a gym, would actually be paying for for the community annual membership than they would be for just a gym membership. Society today is asking too much of parks and rec agencies. They are wanting a multitude of sports programs that are affordable to participant in and facilities that are sufficient. SOURCE OF FUNDS: Parks and Rec agencies and high school sport receive funding from the public sector for facility construction and facility/program operations because they exist to meet the social needs of the community they serve. They typically use tax subsides to fund programs that are not fully covered by the fees charged. Tax subsides allow school districts or agencies to offer programs for free or at a reduced cost. Typically municipalities have funded public sport facility construction through the sale of tax-supported municipal bonds and local tax receipts have provided a majority of operational funds. Tax receipts are tax revenues from all sources received by a municipality. With shrinking local and state revenues, public sport agencies are increasingly relying on other revenue sources. Property tax - is the tax source most often used to fund the construction or operation of public sector sport facilities. In general a cities town council, school boards and special purpose districts establish the municipality's property tax rates. These entities determine the milage, or rate of tax, needed to meet their budgets. The second tax source most often used to fund construction or operation of public sector sport facilities is sales tax, which is a tax on the sale of certain goods and services. The rules and regulations regarding sales tax vary by state and this can affect the source of funds available at the local level.

Thoroughly explain in your own words theory of risk management in sport. Include risk management process, standards of practice, crisis management, and crowd management, and worker's compensation. Describe a pertinent legal case to risk management in sport.

