P/S AAMC Outline
bipolar disorder
(formerly called manic depression) people experience cyclic mood episodes at one or both extremes or "poles" - depression and mania
Freud's Phallic Stage
3-6 years child seeks sensual pleasure thru genitals they are sexually attracted to the opposite-sex parent and hostile toward same-sex parent (Oedipus and Electra complex) girls experience penis envy
Piaget's 4 stages of development
4 stages: -sensorimotor -preoperational -concrete operational -formal operational
Specialized movement
7-14 years movements applied to completing specific actions ex. grasping, throwing, and jumping combined to shoot a basketball
kinship
A social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption
matriarchy
A society ruled or controlled by women
panic attack
a person experiences dread, shortness of breath, chest pain, choking, rapid heartbeat; many fear they are dying of a heart attack
scapegoat
a person or group that bears the blame for another
bisexual
a person who is attracted to both sexes
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
asserts that people understand their world thru language and that language in turn shapes how we experience the world
dispositional attribution
assigning the cause of an action to an inherent quality or desire
Macrosociology
The study of large-scale groups, organizations, or social systems.
episodic memory
autobiographical memory for info of personal importance ex. situation surrounding your first kiss
availability heuristic
can lead to errors in judgement due to our reliance on memory of specific, easily-recalled events based more on specific examples and how readily particular examples come to mind
interference
can result in a failure to retrieve info that is in storage -proactive interference -retroactive interference -positive transfer
three components of emotion
cognitive (subjective) behavioral (facial expressions and body language) physiological (changes in the autonomic nervous system)
limbic system
collection of brain structures that lie on both sides of the thalamus appear to be primarily responsible for emotional experiences
population
collection of people in a defined geographical area, also refers to this as a number of people
fad
collective behavior in which something experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputation, remains popular among a large population for a brief period, and experiences a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation
mass hysteria
collective behavior that refers to the *collective delusion* of some threat that spread through emotions and escalates until it spirals out of control -differ from outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics, which are the *actual* spread of infectious disease
social movement
collective behavior with the intention of *promoting change* active: attempt to foster social change (revolution) expressive: attempt to foster individual change (support groups)
riots
collective behavior, occur as a result of *general dissatisfaction with social conditions*, like in response to hunger or oppression there is no specific end increase in criminal behavior and unrest
schizoaffective disorder
combines mood and psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive disorder, manic, or mixed episode for at least one month person experiences delusions/hallucinations at times resembles a chronic psychotic disorder with an overlapping bipolar or depressive disorder
displacement
defense mechanism that redirects aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one ex. going home and punching wall instead of boss
projection
defense mechanism where one attributes unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person/object
rationalization
defense mechanism where one believes or states an acceptable explanation for a behavior as opposed to the real explanation
market economies
economic decisions are based on the market (*supply and demand*) and the means of production are often private include laissez-faire and free market economies
capitalism
economic system in which resources and production are mainly *privately owned*, and goods/services are produced for *profit* driving force is the pursuit of personal profit
socialism
economic system where resources and production are *collectively owned* includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit) driving force is collective goals, and economy is usually centrally controlled and run by the gov't
motor neurons
efferent neurons travel down from higher cortical regions ventrally in the spine
medical model of disease
emphasizes *physical or medical* factors as being the cause of all illness
social exclusion
excluding/blocking off someone or a group of people from society's opportunities, rights and resources that other groups have access to
social epidemiology
field that studies how social organization contributes to the prevalence, incidence, and distribution of disease across and within populations
sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight inhibits digestive and urinary systems opens airways increases cardiovascular activity induces sweating constricts eyes and accommodates "far" vision stimulates adrenal medulla to release epinephrine
REM sleep
final stage, characterized by *bursts of quick eye movement*. EEG measures waves that resemble beta waves seen when people are awake, but these are more sawtooth with low intensity and variable freq.; almost no skeletal muscle movement
Francis Galton theory of intelligence
first proposed a theory of general intelligence in mid-1800s believed intelligence had a strong biological basis and could be quantified by testing certain cognitive tasks argued that intelligence is genetically determined
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response *only after a specified number of responses* ex. rat receives food pellet every 10 times it pushes the lever
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response *only after a specified time has elapsed* behavior will increase as the reinforcement interval comes to an end
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an *unpredictable number of responses* ex. gambling
sucking reflex
in response to anything that touches the roof of the infant's mouth, it will begin to suck
tonic neck reflex
in response to its head being turned to one side, the baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and opposite arm bends up at the elbow
palmar grasp reflex
in response to stroking a baby's palm, it's hand will grasp
Babinski reflex
in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out
walking/stepping reflex
in response to the soles of a baby's feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to walk
reticular formation
in the brainstem controls alertness and arousal
normative behavior
social behaviors that follow norms and meet ideal social standard
gender
social construction that is learned and flexible based on behavioral role expectation
superego
inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals; strives for a higher purpose and perfection. seeks to gain psychological rewards such as feelings of pride and self-love as well as avoidance of guilt
colonization
involves migration to settled area in which dominance is exerted over the foreign state often exploitation of the indigenous peoples
cued recall
involves retrieving the information when provided with a cue
free recall
involves retrieving the item "out of thin air"
outsourcing
involves the contracting of third parties for specific operations; can be domestic or foreign
relearning
involves the process of learning material that was previously learned once we have learned and forgotten something, we are able to relearn it more quickly than we originally learned it
terrorism
involves the use of violence with the intention to create fear in the target community
Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia; PDD)
less intense, more chronic form of depression no major depressive episode most often starts during adolescence or early adulthood
adjustment disorder
less severe and shorter term version of PTSD, in which the causes include a stressor as opposed to a trauma and the symptoms last less than 6 months once the stressor is gone
attribution theory
line of research into the causes that people use to explain the observed behaviors of others
C. Robert Cloninger
linked personality to brain systems involved in learning reward, motivation, and punishment proposed that personality is linked to the level of activity of certain NTs in three interacting systems: low dopamine: higher impulsivity and novelty seeking low norepinephrine: higher approval seeking and reward dependence low serotonin: risk avoidance
Broca's area
located in left frontal lobe; involved in the complicated process of *speech PRODUCTION*
Wernicke's area
located in left temporal lobe; plays role in comprehension of speech and written language
frontal lobe
location of higher-level executive functions such as planning and impulse inhibition includes the motor cortex
schizoid personality disorder
loner with little interest or involvement in close relationships
nociceptors
pain receptors, detect chemical signs of tissue damage autonomic vs somatic pain receptors autonomic: frequently give a sensation of dull, aching pain referred pain: illusion of pain on the skin when their nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin
muscle spindle
mechanoreceptor that is an example of an important proprioceptor; detects muscle stretch
Mass Media and Technology
media innovations are important agents of socialization TV, cell phones, educational programming can be + or -
false memories
memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something
semantic memory
memory for factual info ex. knowing the capital of Illinois
explicit (declarative) memory
memory that involves being able to declare or voice what is known explaining a concept involves explicit memory, while not having practiced it indicates a lack of implicit memory -semantic memory -episodic memory
continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs rapid acquisition, rapid extinction
nomadism
traditional method of continuous travel in search of natural resources as a method of sustenance not considered migration ex. hunting/gathering
person-situation controversy
trait vs state considers the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality or due to the situation itself
cultural diffusion
transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another can also occur within a single culture, leading to some similarities across different levels of society
placenta
transfers nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus and transports waste and CO2 away acts as a barrier to protect the fetus from harmful substances (but some substances, like alcohol, can cross the barrier)
Yerkes-Dodson Law
relationship between performance and emotional arousal is a U-shaped correlation - people perform best when moderately aroused
church
type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the larger society; membership tends to occur by birth but most churches allow people to join; if independent of the state, known as a denomination
rites of passage
rituals that reflect important life transitions and also include more personal changes such as marriage
catatonic schizophrenia
type of schizophrenia marked by striking motor disturbances, ranging from muscular rigidity to random motor activity
iconic memory
type of sensory memory brief photographic memory for visual information which decays in a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
type of sensory memory memory for sound, lasts ~3-4 seconds
"paradoxical sleep"
type of sleep encountered during REM when internally, the brain and body are active; while externally, the body appears calm and inactive
Beta waves (EEG)
Highest frequency, lowest amplitude. During Awake, and REM sleep.
Polyandry
One female, several males.
polygyny
One male, several females.
Five Factor Model of Personality
Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism OCEAN
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
Oral (birth - 1 year : mouth) Anal (1-3 years : potty training), Phallic (3-6 years : boy-girl-mom-dad-thing), Latency (6-11 years : none), Genital (adolescence : marriage) Freud said that these develop personality depending on how they are dealt with. (the first three being the most important) if a stage's requirements are not met, child becomes psychologically fixated at that stage and will continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage
somatic neurons
Provide motor innervation to muscle and skin no pre/post synapse, just one neuron that projects directly onto the neuromuscular junction to release acetylcholine
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
Psychological disorder involving a significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, for at least two weeks many contemplate suicide or devise a suicide plan; these symptoms alone do not indicate major depression if they occur within 2 months of bereavement
brief psychotic disorder
Psychotic disturbance involving delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech or behavior but lasting less than 1 month; often occurs in reaction to a stressor
what to do; what not to do
Reinforcement is *more effective* than punishment because it tells you _______, while punishment just tells you _______.
imitation
we imitate role models, peers, especially those similar to us and those we identify with
role strain
when a *single status* results in conflicting expectations ex. a gay man may feel pressure to avoid being "too gay" but also "not gay enough"
alpha waves
when a person is awake but sleepy, an EEG would show these waves low amplitudes and high frequencies first indicators that a person is ready to fall asleep
bias
when an individual favors the in-group and devalues the out-groups
population momentum
when children produced during periods of higher fertility rates reproduce there are more women of reproductive age and thus more births overall, regardless of the number of births per woman
swimming reflex
when held horizontally on their stomachs, newborns stretch out their arms and legs
task difficulty
when multitasking, if a task is more difficult, it requires more resources in general and would be hard to do simultaneously with another task without passing resource capacity
task practice
when multitasking, practice helps it diminishes task resource demand so that we can free up those resources ex. experienced driver can listen to the radio while driving easily, a new driving might struggle
task similarity
when multitasking, two tasks that involve the same modality for processing results in difficulty ex. listening to the radio while trying to write a paper - both use verbal input/outputs
positive transfer
when old info facilitates the learning of new info ex. learning how to play football may make it easier for someone to learn how to play rugby
Deindividuation
when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility, people may act in startling ways the lose sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality disconnection of behaviors from attitudes results from a confluence of several factors: -group size: larger groups create diminished sense of identity and responsibility -physical anonymity: using facepaint, masks, or costumes -arousing activities: rather than beginning with a frenzy, deindividuating circumstances usually start with arousing activities that escalate
cultural lag
when the creation of new social rules lags behind new innovation ex. material culture changes faster than symbolic
ventral pathway (what)
"what" pathway - travels to the *temporal* lobe towards the base of the brain and is involved in object recognition
dorsal pathway (where)
"where" pathway - projects to the *parietal* cortex and is more involved in perceiving the location of objects
in the auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe of the brain
Where is sound processed?