The goal of risk management is to create an environment where the risks of activities and the services done by a sports organization can be managed or minimized as much as possible without creating any kind of change in the activities themselves. When creating a risk management plan, you have to look into all areas of the sport or organization as a whole. This includes things like the facilities, the conduct of activities, Insurance coverage and pretty much any other area where they can be potential risk. There is a four step process in creating a risk management plan. The first step is Risk Identification. This is where you sit down and list out all of the potential risks for your sports organization. One of the biggest things with this step in the process is communication. You have to communicate with all people involved in the organization in order to really be able to identify all the possible risks. This part of the process usually includes customers or fans, all employees, and also external professionals. Without this part of the process, you are almost guaranteed to miss or be unaware of some of the risks. After Identifying the risks, you then have to classify them, which is the second of the four step process. With this part of the process, you must classify them according to their Frequency, which is how often the risk can happen, there Severity, which is how much damage can that risk cause, and then by the Number, which is how many people can be exposed to this risk. The third step after classifying them is Treating the Risks. You have 4 options on what you can do to properly and safely treat the risks. You can either avoid or eliminate the risk, you can retain the risk, you can transfer the risk, or you can reduce the chance of the risk. After you first identify the potential risks, and then classify and treat them, the final step in the process of risk management is to evaluate. You have to make sure to inspect the treatment of risks and see if what you are doing is working or not. Have you seen a decrease in injuries or loss or damage, or have certain areas like that gotten worse? Creating a checklist can really help you manage risk and make sure you are keeping track of what needs to be changed and what can stay the same. Standards of Practice are standards or guidelines developed by professional organizations that measure the competence of a professional. These standards that are created help to control and reduce the amount of negligence that happens in sports. If you are able to prove that you adhered to the standards of practice, then there will never be anything to show that you exhibited negligence or Breach of Duty. A code of Ethics is a great example of a Standard of Practice. This code will show what the team or organization is holding all of its players and employees to, and if it is proven that they did not follow or broke the code of ethics, then the standard of practice was broken as well and most likely you will be brought to court for it. There are four steps to apply the standard of practice. The first step is to identify and select a standard of practice that fits your team or organization. The next step is developing a risk management strategy that fits the standard of practice that you chose. The third step in implementing the risk management plan within your organization. The final step is to evaluate how well your risk management plan worked, and if you need to make any changes to it. Crisis Management is a process that is meant to prevent or reduce the damage that a crisis can do to a team and the organization as a whole. The main goal of crisis management is to ensure the safety of the public, which is where all the revenue comes from for a sports team or organization. It also is meant to make sure that the organization does not lose it's reputation after a crisis, or even lose money and fans as the result of one as well. In order to develop a crisis management plan, you have to first formulate a planning team. This team will consist of people in the organization who know what can happen as the result of a crisis, and also who know how to make it from hurting the team as a whole. This "team" must then identify all the possible risks and crises that can happen throughout the course of the year. Once having all the crises and risks laid out, you then develop a plan of action. Communication is the biggest thing during a crisis, whether it be between people within the team or with the public, and there are 5 C's to make sure to follow when dealing with a Crisis. The first C is Care. The public is very unforgiving, especially in today's world with how big the internet and social media are, so you must make sure to show empathy as a team. The second C is Commitment. You have to make sure that you are showing that you are investigating the incident, and that you are taking steps to make sure it won't happen again. Again, the media will really hate on you if you are now showing that you are trying to fix it. The third C is Consistency. You must make sure that the organization and everyone within the organization are all on the same page with the spokesperson for the team. If that person is saying one thing and then even just a player or coach says something just a little bit different, the media again will have a field day with your organization. The fourth C is Coherence. Just make sure to always be clear with your message or statements, make sure these are concise so people listen to everything you are saying and don't just take bits of it and make your team look bad, and only ever say things that are facts. If you ever say something and cannot back it up, people will really not forget what you said and jisut call you and your team liars who don't care about the issue at hand. The final C is Clarity. You have to make sure to avoid the use of jargon or any technical terms that people might not understand and twist it into what they think it means. Using these 5 C's during crisis management will make sure that your communication with the public and members of your organization is as smooth as possible in times of a crisis. Crowd Management is the duty of the managers of a facility to protect all fans or spectators from any risk of harm from themselves and others. In order to effectively manage the risk of harm for the crowd, then must make sure to manage the movement and activities that the crowd is doing or allowed to do. They must also assist in all emergencies, whether it be a medical emergency like a stroke or heart attack, or a physical injury like a foul ball hitting someone in the head. They must make sure to quickly respond to all cases of emergency. Lastly, they must be very friendly and helpful and make sure all spectators can enjoy the event and feel like they are safe and having fun. It is the legal obligation of the facility manager to keep all spectators safe, and the failure to do so can lead to litigation. One big thing that is key to crowd management is Foreseeability. This is when you can clearly see or anticipate that injury is a likely result of a certain act or scenario. If an injury happens that was very obvious was going to happen and the facility manager and the organization as a whole can be open to a lawsuit. An example of being able to foresee when an injury or harm is going to happen would be at the end of a big game and the home team is about to win, and the fans are all getting ready to storm the court. This can cause a lot of injuries because it is everyone in the stands running and jumping over each other to get down as close as they can to the team. As a facility manager, you have to have security or even police set up in the right positions to make sure no one can get down to the court. If you do not have that set up and people do storm the court and get hurt, you will be held responsible for those injuries. Workers Compensation is when an employee is injured on the job and the company must pay them for their time that they have to take off of work due to their injury. It does not matter whether the person was injured due to their own negligence or just a straight up accident, if the injury happened on the job then they are entitled to workers compensation. If you accept the workers compensation however, you cannot take the employer to court over any kind of Tort that they might try to claim. An example of a risk management case in court is Hayden v. Notre Dame. This incident took place during a Notre Dame Football game where Hayden was sitting behind the goal posts and a kick missed the goal posts and also missed the net behind the goal posts that is supposed to stop the ball from getting to the crowd. When the ball landed in the crowd, everyone close to it scrambled and jumped and pushed everyone to try and get the ball for themselves. During this Hayden was injured and so he brought Notre Dame to court saying they were negligent. Hayden was a season ticket holder and saw this happen all the time, and yet they never changed anything, he was just the first person to put the blame on Notre Dame. The court ruled in favor of Hayden, saying that Notre Dame was in fact negligent because of the fact that over 50% of kicks in Notre Dame home games miss the net, and so it was very clear that they should have done something to fix it. They very clearly had a risk if over 50% of kicks were going into the stands, but they never did anything about it and that is where they failed at risk management.

Thoroughly explain the research related to gambling behaviors in sport, effects of gambling on sport, and potential effects of legalization of sport gambling. Refer to the articles from class as references.

The research that has been done on sports gambling is mainly focused on the behaviors of athletes and non-athletes and comparing who is more susceptible to it. In a study done by Weiss, he compared the gambing habits of current athletes, former athletes, and non-athletes. He used the SOGS test to measure and calculate scores for the three different categories of participants. What he found was that retired or former athletes are the most susceptible to pathological gambling, and they were the ones who scored the highest on almost every aspect of the SOGS scale. Gambling was found to be higher in athletes compared to non-athletes, but it was very clear that former athletes are the most common to gamble on sports. These former athletes have a preference for forms of gamblign where a lot of skill is involved because these are the bets that have higher stakes, and therefore higher payouts. Former athletes scored very high on the SOGS scale, high enough to classify them as problem gamblers. Current and non athletes scored lower on the scale which tells us that they are more likely to bet just for fun and in a recreational manner. The results also showed that these groups who scored higher on sports gambling, are more likely to engage in other kinds of gambing as well. Gambling in sports can have both positive and negative effects on the sports world as a whole. As of now, only a few states offer legalized sports gambling, which makes it hard to really know how everyone feels about it. But what this causes is a lot of illegal and under the table bets happening by both athletes and non athletes. With gambling not being legal in most states, it causes many players to bet amongst each other or even take money from people to throw a game for their team. This is not good for competition or the whole idea of sports. Gambling can also affect the way that the spectators watch the game. If they have money on the game, they turn from a fan of the sport, to someone who is strictly watching it hoping to make their own personal profit. A positive to sports gambling is that it would really help the state government and economy out because it brings them in more revenue. Gambling can also bring in a lot of new spectators who maybe did not really enjoy or follow sports very much, and allow them to really start to follow along with certain teams because they feel like they are a fan now since they have money riding on them winning. On the flip of that point though, this can cause people who were already fans to stop watching for the love of the game, but rather just to pursue their own profit. There are many ups and downs to sports gambling, and really there will never be a time where everyone agrees it is right or wrong. But with all the things that gambling can do for a state's economy, I can definitely see a lot of states getting on board with it in the near future.

Thoroughly explain the three ethical theories covered: Deontology, Teleological, and Virtue Ethics. Provide an example of each as it is applied to the sport context. Include origins and tenets of each theory. For Teleological, also include the three sub-theories.