convergance
a binocular cue that describes the extent to which the eyes turn INWARD when looking at an object *the greater the angle of convergence (inward strain), the CLOSER the object*
night vision
accomplished by the rods, which are more sensitive to dim light and motion concentrated in the periphery of the retina
outer ear
auricle (pinna) and external auditory canal
vestibular senses
awareness of body *balance* and movement are monitored sensations of body rotation and of gravitation and movement arise in the inner ear; the sense organs are the hair cells that send out signals over the auditory nerve
proprioception
awareness of self/body position
organ of Corti
basilar membrane, hair cells, and tectorial membrane within the cochlea
Psychophysics
branch of psychology that deals with the relationships between physical stimuli and mental phenomena relation between stimulus and sensation
stimulus intensity
coded by the frequency of action potentials
divided attention
concerns when and if we are able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously -resource model of attention -task similarity -task difficulty -task practice
macula
contains the fovea centralis, high density area of only cones responsible for extreme visual acuity
sensory adaptation
decrease in firing frequency when the intensity of a stimulus remains constant -nociceptors do not adapt under any circumstance
monocular cues
depth cues that depend on info available to either eye alone important for judging distances of objects that are far from use because the retinal disparity is only slight -relative size -interposition -relative clarity -texture gradient -relative height -relative motion -linear perspective -light and shadow
feature detection theory
explains why a certain area of the brain is activated when looking at a face, and a different area is activated when looking at the letter "s" neurons in the visual cortex fire in response to very specific info; these neurons are specific neurons in the brain that fire in response to a specific visual feature
hyperopia
farsightedness - *corrected by CONVERGING LENS*
referred pain
illusion of pain on the skin when their nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin
presbyopia
inability to accomodate (focus) - results from loss of flexibility of lens, which occurs with aging
loudness
larger vibrations cause *more frequent APs* in the auditory canal
difference thresholds
minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli *50% of the time*
absolute thresholds
minimum stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor *50% of the time* and thus detect a sensation
Golgi tendon organs
monitor tension in tendons
interposition
monocular cue for depth perception; if one object partially blocks our view of another object, we perceive it as closer
linear perspective
monocular cue for perceiving depth; parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases the greater the convergence, the greater the perceived distance
myopia
nearsightedness - *corrected by DIVERGING LENS*
emmetropia
normal vision
distal stimulus
objects and events out in the world around you
inner ear
oval window, cochlea, semicircular canals
eustachian tube (auditory tube)
passageway from the back of the throat to the middle ear functions to equalize pressure on both sides of the eardrums; cause of the "ear popping" experienced at high altitudes or underwater
opsin
pigment proteins in rods and cones that are bound to retinal (derived from vitamin A)
Gestalt law of common fate
predicts that objects moving in the same direction or moving in synchrony are perceived as a group/unit ex. flock of birds flying together
Gestalt law of connectedness
predicts that things that are joined/linked/grouped are perceived as connected ex. a square around 9 circles in a square of 25 circles leads us to perceive that the 9 are, in some way, different
top-down processing
processing that occurs when the brain applies past experience and expectations to interpret sensory info
interoreceptors
receptors that detect internal stimuli
exteroreceptors
receptors that detect stimuli from the outside world
Gestalt law of similarity
things that are similar tend to appear grouped together
middle ear
tympanic membrane (eardrum), ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes), oval window
texture gradient
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture indicates increasing distance
stimulus location
communicated by the receptive field of the sensory receptor sending the signal -localization can be improved by overlapping receptive fields of neighboring receptors -discrimination can be improved by lateral inhibition of neighboring receptors
resource model of attention
says that we have a limited pool of resources from which to draw when performing tasks, both modality-specific and general if the resources required to perform multiple tasks simultaneously exceeds the available resources to do so, then the tasks CANNOT be done at the same time
three factors associated with multi-tasking
task similarity task difficulty task practice
Alan Baddeley's model of working memory
working (short term memory) consists of 4 components: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and central executive
4 components of working memory
1. phonological loop 2. visuospatial sketchpad 3. episodic buffer 4. central executive
fovea centralis
area of the retina with only cones responsible for extreme visual acuity
Anne Treisman's Attenuation Model
attempts to account for the cocktail party effect rather than a filter, the mind has an *attenuator* which works like a volume knob - it "turns down" unattended sensory input rather than eliminating it
signal detection theory
attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (signal to noise) four possibilities- hit: present and detected miss: present and not detected false alarm: not present but detected correct rejection: not present and not detected
sensory pathways
axons cross over in the spine to the other side - processed in the cerebral cortex on the other side from where the stimulus came in for cranial sense (with receptors in the face), crossing over still happens in the brain stem if one side of the brain is injured, there is a loss of somatosensation on the other side
binocular cues
depth cues that depend on the info received from BOTH eyes and are most important for perceiving depth when objects are CLOSE to us in our visual field -retinal disparity -convergence
figure/ground (Gestalt)
describes our perceptual tendency to separate the figure or object from a background based on the ground ex: face-vase illusion this principle helps explain why we cannot perceive the image as both a vase and two faces at the same time
depth perception
describes the ability to see in 3D despite the fact that images are imposed on the retina in only 2D; appears to be largely innate
joint capsule receptors
detect pressure, tension, and movement in joints
spotlight model
explains visual attention the spotlight is a beam that can shine anywhere within an individual's visual field this beam describes the *movement of attention*, NOT the movement of the eyes shifts in attention actually precede the corresponding eye movements
tonic receptors
fire action potentials as long as the stimulus continues -subject to *adaptation*: freq. of APs decreases as the stimulus continues at the same level
information-processing models
focuses on what happens in the human mind and tries to view it as a computer processor has a few basic *assumptions*: info is taken from the env't and processed thru a series of steps including attention, perception, and storage into memory along the way, info is systematically transformed
pitch
frequency, distinguished by regions of basilar membrane that vibrate, stimulating different auditory neurons thick and sturdy near oval window, become thin and floppy near apex of cochlea low freq detected farthest away from oval window high freq sounds stimulate hair cells near oval window
visual pathway
light -> cornea -> anterior chamber -> pupil -> lens -> vitreous chamber -> retina (rods and cones) -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells (optic nerve) -> thalamus -> occipital lobe
bottom-up processing
processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration info occurring in the brain ex: info enters the eyes in one direction ("bottom"), and then is turned in to an image by the brain ("top") tend to use this processing when we have little or no prior experience with a stimulus
thermoreceptors
receptors stimulated by changes in temperature autonomic and somatic examples cold-sensitive, warm-sensitive, and thermal nociceptors (can detect painfully hot stimuli)
electromagnetic receptors
receptors that are stimulated by electromagnetic waves rod and cone cells of the retina
mechanoreceptors
receptors that respond to mechanical disturbances -Pacinian Corpuscle: shaped like an onion, depolarized from firm pressure -auditory hair cell: vibrations from sound waves -vestibular hair cells: located within semicircular canals, also in the inner ear; detect acceleration and position relative to gravity -stretch receptors
chemoreceptors
receptors that respond to particular chemicals -olfactory receptors: detect airborne chemicals and allow us to smell things -gustatory receptors: tastebuds -autonomic chemoreceptors in the walls of the carotid and aortic arteries; respond to changes in arterial pH, CO2, and O2 pressure levels
retinal in the dark
retinal has several trans double bonds and one cis double bond - this conformation keeps sodium channels OPEN and depolarized
retinal in the light
retinal is converted to an all-trans form which CLOSES sodium channels and is hyperpolarized prevents the release of glutamate which originally inhibits bipolar cells
selective priming
suggests that people can be selectively primed to observe something, either by encountering it frequently or by expecting it
Gestalt law of proximity
suggests that things that are near each other seem to be grouped together ex. see a square composed of dots rather than 25 individual dots
multistability (Gestalt)
tendency of ambiguous images to pop back and forth unstably between alternative interpretations in our brains ex: images of the impossible object ("How many legs does THIS elephant have?")
binding problem
the problem of how all the different aspects of an object are assembled together and *related to a single object* rather than something else in the visual field -> VISUAL ATTENTION is the solution to this problem if we focus on a particular object, then the feature detector's input of shape, color, etc will all be related to the object being attended to it has been found that when people are distracted while viewing two items, they may have issues with binding - the color of one may be attributed to the other
somatosensation
the skin sensations: touch/pressure, warmth, cold, and pain ex pain perception
Donald Broadbent
thought of the brain as a processing system with a limited capacity and sought to map out the steps that went into creating memories from raw sensory data
Weber's Law
two stimuli must differ by a *constant proportion* in order for their difference to be perceptible ex: 2 objects must differ in weight by 2%, two lights must differ in intensity by 8%, etc
stimulus modality
type of stimulus, based on which type of receptor is firing (ex. vision, balance, etc)
Gestalt law of continuity
we perceive the smooth, continuous lines and forms, rather than a disjoined one ex. we see 2 overlapping circles rather than 2 semicircular lines and a football shape
emergence (Gestalt)
when attempting to identify an object, we 1st ID its outline, which then allows us to figure out what the object is only AFTER the WHOLE emerges do we start to ID the PARTS that make up the whole
culture shock
personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life
temperament
"emotional excitability" infants considered "difficult" have a temperament that is more irritable and unpredictable, while "easy" infants have a more placid, quiet, and easygoing temperament
factitious disorder
(Munchhausen syndrome when imposed on the self, "Munchhausen by proxy" when imposed on someone else) when imposed on oneself, a person has not just fabricated an illness, but also falsified evidence or symptoms of illness, or inflicts harm to oneself to induce injury or illness
cognitive theories of motivation
*Expectancy theory*- states that our behavior is a result of conscious choices that we make to minimize pain and maximize pleasure *Goal-Setting theory*- states that there is a link between goal setting and task performance, and that by setting and achieving small goals (and receiving positive feedback), we are more likely to accomplish more difficult goals later
cohort studies
*Longitudinal Studies* Monitor over time to find associations between risk factors and health Minimize selection bias Relative risk is the ratio of disease incidence in an exposed population Indicates strength of exposure to illness causality
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion
*STIMULUS --> PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE --> COGNITION --> EMOTION* stimulus first produces a physiological response, which we then interpret cognitively to produce an emotion like the James-Lange theory, it proposes that physiological response come first after the stimulus, but emotions *AREN'T* a one-to-one correlate of the physiological response
James-Lange theory of emotion
*STIMULUS --> PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE --> EMOTION* proposes that when we encounter a stimulus, we first experience the physiological response and then the emotion suggests that emotional experience is the result of the physiological response evidence: breathing patters can lead to certain emotions problems: assumes that each emotion originates from a distinctive physiological state, but emotions share very similar physiological profiles
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
*STIMULUS --> PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE : EMOTION* criticizes the James-Lange theory proposes instead that in response to a stimuli, experience of the emotion and physiological/behavioral response occurs at the same time *independently* a problem arises because it fails to explain how controlling for physiological responses (ex. breathing) can help make us feel calm
Erikson's 2nd Stage of Development
*autonomy vs shame vs doubt* 1-3 years toddler must resolve crisis of autonomy vs shame vs doubt needs to explore and make mistakes, otherwise will be dependent as an adult
twin studies
*compare traits in monozygotic and dizygotic twins* if identical twins share the same phenotype more than fraternal twins, genes likely play an important role
Erikson's 7th stage of development
*generativity vs stagnation* 35-60 years middle aged person must resolve crisis of generativity vs stagnation if they do not feel productive by helping the next generation and resolving differences between actual accomplishments and earlier dreams, may become stuck in psychological stagnation