The term Deontology comes from the Greek word Deon, which means Duty. The theory is derived from duty theories that base morality on specific foundational principles of obligation. It is a highly principled ethic which does not concern itself directly with consequences. The followers or believers in this theory may be termed Nonconsequentialists because the principles of it are obligatory, meaning they are irrespective of the consequences that might follow from their actions. Within this theory there is a sub-theory called the Rights-based theory. This theory is based on assumption, and states that certain moral rights existed before social conventions and laws were created. The idea of Rule, or having respect for the rights of others, falls into this theory as well because rights are correlated with the duties or responsibilities of each person. An example of this theory in the sports context could be when a coach is doing something that is morally or ethically wrong, and a player on the team is debating whether or not to tell someone about it or not. Looking at it from the Deontology perspective, the player would not hesitate to tell the coach because he does not care what the consequences may be. Even if the coach finds out and benches him the rest of the season, he did what was right and hopefully got the coach to stop. The term Teleological comes from the Greek word Telos, which means end. Philosophers wanted a quick way to morally assess an action by appealing to experience rather than appealing to gut intuitives, so they came up with this theory. This theory is based on the end, since according to this theory the end result of an action is the sole determining factor of its morality. The teleological moral systems are characterized by a focus in the consequences that any action might have. The followers of this theory are called consequentialists because an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable. The principles behind this theory require that first, we tally both the good and the nad consequences of an action, and from there we determine whether good consequences outweigh the bad. The moral responsibility of a person or action is measured by weighing the consequences. There are 3 sub theories within the Teleological theory. The first is Ethical Egoism. This theory states that an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the person who is performing the action. The second theory is Ethical Altruism. This theory states that an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable to everyone except for the person doing the action. The final sub theory is called Utilitarianism, which states that an action is morally right if the consequences of the action are more favorable than unfavorbale to everyone involved. An example of the Teleological theory in a sports context could be when in a Hockey game, someone from the opposing team asks you to fight, but there are only 5 minutes left in the game and your team is up by 1. You can either take the fight and shit the momentum to the other team, or do not take it and give your team the best chance at winning. As a consequentialist, you would not take the fight because you would think about the consequences of that action and how it would affect your team and your chance at winning. Taking the fight would cause more bad consequences than good, so therefore there is no way that you should take that fight from this Teleological perspective. The final theory I will talk about is called Virtue Ethics. This theory comes from the ideas of Plato, and the main idea behind it is to place less emphasis on which rules people should follow, and focus more on the development of good character traits.This theory is based mainly off of Plato's four Cardinal virtues, which are Wisdom, Courage, Temperance, and Justice. There are also other virtues that help define this theory, and those are fortitude, generosity, self respect, good temper, and sincerity. Basing your actions and words off of these virtues is how to best describe the beliefs of these theorists. Also in this theory are things called Vices, which are considered the bad characteristics of this theory. When following or using this theory or perspective, you will want to try and avoid vices, as theorists emphasize that breaking bad habits is a key part of this way of life. An example of this theory in a sports context could be when in a game or match a ball goes off of you and then goes out of bounds and the referee doesn't see it. He gives the ball to your team and the other team is really upset because everyone saw it go off of you except the referee. If you follow virtue ethic principles, you would tell the ref that it actually did go off of you and it should be the other team's ball. As hard as that can be to give up the ball for your team, you want to show that you have good character and want to show the virtues that you carry yourself on.

Thoroughly explain what the literature has found related codes of conduct research in sport organizations. How did researchers analyze codes of conduct? What types of codes are applied in sport organizations? How do we know if these codes are effective? Refer to the articles from class as references.

There has been lots of research done on codes of conduct in the sports world. One of the main areas that the research has targeted is the NCAA and all of it's conferences. Research has shown that codes of conduct are most effective when they have very good readability and relevance, and also are written with a positive tone, rather than a demanding or mandated tone. Communication also plays a big role in the code of conduct for NCAA athletic teams, and the use of informal communication, with things like social norms and jargon, is a lot more effective than formal communication. Another big aspect of codes of conduct is the way that the leader demonstrates or leads by example. Most players really respect adn look up to the coach or other leaders in the organization almost like their role models, so if they cannot embrace the code they have created, no one else on the team will either. The NCAA has left creating a code of conduct up to each individual institution, so they are able to create one that is consistent with their educational mission and policies as well. Within the NCAA are a bunch of different conferences, and each one of those conferences has their own code as well, most of which have established very generalized standards, but some have their own committee in charge of sportsmanship and ethics. A survey was done on 354 coaches from institutions all around the NCAA to get their perception of conference code of conduct. The common themes among the answers from all these coaches were things like sportsmanship, promotion of values, healthy environment, and professional conduct. They all agreed that these codes are meant for all people involved in the institution, like the athletic administrators, all the coaches, and all of the school;s athletes. It is the responsibility of the coaches and administrators to enforce and keep everyone up to the right standard of ethics and conduct. In another study, the purpose was to find out if there was a universal code of conduct for all universities, so they did a study on 60 schools from the NCAA. They analyzed all 60 code of conducts and analyzed them all side by side to look for common themes and out liars. They found two common themes in almost all the codes: there are actins that either lead to suspension, or actions that result in dismissal. 40% of the codes analyzed said that academic dishonesty lead to a suspension, while 88% of the codes stated that substance abuse would lead to suspension. 100% of the codes stated that a felony results automatically in a suspension as well. When it comes to actions that will result in dismissal from the school, 22% of the codes said that would result in dismissal, while 49% of them said substance abuse would lead to dismissal as well. Only 57% of the codes said a misdemeanor would lead to dismissal, while 100% of the codes again said a felony would lead to dismissal from the institution. Clearly, criminal acts are one thing that all schools have a zero tolerance policy on and that was reflected on all the codes of conducts that were analyzed. The study also showed that Division 1 schools used universal codes more frequently than other Division 2 and 3 schools. It is clear that many schools have very strict laws or rules when it comes to their code of conduct, and the only way to really see if your code is effective is to see how effective it is every year, and change it to better fit your individual institution. Seeing how other schools write their codes can be helpful, but being able to create your own is something that has proven to be very effective.