crowds
*group that shares a purpose*, can influence herd behavior -not all crowd behavior is irrational -include acting crowds (for specific goal), casual crowds, conventional crowd (gathered for planned event), expressive crowds (ex. funeral) -panic: situation in which fear escalates to the point that it dominates thinking and affects entire groups
Erikson's 5th stage of development
*identity vs role confusion* 12-18 years adolescent kid must resolve crisis of identity vs role confusion if they do not test limits and clarify identity, goals, and life meaning, they will develop role confusion
Erikson's 4th stage of development
*industry vs inferiority* 6-12 years school-aged kids must resolve the crisis of industry vs inferiority needs to succeed in school and attain personal goals or may feel inadequate as an adult
Erikson's 3rd stage of development
*initiative vs guilt* 3-6 years preschool-age kid must resolve crisis of initiative vs guilt needs to be allowed to make decisions or may be guilty taking initiative and will allow others to choose as an adult
Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention
*inputs from the env't first enter a sensory buffer* one of these inputs is then selected and filtered based on physical characteristics of the input (modality) it then goes on to higher level processing and into working memory this theoretical filter is designed to keep us from becoming overloaded with info only attended info passes thru the filter other info stays in the sensory buffer briefly, but decays
Erikson's 8th stage of development
*integrity vs despair* 60+ years person must resolve crisis of integrity vs despair if person looks back with regrets and lack of personal worth, may feel hopeless, guilty, and self-loathing
informal means of social control
*internalization of norms and values by a process known as socialization* which is defined as "the process by which an individual, born with behavioral potentialities of enormously wide range, is led to develop actual behavior which is confined to the narrower range of what is acceptable for him by the group standards"
Erikson's 6th state of development
*intimacy vs isolation* 18-35 years young adult faces crisis of intimacy vs isolation if a person does not form intimate relationships at this stage, may become alienated and isolated
Charles Cooley
*looking glass self* idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others *people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them*
three key elements of persuasion
*message characteristics*: logic, number of key points, length, grammatical complexity *source characteristics*: of the person or venue DELIVERING the message, like expertise, trustworthiness, importance *target characteristics*: of the person RECEIVING the message, such as self-esteem, intelligence, mood
neural nets
*patterns of activation* nearby neurons that fire impulses simultaneously form associations with each other if any part of this is activated, a memory may be recalled *involves increased interconnectivity of the brain thru increasing the synapses between existing neurons*
perspectives on globalization
*proponents*: economic growth and development *criticisms*: colonialism, inequality, cultural assimilation
"I" (Mead)
*the response* to the "me" this is the response of the individual to the attitudes of others self as the subject
Erikson's 1st stage of development
*trust vs mistrust* 0-1 year infant's physical and emotional needs must be met, otherwise will later mistrust the world and relationships
Forms of Government
-aristarchic governments (aristocracies, meritocracies) -autocratic governments (dictatorship, fascist) -monarchic governments
Heuristics and biases
-availability heuristic -representativeness heuristic -belief bias -belief perseverance -overconfidence -framing
factors that affect attitude change
-changes in behavior --> observed by others --> changes attitude -message --> influences target --> changes attitude -social = env't --> influences individual attitudes
Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development
-genetics provide the biological predispositions that an individual has -sociocultural influences then help mold and channel this potential into the development of particular capabilities -language: Noam Chomsky argues that kids could not learn the amount of vocab they quickly do simply through env't influences; genetics and heredity must also be involved
Some cognitive changes in late adulthood
-memory declines in recall but recognition seems to be intact -time-based tasks can be challenging, like remembering to take medication 3x/day -slower info processing abilities, reaction times, and speech
Forms of Authority
-rational-legal authority: legal rules and regulation are stipulated in a document like the Constitution -traditional authority: power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice -charismatic authority: leaders are powerful due to their charisma
factors contributing to globalization
-telecommunications: use modern tech to ease the challenges of communication across distances -economic interdependence: can be thought of as the division of labor on a global scale; countries might have the demand for products without the internal means of production -outsourcing: involves the contracting of third parties for specific operations; can be domestic or foreign -non-governmental organizations (NGOs): organizations without an official gov't affiliation with the intention of contributing to the lessening of global issues
types of problem solving
-trial and error -algorithm: step-by-step procedure -heuristics: mental shortcuts -insight: "sudden thought in the shower"
some situations in which attitudes predict behavior:
-when social influences are reduced -when general patterns of behavior, rather than specific behavior, are observed -when specific, rather than general, attitudes are considered -when attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection
Reflexive movements
0-1 years primitive, involuntary movements that serve to "prime: the neuromuscular system and forms the basis for more sophisticated movement to come ex. palmar grasp reflex primes the nervous system for the more controlled grasping learned later overlaps with rudimentary stage
Rudimentary movements
0-2 years the first *voluntary movement* performed by a child includes sitting, rolling, crawling, standing, and walking
Forms of religious organizations
1) Ecclesia - dominant religious organization that includes most members of society; recognized as the national or official religion and tolerates no other religions 2) Church - type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the larger society; membership tends to occur by birth but most churches allow people to join; if independent of the state, known as a denomination 3) Sect - religious organization that is distinct from that of a larger society, often occurring by breaking away from larger religious institutions (ex. Mormons, Amish) 4) Cult/New religious movement - religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle
Freud's Anal Stage
1-3 years child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination
processes that aid in encoding memories
1. Mnemonic ( Acronym) 2. Rehearsal (use of phonological loop) 3. Chunking ( magic number = 7) 4. Hierarchies (for organization) 5. Depth of processing (info that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered. 6. Dual coding hypothesis - easier to remember words with assoc. Images than either words or images alone. 7. Method of loci- imagining moving through a familiar place, and in each place, leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered. 8. Self reference effect- excellent recall for personally relevant information.
Role of culture in cognitive development
1. Sociocultural perspective 2. Culture is transmitted to children by their parents 3. Children's intellectual processes are developed to handle problems important to their surroundings different languages may result in different ways of thinking
Modern ways to study the brain
1. Structure: (CAT / CT) - uses xray MRI - uses radio waves 2. Function: EEG - electrodes placed on scalp; can only show the sum totals of electrical activity in the brain (can indicate seizures, sleep, etc) MEG - magnetic fields; higher resolution 3. Combined: fMRI; neurons that fire more require more oxygen and have more oxygen uptake PET: glucose injected; more active cells take up more radiolabeled glucose
Fundamental movement
2-7 years child is beginning to coordinate its limbs includes running, jumping, throwing, catching highly influenced by env't
Totalitarianism
A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.) unelected leaders regulate BOTH *public and private life* thru coercive means of control
patriarchy
A form of social organization in which males dominate females
Gestalt Laws of Organization
A series of principles that describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes -proximity -similarity -continuity -closure -common fate -connectedness
Three components of emotion
ABCs affective: involves someone's feelings or emotions, which largely shape our attitude (ex. if you love someone, you will most likely address them with a positive, loving attitude) behavioral: involves someone's actions. our behavior is greatly dependent on our attitude (ex. if we have a positive attitude, we are more likely to behave productively) cognitive: involves someone's beliefs and knowledge. what someone knows to be true can affect one's attitude towards certain issues (ex. if you know lions are dangerous, your attitude towards them may be negative/fearful)
panic disorder
An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations have suffered from at least one panic attack and is worried about having more
Monarchic governments
Controlled by single person or small group who *inherited* the position, like kings/queens
it is believed that info is stored in LTM as an organized network and in this network exists individual ideas called *nodes* which can be thought of like cities on a map connecting these nodes are *associations*, which are like roads connecting the cities the STRENGTH of an association is related to how FREQUENTLY and DEEPLY the connection is made so that *retrieval of info improves if there are more and stronger connections to an idea* a node does not become ACTIVATED until it receives input signals from its neighbors that are strong enough to reach a *response threshold* the effect of input signals is cumulative - the response threshold is reached by the *summation* of input signals from multiple nodes once the response threshold is reached, the node "fires" and sends a stimulus to all of its neighbors, contributing to their activation in this way, the activation of a few nodes can lead to a pattern of activation within the network that spreads onward (*spreading activation*) this helps explain why hints can be helpful - they can activate nodes closely connected to the node being sought after and contribute to that node's activation
Describe semantic networks and spreading activation
Role of Emotion in Memory Retrieval
Emotions act as retrieval cues, in that retrieval of memory is strongest when the emotional state during retrieval is similar to that of memory formation. Additionally, memories of higher emotional significance are more readily available for retrieval.
formal means of social control
External sanctions enforced by government* to prevent the establishment of chaos or anomie in society Some theorists, such as Émile Durkheim, refer to this form of control as *regulation*
McCrae and Costa
Five Factor Personality Traits openness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness, extraversion (OCEAN)
McDonaldization
George Ritzer's term describing the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization four components: -efficiency -calculability (assessing performance thru quantity and/or speed of output) -predictability -control (automating work where possible in order to make results more predictable) *problems*: set procedures, may lose sight of overall target; inflexibility
General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans Selye described three predictable stages the body uses to respond to stressors first stage: *alarm stage* - provides a burst of energy second stage: *resistance stage* - body attempts to resist or adapt to the stressor third stage: *exhaustion stage* - energy is depleted
STM is different from working memory in that it is strongly correlated with the *hippocampus*, and is where NEW INFO sought to be remembered temporarily resides It is then encoded to LTM or forgotten Working memory is *strongly correlated with the prefrontal cortex*, and is a storage bin used to hold either STM or LTM needed at a particular moment in order to process info or solve a problem
How is short-term memory different from working memory?
reverse migration
Immigrants returning to their country of origin
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response *negative reinforcement is not punishment*
theories of emotion
James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer
Crude Death Rate (CDR)
annual number of deaths per 1000 people in a population below 10 is low above 20 is high
immigration
Movement of individuals into a population
need-based theory of motivation
People are motivated by the desire to fulfill unmet needs; Maslow's Hierarchy
Teacher expectancy theory
Students will perform at the level the teacher expects of them -teachers quickly form expectations of individual students and act towards the student with these expectations in mind -can help kids exceed their own expectations of themselves -can also underestimate students
Foraging behavior
Set of behaviors through which animals obtain food social behavior animals optimize this to maximize the energy available through food and to minimize the energy expenditure involved in obtaining it
gender segregation
Social structures contribute to separation of genders for economic, political, religious, or social reasons -Better described as sex segregation based on biological distinctions rather than gender identities
Microsociology
Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through experimental means. Interested in the effects of individuals on the social structure
Secularization
The process through which religion's influence on other social institutions diminishes
True! The enjoyable behaviors produce activity in dopamine circuits in the brain, most noticeably in the *nucleus accumbens*, the pleasure center of the brain many addictive drugs share the characteristic of stimulating the release of dopamine
True or false: Addiction is biologically based
False - it is possible to jump between various stages while sleeping. The average sleep cycle is 90 minutes. REM sleep is shortest early in the night and get longer as the night progresses. Deep sleep is longest early in the night and gets less frequent.
True or false: People go through sleep stages in a set order throughout the night.
argues that people will choose the central route only when they are interested in the topic and are not distracted otherwise, they will choose the peripheral route
What does the elaboration likelihood model argue?
rooting reflex
a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment *criticism: deviance is assumed to be an automatic process: people may be able to ignore social expectations
retinal disparity
a binocular cue where the brain compares the images projected onto the two retinas in order to perceive distance the *greater the difference or disparity between the two images on each retina, the SHORTER the distance to the observer*
mixed economies
a blend of market and planned economies with both public and private ownership public oversight of private production, like in the US
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event subjectively vivid, compelling memories
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
a cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that governs the timing of circadian rhythms darkness causes the SCN to signal the pineal gland to produce melatonin, making you feel tired
global stratification
a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole
nuclear family
a couple and their dependent children, regarded as a basic social unit direct blood relations
values
a culture's standard for evaluating what is good and bad
cost-benefit analysis
a decision-making process in which you compare what you will sacrifice and gain by a specific action minimize costs and maximize benefits
downward mobility
a decrease in social class
Incongruence (Rogers)
a discrepancy between the image we hold of ourselves and the sum of all our experiences
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
a disorder characterized by chronic excessive worry accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance does not experience panic attacks may be no identifiable source
conversion disorder
a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found experience a change of sensory or motor function (weakness, tremor) that has no discernible physical or physiological cause and seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors emotion or anxiety is "converted" into a physical symptom
illness anxiety disorder (hypochondriasis)
a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease distress is predominantly psychological with people experiencing persistent preoccupation with their health somatic aspect of illness is not as central or can be nonexistent
premenstrual dysphoric disorder
a disorder marked by repeated episodes of significant depression and related symptoms during the week before menstruation, that then disappear after the week of menstruation
delusion
a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false one or more delusions have been present for at least 1 month, and counterevidence is generally denied or distorted to keep the delusion intact common: erotomania, grandiosity, and persecution
Hallucinations
a false sensory perception that has no direct external cause and occurs while a person is conscious can be auditory, visual, or tactile
egalitarian family
a family structure in which both partners share power and authority equally
peer pressure
a feeling that you should do something because that is what your friends/society want
Presidential Government
a form of government in which the executive and legislative branches of the government are separate, independent, and coequal
Direct Democracy
a government in which all or most citizens participate directly
leptin
a hormone released by white adipose tissue to reduce hunger
asexuality
a lack of sexual attraction to people of either sex
stigma
a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person
schema
a mental blueprint containing common aspects of some part of the world ex. if asked to describe what your 4th grade classroom looked like, you may remember chalkboard, chalk, desks, etc based on this for such a classroom
Dreaming
a mental state that usually occurs during REM sleep that features visual imagery
method of loci
a mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations
light and shadow
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; closer objects reflect more light than distant objects the dimmer of two identical objects seems farther away
relative size
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; if objects are assumed to be the same size, the smaller one appears more distant
relative clarity
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; we perceive hazy objects as being farther away than sharp/clear objects
relative height
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; we perceive objects that are higher in the visual field as farther away
dysthymic disorder
a mood disorder involving a pattern of comparatively mild depression that lasts for at least two years more of a chronic mood state
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced -continuous: every occurrence of the behavior is reinforced; results in RAPID acquisition, but also rapid extinction -intermittent: occurrences are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not; results in SLOWER acquisition, but greater PERSISTENCE *can initially condition a behavior using continuous schedule, maintain with intermittent reinforcement
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior) person's feelings and behaviors are seen as reactions not to *actual events*, but to the person's *thoughts about those events* problem: maladaptive behavior, self-defeating thoughts therapy goals: extinction and relearning of undesired thoughts/behaviors and healthier thinking and self-talk general method: reconditioning, desensitization, reversal of self-blame
Schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression diagnosed when person has been experiencing symptoms for more than 6 months NO complete remission without meds
intermittent reinforcement schedule
a schedule in which reinforcements are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred slower acquisition, but greater persistence fixed-ratio variable-ratio fixed-interval variable-interval
psychological disorders
a set of behavioral, emotional, and/or psychological symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms and are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning diagnosable based on specific symptoms and symptom threshold treatable or manageable with various types of medication and/or therapy
midbrain
a small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward relay station for auditory and visual signals
Educational stratification
a social arrangement that becomes entrenched through educational segregation and is reproduced in new generations of children, such that the children's educational achievements mirror those of their parents
reference group
a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions
anarchy
a state of disorder due to absence or nonrecognition of authority refers to societies without a public gov't
master status
a status that dominates the others and determines that individuals' general position in society
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past, even if it doesn't apply to the current situation
Symbolic Interactionism
a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another *preparatory stage*: children merely imitate others *play stage* children take on roles of others through playing (ex. playing "house") *game stage*: children learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously and can understand the responsibilities of multiple roles
incentive theory
a theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli
drive-reduction theory
a theory of motivation that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need by engaging in some behavior
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events ex. Pavlov's dogs *unconditioned stimulus (US)*: stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UR) -presentation of food is US and salivation is UR *conditioned stimulus (CS)*: an originally neutral stimulus (bell) that is paired with an US (food) until it can produce the conditioned response (CR) without the US *conditioned response (CR)*: the learned response to the CS
counterculture
a way of life and set of attitudes opposed to or at variance with the prevailing social norm
social network
a web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected thru others (ex. Facebook)
DSM-5
a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream symbolic versions of underlying unconscious drives and wishes
Heritability
ability of a trait to be passed from one generation to the next does not pertain to an individual, but rather how two individuals differ ex. heritability of intelligence is 50%... this does not mean that genes are responsible for 50% of your intelligence, rather they are responsible for 50% of the difference between your intelligence and someone else's
power
ability to get other people to do something
parasomnias
abnormal behaviors that occur during sleep tends to appear more in kids includes somnambulism and night terrors
dyssomnias
abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
delivery of health care (in the US)
accomplished by teams of healthcare providers with different training backgrounds and specialty areas, such as physicians and nurses of all specialties, hospitalists, social workers, etc
deviance
actions that dominate social norms, whether formal or informal also a social construct, situational and contextual -murder is acceptable in war and self-defense -subject to change
short-term memory
activated memory that is limited in duration and capacity capacity for adults is *seven items, plus or minus 2* even chunking is still subject to this limit of 7 +/- 2 info is only retained for about 20 seconds UNLESS it is actively processed to be transferred into LTM
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
annual number of births per 1000 people in a population 10-20 is low 40-50 is high
positive punishment
addition of something unpleasant pair undesirable stimulus with behavior to decrease that behavior
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
conventional morality
adolescent social roles conformity: seeks approval of others law and order: social order
postconventional morality
adult social rules social contract: individual rights universal human ethics: abstract principles
sensory neurons
afferent neurons travel up dorsally in the spine to higher cortical regions all somatic sensory neurons have a long dendrite extending from a sensory receptor toward the soma, which is located *just outside the CNS in a DORSAL ROOT GANGLION* there is a pair of DRG for every segment of the spinal cord. they are protected within the vertebral column but are outside the meninges
Freud's Latency Stage
age 6 - puberty sexual interests subside and are replaced by interests in other areas like school, friends, sports
Lifelong application stage
ages 14+ movements are continually refined and applied
organic solidarity
allows society to integrate thru a division of labor, which leads to each person *having a different personal experience*, this each movement is distinguishable and separate arises out of the need of individuals for one another's services common in advanced, modern societies
General Fertility Rate (GFR)
annual number of births per 1000 women
infant mortality rate
annual number of deaths per 1000 infants under one year of age
mechanical solidarity
allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the *same fundamental experience* individuals share a *collective conscience* which presumes the existence of a greater social order that guides individual actions thru shared beliefs, morals, and values common in *primitive, traditional societies* like agricultural societies
Hallucinogens
also called psychedelics distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input includes LSD and marijuana
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) obsessions: repeated, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress compulsions: repeated physical or mental behaviors that are performed in response to an obsession or in accordance with a strict set of rules in order to reduce distress or "prevent" something dreaded from occurring
cognitive aspect of emotion
an appraisal or interpretation of the situation describes how the situation is interpreted or labeled many emotions share the same or very similar physiological and behavioral responses; it is the mind that interprets differently
hindbrain
an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord
inclusive fitness
an explanation for altruism that focuses on the adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such as through kin selection, rather than focusing on individual survival defined by the number of offspring an organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how its offspring support others in a group
long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
class consciousness
an individual's active awareness of his/her membership in a social class members of the Bourgeoisie take capitalism for granted instead of seeing it as a historically situated and transient economic system the communist revolution is based on promoting this of the lower class
gender expression
an individual's behavioral manifestations of gender
Moro (startle) reflex
an infant will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need ex. food, avoiding pain/danger
residential segregation
an instance of social inequality on the local scale food deserts (fewer grocery stores/fresh affordable food options)
generalized other (Mead)
an internalized sense of the total expectations of others in a variety of settings - regardless of whether we've encountered those people or places before
intersectionality
analytical approach that seeks to highlight the ways different *identities intersect within individuals and social groups* to produce unique social groups ex. a black lesbian cannot be understood by considering her blackness and then her non-heterosexuality; the unique social position of a black lesbian must be considered in its own right
Cluster B personality disorders
antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders associated with emotional, dramatic, and attention seeking behaviors
secondary reinforcer
any reinforcer that is learned to be a reinforcer neutral stimulus paired with primary reinforcers to make them conditioned ex. receiving stamps for reading, exchanging those stamps for pizza
mnemonic
any technique for improving retention and retrieval of info from memory
reinforcement (operant conditioning)
anything that will increase the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated -positive reinforcement: a desirable stimulus that occurs immediately following a behavior (ex. give food pellet) -negative reinforcement: removing an undesirable stimulus (ex. remove shock) --amygdala is very important in neg. reinforcement
food desert
area where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find because there are no proper grocery stores
Thomas Robert Malthus
argued that population is the result of available resources for sustenance, such as productive farmland argued that the possible rate of population increase exceeds the possible rate of resource increase, and the rules of nature make it impossible for population to increase *unchecked* without serious distress due to insufficient resources
Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association Theory
argues that *deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities* when a n individual participates in communities that condone deviant behaviors, it becomes easier for the individual to learn those behaviors and become deviants *criticism: people are reduced to their env't, not considered as independent, rational actors with personal motivations
Methodological Individualism
argues that all social realities are the result of *individual actions and interactions* fails to consider large-scale structures
social constructionism
argues that people shape their reality thru social interactions society is constructed, not inherent
linguistic relativity hypothesis