Vision and strategic leadership

Vision: An imagined or discerned future state that clearly captures the organization's direction and defines its destination (Cartwright & Baldwin, 2007). Visionary Leaders in sport EXAMPLE: Eunice Kennedy Shriver: Special Olympics International (Vision: Sport and physical activity can provide avenue for individuals with disabilities to realize their potential. Initial vision began as backyard camp and now serves over 3.7 million people in 170 countries.) Vision from Idea: some leaders develop vision based on an idea that they believe the world is heading toward and then use that idea to create and build an enterprise aligned with vision. Vision from Opportunity: some visionary leaders are opportunists, who see specific gaps in the marketplace and seek to capitalize on them through experimentation. Vision from Adaptation: visions often result from crises, accidents, experiments, and customer feedback that force leaders to readapt to stay flexible. Support and Collaboration: Visionaries have other people that help them shape the vision. Their support may come from business partners, employees, stakeholders etc. Steps to develop a Vision: 1) Conduct vision audit (What are current mission and purpose? What values does organization provide?) 2) Determine scope and target.(Who are critical stakeholders? What are boundaries and constraints?) 3) Identify future developments related to vision. (What changes can be expected relative to needs and wants of those the organization serves? What changes can be expected in the social, political, and technological environment?) 4) Choose the right vision. (Is vision oriented toward future? Does vision set standards of excellence? Will people be inspired and committed to the visions?) 5) Turn vision into reality. (What goals and objectives are needed to align with vision? What resources will be needed? What changes to structure, policies, or procedures may be needed? Who will lead work groups or teams? What will be the expectations of each unit involved?) Strategies: Corporate level - when offering products or services in more than one industry (Growth strategy, Stability, Defensive) Business level - gaining competitive advantage (Cost leadership, Differentiation, Focus) Deliberate strategy - Planned and intended strategy associated with traditional strategic planning process. Emergent strategy - Often recognized in the absence of intent. Must be flexible and responsive to situations. Steps in Deliberate Strategic Planning: 1) Clarify organizational vision and mission. 2) Analyze external and internal environment (SWOT analysis). 3) Formulate strategy to enhance strengths and minimize weaknesses. 4) Implement strategy across organization. 5) Evaluate and reassess strategy. Strategic Thinking and Leadership: 1.Conceptual: reflects ideas, models, and hypotheses. 2.Systems-oriented: takes into account interaction of organizational parts and the external environment. 3.Directional: focuses on desired future state. 4.Opportunistic: takes advantage of past achievements and current competitive opportunities. Strategic Thinking for Organizations: 1) Recognizes importance of emerging strategy development that is flexible and responsive. 2) Addresses "why-what-how" as opposed to just "how." Focuses on alignment with values. 3) Concentrates on flow of information and quality of relationships. 4) Is more accepting of ambiguity rather than controlling and quantifying all endeavors.