asserts that not only do language and thought overlap, but cognition and perception are determined by the language one speaks native speakers in different language groups conceptualize the world differently
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
at the base are *physiological* needs, followed by *safety*, then *love/belongingness*, *esteem* needs, and then *self-actualizations*
expressive social movement
attempt to foster individual change ex. support groups
sociology
attempts to *understand the behavior of groups* studies how individuals interact with, shape, and are shaped by the society in which they live
behavioral genetics
attempts to determine the role of inheritance on behavioral traits
active social movement
attempts to foster social change revolution
pansexual
attracted to people irrespective of gender or sex
parenting styles
authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative
Cluster C personality disorders
avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders associated with tense, anxious, over-controlled behaviors
self-consciousness
awareness of one's self
Population Pyramid
bar graphs that represent population distributions expansive population pyramid is wide at the base, representing a higher birth rate x axis is population y axis is different age groups
normative social influence
based on social desirability, wanting to be accepted or admired by others
Freud's Genital Stage
begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface
non-normative behavior
behavior in which individuals do not conform to the expectations implicit in social structure; it challenges shared values and institutions, thus threatening the social structure and cohesion; viewed as incorrect, seen as abnormal and thus is discouraged
altruistic behavior
behavior that helps ensure the success or survival of the rest of a social group
B. F. Skinner
behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons
empiricists and language
behaviorists who argued that language is just another example of conditioned behavior
instincts
behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species
taboo
behaviors that customs forbid, results in disgust toward the violator often a moral or religious component ex. eating pork in certain cultures, cannibalism, incest, murder
self-schema
beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information
Materialist approach to language
believe that we should only look at what is happening in the brain when we study thought and words
sex
biological characteristic that is assigned at birth based on chromosomes, external genitalia, gonads, and hormones
circadian rhythm
biological waxing and waning of alertness over the 24 hour day. most people feel alert mid-morning, experience a dip in energy early afternoon, and feel alert again early evening exposure to light stimulates a nerve pathway from the retina to the *suprachiasmatic nucleus* (SCN) in the *hypothalamus*. the SCN signals other parts of the brain and is essentially our internal clock melatonin is a hormone made by the pineal gland darkness causes the SCN to signal the pineal gland to produce melatonin, making you feel tired
biological factors that affect nonassociative and associative learning
biology serves as a constraint for learning - we can not learn to do simply anything/everything learning occurs more quickly if it is biologically relevant or essential for survival the process of learning results in physical changes to the CNS; certain synaptic connections develop in the brain when a memory is formed STM lasts for seconds to hours, and can potentially be converted to LTM thru *consolidation*
Freud's Oral Stage
birth - 1 year child seeks sensual pleasure through sucking and chewing
neurogenesis
birth of new neurons has been found to occur to a small extent in the hippocampus and cerebellum
Piaget's sensorimotor stage
birth to ~2 years babies experience the world thru their senses and movement, such as looking/touching they learn about *object permanence* - the understanding that things continue to exist when they are out of sight they also demonstrate *stranger anxiety* - distress when confronted with an unfamiliar person
status
broad term in sociology that refers to all the socially defined positions within a society ex. president, parent, resident of Wisconsin, etc
aggression
broadly defined as behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking considered to be an innate instinct three predictors: -genetic -neural -biochemical
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
can arise when a person feels intense fear/horror while experiencing/witnessing extremely traumatic events most people will experience at least one traumatic event in their life but only few develop this disorder traumatic event is often relived through dreams and flashbacks in which the person feels as though the event is actually, currently happening person is chronically physiologically hyperaroused and hypervigilant
phobias
can be specific and/or social specific: persistent, strong, unreasonable fear of a certain object or situation -situational (flying), natural env't (storms), blood-injection-injury (getting shots), animal (spiders)
economic interdependence
can be thought of as the division of labor on a global scale; countries might have the demand for products without the internal means of production
secondary care
care that includes acute care (emergency department) as well as specialty care which is often received following a referral from a primary care provider
different types of stressors
catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles, learned helplessness
etiology
cause or set of causes or causal conditions for a particular disease
sleep apnea
causes people to intermittently stop breathing during sleep can repeat hundreds of times per night
somatic symptom disorder
central complaint is one or more somatic symptoms and diagnosis also requires evidence of diminished functioning stemming from excessive preoccupation and anxiety about the symptom
The two cognitive routes that persuasion follows
central route: people are persuaded by the content of the argument peripheral route: people focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech or orator
changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning
changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning the process of forming memories involves electrical impulses thru brain circuits somehow, these impulses leave permanent neural traces that are physical representations of info
Obedience
changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure
theta waves (EEG)
characteristic of the 1st and 2nd stages of sleep
Korsakoff's syndrome
chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) most commonly caused by alcohol use thiamine helps brain cells produce energy from sugar, so when levels fall too low, the brain cannot generate enough energy to function properly causes problems *learning new info, inability to remember recent events, and LTM gaps*
biopsychosocial approach to health and illness
claims that illness cannot be understood by only examining biological factors considers social factors to be integral to functioning at the level of individual biology
extended family
closely related people of several generations
nonverbal communication
communication using body movements, gestures, and facial expressions rather than speech
three ways an individual's behavior may be motivated by social influence:
compliance: compliant behavior is motivated by desire to seek reward or avoid punishment identification: motivated by desire to be like another person or group internalization: motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one's own value system (most endearing motivation)
front stage self
component of the dramaturgical approach encompasses the behavior that a person performs in front of an audience the person knows they are being watched and that their behavior is subject to judgment by an audience
back stage self
component of the dramaturgical approach encompasses the behavior that a person performs when with other players, but no audience is present can include behavior that would be unacceptable when performed in front of the audience, or when we can *let our guard down*
drug addiction
compulsion to use a drug repeatedly
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes the test uses *reaction times* to measure people's *automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words* easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger *unconscious associations*
sick role
concept developed by sociologist Talcott Parsons when a person is ill, they are not able to be a contributing member of society being ill is a type of *deviance* others must consider the person's illness to be legitimate to take up the extra work the sick person should seek medical care and make an attempt to get well
social construct
concept or practice that is a construct of a group, but this concept or practice may have no inherent values; its only value is the value society ascribes to it ex. marriage - exists entirely within a human society, containing own specific rules, morals, etc
anomie
concept that describes the social condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines to norms and values, and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic state of *normlessness*
feminism
concerned with the differences in social experiences of men and women collection of social movements with purpose of establishing men and women as equals in terms of social rights
economics
concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of resources (both goods and services)
impression management
conscious or unconscious process where people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others express parts of oneself depending on the person on the receiving end of the interaction
Punishment (operant conditioning)
consequence that makes target behavior UNLIKELY (opposite effect as reinforcement) -Positive punishment: ADD something *bad* -Negative punishment: TAKE away something *good* *punishments work best in nature where it helps us avoid dangers should be CERTAIN and IMMEDIATE can be applied to parenting (not good idea) and self-improvement
heteronormative beliefs
consider heterosexual behavior to be the preferred sexual orientation
traditional economies
consider social customs in economic decisions common in rural areas and often involves *bartering* and *trading*
Republican Government
consider their countries to be public concerns and are thus *democratic* in nature (the people have the supreme power in these societies)
Max Weber's characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy
considered bureaucracy to be a necessary aspect of modern society ideal bureaucracy: -covers a fixed area of activity -hierarchically organized -workers have expert training in area of specialty -organizational rank is impersonal, advancement depends on technical qualifications -workers follow set procedures to increase predictability and efficiency
class system
considers both social variables and individual initiative groups together people of similar wealth, income, education, etc
democratic governments
consist of elected leaders; the public has some degree of political decision-making power through either direct decisions or representation -direct democracies -representative democracies
personal identity
consists of one's own sense of personal attributes ex. smart, funny
social identity
consists of social definitions of who you are ex. race, gender, occupation
symbolic culture
consists of symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture include *rituals, gestures, signs, and words* that help people within a society communicate and understand each other ex. wedding ring, statue of liberty
Diencephalon
consists of thalamus and hypothalamus thalamus: control center that processes almost all sensory info (except olfactory) before it reaches higher cortical areas as well as receiving motor commands from these cortical areas on their way to the spinal cord hypothalamus: regulates many of the body's basic physiological needs by maintaining homeostasis in multiple systems such as temperature and water balance
Authoritarian Government
consists of unelected leaders public has *no control over representation*
ideal self
constructed out of one's life experiences, societal expectations, and the things you admire about role models -the person you ought to be (vs. real self, person you actually are) -if this is similar to real self, result is a positive self-concept -usually, this is an impossible standard and the results is *incongruity*
forebrain
contains cerebrum or cerebral cortex location of many higher level functions: consciousness, memory, cognition, planning, emotion
parietal lobe
contains the somatosensory cortex which maps the body's sensation of touch also creates a map of the body - large portions of somatosensory cortex make their corresponding regions particularly sensitive somatosensory homunculus
thalamus
control center that processes almost all sensory info (except olfactory) before it reaches higher cortical areas as well as receiving motor commands from these cortical areas on their way to the spinal cord
regulatory genes
control the expression of other genes
Autocratic Government
controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, with *absolute* decision-making power dictatorship: ruled by a single person fascist: ruled by small group of leaders
Aristarchic governments
controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power; the public is not involved in most political decisions aristocracies: ruled by elite citizens, like those with noble births meritocracies: ruled by the meritorious
pons
coordinates communication between motor cortex and cerebellum
illusatory correlation
created between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases ex. seeing Michael Jordan and concluding that all Black people are athletic
adoption studies
creates two groups: genetic relatives and environmental relatives adopted individuals can be compared with both groups to determine if they are more similar to their genetic relatives or their environmental relatives *adopted kids have personalities more similar to their biological parents than adopted parents*
situational attribution
deciding that environmental forces were in control of one's behaviors
aging and memory
decline in memory is influenced by how active the person is: increased activity (both physical and mental) is a protective factor against neuronal atrophy retrieval can also become trickier with time ability to ENCODE NEW MEMORIES of events or facts as well as working memory may decline episodic memory is especially impaired
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation ex. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner "forming a habit" an action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic you "tune out" the stimulus note!! this isn't *really* forming a habit, you just decrease responsiveness to stimulus
delta waves (EEG)
deep sleep waves on EEG
regression
defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated ex. child reverts to bed-wetting after trauma
sublimation
defense mechanism in which unacceptable energies are directed/channeled into socially admirable outlets, such as art
reaction formation
defense mechanism that expresses the opposite of what one really feels when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling ex. acting hateful toward someone you love
denial
defense mechanism that is the forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory
repression
defense mechanism that is the lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory
Stage 2 sleep
denoted by two distinct wave patterns on EEG: -theta waves intermixed with two patters, K complexes and sleep spindles -K complex: 1/2 second long, large and slow, occurs as a single wave amongst theta waves -sleep spindles: bursts of waves with a freq of 12-14Hz, moderately intense but do no last long no eye movement, EMG measures moderate activity. decreased HR, temp, and respiration
Barbiturates (tranquilizers)
depress the sympathetic nervous system often prescribed as sleep aids dangerous in combination with alcohol, prone to overdose
opiates
derivatives of opium (ex. morphine and heroin) depress neural functioning temporarily reduce pain by mimicking the brain's own pain relievers, endorphins pain is replaced with a blissful feeling prolonged use leads to the brain stopping the production of endorphins, leading to painful withdrawal
caste system
describes a closed stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into
primary care
describes care provider responsible for ongoing preventative care or disease management
popular culture
describes features of culture that appeal to the masses often communicated thru mass media like TV
rationalization and bureaucracy
describes the process by which tasks are broken down into component parts to be efficiently accomplished by workers within the organization ex. Ford's assembly line -McDonaldization
gender roles
describes the social and behavioral expectations for men and women
ethnicity
description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics include common ancestral, cultural, geographical, historical, linguistic, or national experiences distinct from nationalities ex. Han Chinese, Hindustani people, Arabs, Bengalis, Russian
race
description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics often inherited biological traits but can also be cultural, ethnic, and geographical in nature ex. Black, white, Asian, American Indian, Native Hawaiian
George Herbert Mead
developed idea of *social behaviorism* mind and self emerge through process of communicating with others the idea that the mind and self emerge thru social process of communication or use of symbols was the beginning of the *symbolic interactionism* schools of sociology
Moral (Kohlberg)
development of moral thinking by cognitive reasoning, resolving moral dilemmas, and the concept of right and wrong
bipolar 1 disorder
diagnosed only if there has been a spontaneous manic episode not triggered by treatment for depression or caused by another medical condition/medication person has experienced at least one manic or mixed episode
schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders
diagnosed when someone has been experiencing one or more of the following symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behavior and one or more negative symptoms: decreased emotional expressing, avolition (lack of motivation), alogia (decreased or absent speech)
culture and attribution
different cultural patterns of thought affect the process of attribution; the *fundamental attribution error* may be characteristic of Western viewpoints (individualistic) while East Asian shows a lower bias towards *dispositional attributions* and may have a tendency to be biased towards *situational attributions*
culture shapes emotional expression
different ways to express common emotions across different cultures gestures also vary widely across cultures -ex. thumbs up is positive in American culture, negative in others certain facial expressions seem to be universal cultures that promote individuality also encourage emotional expressiveness
dissociative disorders
disorders where some of a person's thoughts, feelings, and memories are separated from conscious awareness and control, occurring sometimes as a defense against a traumatic situation these disruptions in awareness are extreme and cause distress
ecclesia
dominant religious organization that includes most members of society; recognized as the national or official religion and tolerates no other religions
Alfred Binet theory of intelligence
early 1900s administered intelligence tests to schoolchildren in France with the goal of developing a measure to determining who needed special education his test was revised and renamed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale aka IQ
Charles Spearman theory of intelligence
early 1900s first coined the term *general intelligence* believed that intelligence could be strictly quantified through cognitive test and those who possessed high general intelligence could do well on lots of different measures of cognitive ability
Command/Planned Economy
economic decisions are based on a *plan of production* and the means of production are often public include socialism and communism
social model of disease
emphasizes the effect one's social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors can have on a person's health looks for a more proximate cause for illness (ex. something about the patient's life putting them at greater risk of exposure to bacteria)
three main stages of memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
thyroid gland
endocrine gland that surrounds the trachea in the neck regulates consumption of energy/metabolism
random mating
ensures the largest amount of genetic diversity and protects against genetic drift and bottlenecking
id
entirely unconscious, source of energy and instincts. ruled by *pleasure*; seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. does NOT use logical or moral reasoning. young kids function almost entirely from this
formal norms
established, written rules (laws)
Population predictions
estimates of future populations made from mathematical extrapolations of previous data population pyramids: bottom heavy = population growth top heavy = population decline
social comparison
evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others facilitates the development of a distinct self of self in terms of similarity/difference from other people
significant life changes
events such as moving, leaving home, losing a job, marriage, death
daily hassles
everyday minor events that annoy and upset people including bills, traffic, etc
physical dependence
evidenced by withdrawal, an uncomfortable and often physically painful experience without use of a drug
surface traits
evident from a person's behavior ex. talkative, exuberant, etc)
attributional biases and prejudice
ex. the sick or disadvantaged often face prejudice because others believe they have done something wrong
age cohorts
example of statistical cohorts in which a group of subjects share the characteristic of age
consciousness altering drugs
examples of these drugs include depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens
social roles
expectations for people of a given social status
Mary Ainsworth's strange situation
experiment where mothers leave their infants in an unfamiliar env't to see how the infants react *securely attached infants* will play and explore in the presence of their mother, but become distressed when mother leaves, but is easily consolable when she returns -tend to grow up demonstrating better social skills, greater capacity for effective intimate relationships, and are better able to promote secure attachments in their kids *insecurely attached infants* in the presence of the mother are less likely to explore their surroundings and when the mother leaves, they will cry loudly and remain upset or become indifferent when she returns
racial formation perspective
explains that *race is not genetic but constructed* through economic, political, and social forces that have the social control to create categories of race
social interactionist theory
explanation of language development emphasizing the role of social interactions between the developing child and linguistically knowledgable adults based largely on the socio-cultural theories of Lev Vygotsky
source traits
factors underlying personality and behavior fewer and more abstract
false consciousness
failure to recognize the state of class relations under capitalism
vicarious
feeling an emotion even if you don't share it ex. seeing someone skateboard and feeling like it must be fun, even if you've never skateboarded before "living vicariously thru someone"
empathy
feeling an emotion that you share with another person
attraction
feeling of being drawn toward another and desiring the company of a person between members of the same species is a primary component of love *appearance and similarity*
Depersonalization
feelings of detachment from one's mental processes or body "out of body experience"
narcissistic personality disorder
feels grandiosely self-important with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power arrogant and haughty
avoidant personality disorder
feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable preoccupied with feats of criticism and conflict
dependent personality disorder
feels need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being able to take care of oneself
replacement fertility rate
fertility rate at which the population will remain balanced
biomedical approach to health and illness
focuses narrowly on the physical aspects of illness
humanistic theory
focuses on healthy personal development humans are seen as inherently good and as having *free will*
hypomanic episode
for at least 4 days, person has abnormally euphoric or irritable mood, but at a less severe level impairment or distress is less serious, and there is no psychosis or hospitalization
manic episode
for at least one week, person experiences an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood and marked increase in goal-directed activity or in a psychomotor agitation
involuntary migration
forced migration result of external factors that pose a threat to the individual in their initial env't and are often a form of social control ex. ethnic cleansing
political parties
formal groups of people that share the same principle political beliefs and organize with a common purpose of ensuring governance that supports these principles through appropriate policies
cognitive psychology
formed in response to behaviorism researchers began to focus on the brain, cognitions, and their effects on how people navigate the world -insight learning: previously learned behaviors are *suddenly combined in unique ways* -latent learning: something is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior until it is required
Carl Rogers
founder of the humanistic psychology perspective believed that personality is composed of ideal self and real self
parathyroid glands
four small glands on the posterior of the thyroid gland controls release of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and levels of calcium in the body (high levels of PTH cause body to increase calcium in blood)
stranger anxiety
from approximately ages 8-12 months, young kids display this crying and clinging to caregiver in response to unknown people faces that do not fit an already developed schema lead to distress gradually declines around 13 months
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that *fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so* the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
Biological factors that affect cognition
frontal lobes play a role in executive function *hippocampus* is involved in the formation of new memories the interconnectivity of various regions of the brain essentially underlie our cognitive abilities
representativeness heuristic
generalizations about people and events ex. people are rude to you when you go to the post office, you conclude that the post office has all rude people
personality trait
generally stable *predisposition* toward a certain behavior
informal norms
generally understood but not precisely recorded, often carry no specific punishments (ex. removing cap during national anthem)
epigenetics
genes that modify their expression without changing the overall genetic code this changes the phenotype without changing the genotype largely influenced by env't but can be inherited ex. DNA methylation prevents expression of some genes
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
genetic disease in which the afflicted individual is unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, leading to extreme developmental issues treatment: avoid foods that contain phenylalanine
Representative Democracy
governments in which there is indirect public participation thru the *election of representatives*
dyad
group of 2 people more intimate and intense can be equal or unequal
publics
group of individuals *discussing a single issue, ceases as the discussion ceases*
society
group of people who share a culture and live with each other in a definable area
triad
group of three can be hierarchical or unequal
masses
group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of *mass media* share common interest
in group
group with with an individual shares identity with and toward which one feels loyalty
generational cohort
groups of people born in the same period
group polarization
groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members the average view of a member of the group is accentuated it does not mean that the group becomes more divided on an issue, but suggests that the entire group tends toward *more extreme versions* of the average views they initially had when you consider this with the fact that people tend to preferentially interact with like-minded people, you can see why group negotiations are difficult
secondary groups
groups that are larger and more impersonal, may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time meet for *instrumental functions*, meeting pragmatic needs
primary groups
groups that play a more important role in an individual's life usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in-person in longer term emotional ways ex. family, friends, peer groups meet for *expressive functions*, meeting emotional needs
role conflict
happens when there is a conflict in society's expectations for multiple roles held by the same person ex. male nurse, gay priest
universal emotions
happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger (HSSFDA) most people can readily ID these emotions simply by observing facial expressions
schizotypal personality disorder
has several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including limited or inappropriate affect; magical/paranoid thinking, and odd beliefs, speech, and perceptions
parasympathetic nervous system neurons
have long preganglionic cell that projects onto a short postganglionic cell all preganglionic efferent neurons have cell bodies in the brainstem or sacral regions of the spine (craniosacral system) has more specific effects because when maintaining homeostasis, we can afford to be more specific in our innervation the fact that the ganglion is closer to the effector organ for this system reflects its closer degree of control
Cerebellum
heavily involved in coordination and planning of movement
Biological Perspective of Personality
heritability of basic personality traits
white flight
historical example of suburbanization that involved the migration of whites from cities to more racially homogenous suburbs
antisocial personality disorder
history of serious behavior problems, including significant aggression against people or animals, property destruction, lying, or rule violation disregards rights of others
B.F. Skinner's behaviorist model of language acquisition
holds that infants are trained in language by operant conditioning argued that language use is a form of behavior like any other
effects of the endocrine system on behavior
hormones and NTs affect mood, sexual arousal, and circadian rhythm
appraisal
how a stressor is interpreted by the individual when stressors are appraises as challenges, they can be motivating if appraised as threatening aspects of our identity, well-being, or safety, they cause severe stress
self concept
how an individual defines oneself based on beliefs that person has about itself (*self-schemas*)
"me" (Mead)
how the individual believes the general other perceives it the social self self as the object *responsible for preventing the "I" from responding to society in a way that will violate social norms*
self-esteem
how you feel about yourself
Ghrelin
hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach
looking-glass self
idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others *people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them*
Gestalt Psychology
idea that the organized whole EXCEEDS the sum of its parts when humans perceive an object, rather than seeing lines, angles, colors, shadows, etc, they perceive the whole (like a face or table or dog) does NOT explain HOW the brain does this
Mating behavior and mate choice
involves courtship rituals, copulation, and the building of nests -random mating -associative mating -negative assortative mating
self-fulfilling prophecy and race
if a race is stereotyped a certain way, people will have those expectations from you and create conditions to fit those stereotypes ex. if the stereotype is your race being good at math, people will expect you to be good at it without even knowing you in the end, this makes it easy for you to become that stereotype, thus, a self-fulfilling prophecy
discrimination (classical conditioning)
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus opposite of generalization ex. dog does NOT salivate to sound of buzzer or horn
spontaneous recovery
in classical conditioning, when an extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some period of time (*without* the pairing of the unconditioned stimulus)
informational social influence
in group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint, persuading others to take a stronger stance toward this viewpoint and provides the opportunity to rehearse and validate these opinions, strengthening them
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response *at unpredictable time intervals* produces a slow, steady behavior response rate
recognition
involves identifying specific information from a set of information that is presented
absolute poverty
inability to meet a *bare minimum* of basic necessities like clean water, food, safe housing
relative poverty
inability to meet the average standard of living within a society
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall info previously encoded caused by damage to the hippocampus
fixation
inability to see the problem from a fresh perspective -results from the existence of a *mental set*: tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past even though they may not apply to current situation -functional fixedness: tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging
defensive strategies of impression management
include avoidance or self-handicapping (strategy in which people *create obstacles and excuses* to avoid self-blame when they do poorly)
needs
include basic biological needs and higher-level needs
Parliamentary Government
include both executive and legislative branches that are *interconnected* members of the executive branch are accountable to members of the legislature
stimulants
include caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines typically work by either increasing the release of NT, reducing the reuptake of NT, or both overall affect is to speed up body functions, resulting in increased energy, respiratory rate, HR, and pupil dilation
Federalist Government
includes a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups there is the *division* between the *central* (or federal) gov't, and the *constituent* (ex. state, provincial, local) gov'ts
healthcare disparities
includes population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and quality of healthcare across different social groups
material culture
includes the physical items one associates with a given group, such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools
dual coding hypothesis
indicates that it is easier to remember words with associated images than memorizing either words or images alone
sub-replacement fertility
indicates that the birth rate is less than the death rate, thus the population size will *not be sustained*
horizontal mobility
individual changes social identity but maintains similar level of income
escape behavior
individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior ex. child does not want to eat veggies, instead throws a temper tantrum
How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others
influence of our self perceptions group identification also has an effect in-group members are viewed more *positively* and are though to have a greater variability on assorted personality traits when we put ourselves in other's shoes and assume they feel the same way we feel
cocktail party effect
info of personal importance from previously unattended channels catch our attention
sensory memory
initial recording of sensory information in the memory system very brief snapshot that quickly decays if not passed through *Broadbent's filter* into short-term memory -iconic memory -echoic memory
Wernicke's aphasia
injury to this area does not create a problem in producing speech, but are incapable of producing intelligible, meaningful language speech production retains a natural sounding rhythm and syntax, but is completely meaningless
Broca's aphasia
injury to this area leads to the loss of the ability to speak people know what they want to say but are unable to say it
actualizing tendency
innate drive to maintain and enhance the organism, most basic motive of all people
factors that influence motivation
instincts, arousal, drives, and needs instincts: behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species arousal: some behaviors may be motivated by a desire to achieve an optimal level of arousal drives: urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness (often work through *negative feedback systems* needs: include basic biological needs and higher-level needs
retroactive interference
interference that happens when *NEWLY LEARNED* info interferes with the recall of info learned previously ex. someone who moved frequently may find that learning new addresses and directions interferes with ability to remember old addresses and directions
proactive interference
interference that happens when info *PREVIOUSLY* learned interferes with the ability to recall info learned later ex. remembering where you parked in a parking garage will be more difficult once you have parked for months in different locations
traits
internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality should be consistent
civil unrest
involve forms of collective behavior in which there is public expression of the group's concern, often in response to major social problems
discrimination
involves *acting*/*behaving* a certain way toward a group vs. prejudice which involves thinking
self-concept
made up of all the child's conscious, subjective perceptions and beliefs
Barriers to effective problem solving
irrelevant information, functional fixedness, mental set, unnecessary constraints, confirmation bias
Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
kids saw adults punching an inflated doll while narrating their aggressive behaviors such as "kick him" kids were then put in a toy-deprived situation... and acted out the same behaviors they had seen
kinesthetic sense
kinesthesis / kinesthesia is the perception of *body movements* it involves being able to detect changes in position and movements without relying on information from the 5 senses
Noam Chomsky and language
language development is something you were born with every child is born with a biological predisposition to learn any language
K complex
large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep
organization
large, more impersonal groups that come together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently serve the purpose of increasing efficiency, predictability, control, and uniformity in society ex. businesses, governments, religious groups
oligarchic governments
leaders can be elected or unelected controlled by a small group of people with shared interests -people have little influence on directing decisions and social change ex. theocracies: gov't ruled by a *religious elite*
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) describes the process of learning that one event, object, or action is directly connected with another
observational learning
learning through watching and imitating others
trends
longer-lived and often lead to permanent social changes (ex. hippie trend) not a form of collective behavior
symbolic interactionism (micro)
looks at society from a micro perspective championed by George Herbert Mead interested in the *symbols* that people use to contribute values and beliefs to others (ex. dress codes at the workplace can communicate a sense of whether the setting is casual or formal) holds the principle of meaning to be the central aspect of human behavior -we ascribe meaning to things, language allows humans to generate meaning, etc
amygdala and emotion
main structure involved in emotion in the limbic system almond-shaped structure deep within the brain can communicate with the hypothalamus (which controls the physiological aspects of emotion) and the prefrontal cortex (which controls the behavioral aspects of emotion)
social support
major determinant of health and wellbeing for humans and other animals
auditory processing
malleus receives vibrations, function with the incus and stapes to amplify sound vibrations -> vibrates oval window pressure waves in the perilymph and endolymph (fluids in cochlea) cause vibration in the basilar membrane (covers the lining of cochlea) basilar membrane is covered with hair cells that have cilia, which bend when the membrane vibrates and moves across the *tectorial membrane*, opens ion channels in the hair cells, and results in RELEASE of NT stimulates dendrites from bipolar auditory afferent neurons
bipolar 2 disorder
manic phases are less extreme cyclic moods - include at least one major depressive episode and one hypomanic episode, but has not met criteria for a manic or mixed episode
anterograde amnesia
marked inability to encode new memories caused by damage to the hippocampus
Exogamy
marriage to someone outside one's social group
negative assortative mating
mating that is nonrandom mating more likely between disparate traits
associative mating
mating that is nonrandom similar genotypes or phenotypes mate more frequently
Alzheimer's disease and memory
may involve an inability to manufacture enough of the NT acetylcholine, which results in, among other things, neuronal death in the hippocampus
meditation
may involve focusing intensely on one object of attention, such as breathing, or may broaden their attention and be aware of multiple stimuli has been successfully used to manage pain, stress, and anxiety disorders
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
may not have true obsessions or compulsions, but may instead accumulate money or worthless objects perfectionist, rigid, and stubborn with a need for control resists authority and will not cooperate often a workaholic
stimulus duration
may or may not be coded explicitly. ex. tonic receptors, phasic receptors
biofeedback
means of recording and feeding back info about subtle autonomic responses in an attempt to train the individual to control those involuntary responses ex. people can be trained to adjust their muscle tension, HR, and respiration rates
case fatality rate
measures *deaths as a result of a set diagnosis* or procedure sometimes specific to the beginning or late states of a disease
prevalence rate
measures the *number of individuals experiencing a disease*
incidence rate
measures the number of *new cases* of a disease
Raymond Cattell theory of intelligence
mid-20th century proposed 2 types of intelligence: -fluid: ability to think on your feet -crystallized: recall facts and apply learned info
external migration
migration across an international border
rural flight
migration from rural areas to urban areas
urban sprawl
migration of people from urban areas to otherwise remote areas
REM rebound
missing REM sleep for one night results in an increase in REM sleep later to make up for it
paranoid personality disorder
mistrusts and misinterprets others' motives and actions with sufficient cause
relative motion
monocular cue for depth perception; as we move, stable objects appear to move as well objects that are *near* to us appear to move faster than objects that are farther away
cyclothymic disorder
moods are less extreme than bipolar disorder, with symptoms not meeting criteria for either manic or major depressive episode
mere presence
most basic level of experience between members of society, means that people are simply in each other's presence either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business the mere presence of others has a measurable effect on an individual's performance
insomnia
most common sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep
proximity and attachment
most powerful predictor for friendship mere exposure effect: people prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli - familiarity breeds fondness
Biological basis of Alzheimer's disease
most prevalent form of *dementia* - loss of cognitive ability beyond what is normal for aging characterized by *anterograde amnesia* (inability to form new memories) and retrograde amnesia, with more recent memories degrading first it is a cortical disease caused by *neuritic plaques* and *neurofibril tangles* that "gunk up" neuronal connections, preventing exchange of nutrients and waste also some evidence of abnormalities in activity of acetylcholine in the hippocampus
Neo-Malthusianism
movement based on Malthus' theory which advocates for population control in order to reduce the negative effects of population strain
biological basis of Parkinson's disease
movement disorder caused by death of *dopamine-generating cells in basal ganglia and substantia nigra*, two subcortical regions of the brain symptoms involve resting tremor, slowed movement, rigid movements and facial expressions most patients eventually experience dementia L-dopa is a dopamine precursor treatment that can cross the blood-brain barrier
voluntary migration
movement in which people relocate in response to perceived opportunity can be result of internal factors or personal decision not forced
Emigration
movement of individuals out of an area
life course perspective
multidisciplinary approach to understanding the mental, physical and social health of individuals, which incorporates both *life span and life stage* concepts that determine the health trajectory
polysomnography (PSG)
multimodal technique to measure the physiological processes during sleep includes: -EEG -EMG -eye movement tracking
polygamy
multiple wives/husbands
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
sympathetic nervous system neurons
neurons of the autonomic system that prepare the body for danger or excitement all preganglionic efferent neurons have cell bodies in the thoracic or lumbar regions of the spine (thoracolumbar system) have SHORT preganglionic neuron that projects onto a long postganglionic close to the spine the postganglionic will project onto its target gland has more general effects on the body because in times of severe stress, the body doesn't have time to be too specific
motor development in infants
newborns have some automatic behaviors (*reflexes*) useful for survival moro (startle) reflex rooting reflex sucking reflex babinski reflex tonic neck reflex palmar grasp reflex walking/stepping reflex swimming reflex
primary kin
next to each other on a pedigree ex. husband-wife, parent-child, siblings
Stage 1 sleep
non REM. EEG dominated by theta waves (low to moderate intensity, intermediate freq.); eye movement is slow, rolling movements; EMG measures moderate activity. person less responsive to stimuli and has fleeting thoughts
mores
norms that are highly important for the benefit of society *strictly enforced* ex. no treason or animal abuse
folkways
norms that are not strictly enforced but shape everyday behavior ex. styles of dress, ways of greeting
feral children
not raised with human contact or care proof of the importance of human contact during development ex. Genie
Stanley Milgram
obedience to authority; *fake shock study* participants believed they were in control of equipment that delivered shocks to a student attempting to pass a memory test (no shocks actually used) researched directed him to administer levels of increasing shock when student answered incorrectly participant could hear shouts of pain but were still obedient
modeling
observer sees the behavior being performed by another person later, the observer imitates the behavior
schizophreniform disorder
occupies a middle position on the schizophrenia spectrum: person experiences at least one of the positive symptoms but can also experience one or more negative symptoms for at least a month, but not longer than six months
division of labor
occurs as societies become so complex that it is not possible for an individual to meet all of his or her needs alone; different occupations emerge as a response
urban blight
occurs when *less functioning areas of large cities degrade* as a result of urban decline
Desensitization
occurs when a stimulus that previously evoked an exaggerated response no longer evokes that response ex. going to a rock concert may make you more sensitive to loud noises, even right after a concert, but gradually regular loud noises won't bother you as much
nonassociative learning
occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts to the *content* or the argument
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
pineal gland
regulates levels of melatonin allows nervous system to send signals to endocrine system
serial position effect
occurs when someone attempts to memorize a series, such as a list of words in an immediate recall condition, the person is more likely to recall the first and last items on the list (the primacy and recency effects) first items may be more easily recalled because they had the most time to be encoded and transferred to LTM last items may be more easily recalled because they might still be in the phonological loop and readily available
Malthusian Catastrophe
occurs when the means of sustenance are not enough to support the population, resulting in population reduction through actual or predicted famine
population aging
occurs when there is a disproportionate amount of older people in a population
intergenerational mobility
occurs when there is an increase or decrease in social class between *parents and children within a family*
long-term potentiation (LTP)
occurs when, following brief periods of stimulation, an increase in the synaptic strength between two neurons leads to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli the sending neuron needs less prompting to fire its impulse and release NT the receiving neurons have more receptors for the NT (increased sensitivity means either of these two possibilities occurring) can last hours or weeks after it occurs, passing an electric current thru the brain doesn't disrupt the memory associations between the neurons involved, although other memories may be wiped out
psychological dependence
often associated with the use of a drug in response to painful emotions related to depression and anxiety
high culture
often limited to the consumption of the elite, like ballet or opera
pathway of light traveling through eye (in regard to glutamate, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, LGN, etc)
once light travels through the eye and is detected by photoreceptors, info must be conveyed to higher levels of the nervous system after light strikes rods and cones, series of events leads to HYPERPOLARIZATION of the membrane of the photoreceptor this has an INHIBITORY effect by reducing the rate of neurotransmitter release glutamate is usually excitatory, but not for cells that receive it from photoreceptors bipolar cells may be inhibiter or excited by changes in the amount of glutamate released by photoreceptors (different bipolar cells respond to different receptive fields) bipolar cells are *also affected by signals from horizontal cells*, which provide "horizontal" information from photoreceptors at the edge of the bipolar cell's receptive field *if bipolar cells experience an overall EXCITATORY effect from both the vertical and horizontal inputs, they RELEASE NT at an INCREASED rate, producing an excitatory effect on the ganglion cells (the sensory neurons that produce action potentials) the axons of ganglion cells gather to form the *optic nerve*, which leaves the eye to convey visual info to the brain some of the axons from each eye cross to the opposite side of the brain optic nerve travels to the *lateral geniculate nucleus* of the thalamus which preserves the visual map created by ganglion cells and projects this info to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe neurons project from the visual cortex along TWO visual pathways, which detect different features of visual stimuli: ventral and dorsal ventral ("what") pathway: travels to the *temporal* lobe towards the base of the brain and is involved in object recognition dorsal ("where") pathway: projects to the *parietal* cortex and is more involved in perceiving the location of objects
mood
person's sustained INTERNAL emotion that colors their view of life
Jean Piaget
one of the 1st developmental psychologists who studied cognitive development in kids argued against the belief that kids were like mini-adults in their thought processes and abilities he thought that the process of cognitive development involved forming *schemas* (mental frameworks that shape and are shaped by experience) as we encounter new experiences, we either *assimilate* them by conforming them into our existing schemas, or we *accomodate* them by adjusting out schemas to take into account the new experience ex. young girl thinks there is a monster under her bed, her parents turn the light on to show her there is no monster she can assimilate by believing the monster exists, but runs away from the light OR she can accomodate her schema by agreeing there must be no monster
phasic receptors
only fire APs when the stimulus begins, they do not explicitly communicate the duration of the stimulus (i.e. it's only a phase) -important for communicating changes in stimuli -adapt immediately if a stimulus continues at the same level
sensitization
opposite of habituation there is an increase in the responsiveness due to either a repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive/noxious stimulus stimulus actually produces a more exaggerated response
utilitarian organization
organization in which members get *paid* for their efforts, like businesses
normative organizations
organizations that motivate membership based on *morally* relevant goals ex. mothers against drunk driving
coercive organizations
organizations where members do not have a choice in joining ex. prisons
Hierarchies for organization
organizing into different hierarchies and groups
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
biological factors that regulate motivation
our bodies have a "sweet spot" at which things are in homeostasis *hypothalamus* is the primary control center for detecting changes in temperature and receives input from skin receptors. causes vasoconstriction (conserving heat) and shivering when cold. also regulate the intake of nutrients into the body *lateral hypothalamus* brings on hunger *ventromedial hypothalamus* depresses hunger
ovaries and testes (endocrine system)
ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone testes produce testosterone
overconfidence bias
overestimation of the accuracy of our knowledge and judgements
stereotypes
oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics can be positive or negative basically, putting things/people into categories
Cluster A personality disorders
paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal personality disorders associated with irrational, withdrawn, cold, or suspicious behaviors
permissive parenting
parenting style that allows kids to lead the show few rules and demands responsive and loving but rather lenient kids lack self-discipline and may be self-involved and demanding
authoritative parenting
parenting style that listens to kids, encourages independence, places limits on behavior consistently follow thru with consequences express warmth and nurturing, allow kids to discuss opinions
motor cortex
part of the frontal lobe creates map of parts of the body, such that specific sets of neurons control certain body parts the amount of the motor cortex that is devoted to each part of the body depends on the complexity of movement required
phonological loop
part of working memory that allows us to repeat verbal info to help us remember it *this is what is used to remember a phone number when you have nothing to write it down with
episodic buffer
part of working memory that integrates info from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad with a sense of time interfaces with LTM stores ex. a man sees a car like the one his dad used to drive, and he can make this connection thru the interaction between the memory of his dad's car and his current visual experience
central executive
part of working memory that oversees the entire process and orchestrates the process by shifting and dividing attention
visuospatial sketchpad
part of working memory that serves a similar purpose as the phonological loop, but for visuospatial info through the use of mental images
proximal stimulus
patterns of stimuli from objects and events that get registered by sensory receptors
cultural universals
patterns or traits that are common *to all people* ex. food and shelter, birth, death, illness
Role of cognition in prejudice
people face a conflict between the desire to express prejudice and the desire to maintain a positive self-concept this conflict causes people to search for justification for disliking an out-group, and to use that justification to avoid negative feelings (*cognitive dissonance*) about themselves when they act on their dislike of the out-group our brains also seek to categorize and organize data based on similarities, which can lead to *stereotypes* on the other hand, our brains hone in on differences, so people seen as distinctive draw more attention and are often more likely to be seen as representative of a group
social cues
people tend to modify their behaviors based on these verbal or nonverbal hints that guide social interactions
social facilitation effect
people tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks *better* when other people are present explanation: arousal - presence of others stimulates arousal, which serves to activate our dominant responses and the practiced responses come most easily to us
alcohol
people using this are more likely to be impulsive and hyperactive, but it is the *result of slowing of the brain activity related to judgement and inhibition* affects skilled motor performance (cerebellum) excessive use can lead to memory blackouts for recent memories suppresses REM sleep overdose can cause death by depressing the respiratory control centers in the medulla to the point that breathing ceases works by stimulating *GABA and dopamine* systems
How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others
perceptions of the environment also affect our attributions and perceptions of people ex. body language changes the way you feel about someone also, you are more likely to perceive someone positively if you are in a relaxed, comfortable environment
narcolepsy
periodic, overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last ~5minutes caused by a dysfunction in the region of the hypothalamus that produces the NT hypocretin
internal migration
permanent movement within the same country
depressive disorders
persistent pattern of abnormal and often painful mood symptoms severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning
dissociative identity disorder
person alternates among two or more distinct personalities states, only one of which interacts with other people at a given time involves amnesia for one or more of the personality states many people incorrectly label this is schizophrenia
Derealization Disorder
person experiences a feeling that people or objects in the external world are unreal, even though the person knows this feeling to be inaccurate
major depressive episode
person has felt worse than usual for most of the day for at least 2 weeks straight has at least *five of the following symptoms*: depressed mood, decreased interest, significant increase/decrease in weight, excessive/insufficient sleep, fatigue, impaired decision making, thoughts of death
dissociative amnesia
person has had at least one episode of forgetting some important personal info, creating gaps in memory that are usually related to severe stress or trauma person wanders aimlessly during the episode - *dissociative fugue* begins and ends suddenly, with full recovery of memory, though it may also linger with some info only gradually coming back to consciousness
Mixed Episode in Bipolar disorder
person has met the symptoms for both major depressive and manic episodes nearly every day for at least a week, and the symptoms are severe
avoidance behavior
person performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is NOT presented in the first place ex. you avoid touching a snake so that it doesn't bite you
Stages 3 and 4 of sleep
person transitions into slow wave deep sleep. *delta waves*: high amplitude, low freq. signifies the deepest level of sleep. no eye movement, moderate muscle movement. HR and digestion slow, growth hormones secreted
dichotic listening experiment
person wears headphones and hears different dialogue in each ear they are told to ignore one of the dialogues (unattended channel) and pay attention to the other (attended channel) they will remember SOME of the message from the attended ear, but lose almost everything from the unattended ear "shadowing the attended ear" - repeat info RIGHT after it is presented
transsexual
person who has gender identities that are inconsistent with their biological sex divisions
attitude
person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around them and their tendency to react behaviorally based on those underlying evaluations has three components: affect (emotion), behavior tendencies, and cognition
affect
person's observable emotion in the moment
social-cognitive perspective
personality is formed by a *reciprocal interaction* among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors behavioral component: patterns of behavior learned thru classical and operant conditioning social component: observational learning
Behaviorist Perspective of Personality
personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's env't
Robert Merton's structural strain theory
perspective purports that deviance is the result of experienced strain Merton specified that anomie is the state in which there is a mismatch between the common social goals and the structural, institutionalized means of obtaining these goals in this state, they experience strain, and there is pressure to use deviant methods to prevent failure ex. lower class expected to use deviant methods of reaching economic success
multiculturalism (pluralism)
perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions promotes idea of cultures coming together in a melting pot, not a hierarchy each culture is able to maintain its own practices
mood-dependent memory
phenomenon that describes that what we learn in one state is most easily recalled when we are once again in that emotional state
physiological arousal
physical aspect of emotion, excitation of the body's internal state (heart pounding, palms sweaty, rapid breathing)
appearance and attraction
physical attractiveness is an important predictor of attraction
cerebrum
physically divided into two halves (hemispheres) connected by the corpus callosum for the most part, these two halves carry out the same functions, but there is some lateralization of cortical functions (ex. language localized to left hemisphere)
social network theory
posits that *people's networks are important and necessary* for the spread of ideas and resources there is much strength in weak ties because even weak ties allow the sharing of new resources to a vast network
charismatic authority
power legitimized by extraordinary personal abilities that inspire devotion and obedience
rational-legal authority
power legitimized by legally enacted rules and regulations ex. The Constitution
traditional authority
power legitimized by respect for long-established cultural patterns
taste-aversion
powerful and very long-lasting association in most animals, caused by nausea quick acquisition phase, indefinite extinction phase
preconventional morality
preadolescent centered on consequences obedience: fear of punishment self interest: desire to gain reward
Gestalt law of closure
predicts that we will perceive things as a complete, logical entity because our brains fill in any gaps in info ex. seeing a triangle when looking at an image of unfilled concentric circles at the angles
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
predicts the *total number of births per single woman* in a population ideal = 2.1
Role of emotion in prejudice
prejudice leads to arousal or emotions at the core of prejudice is often fear or frustration when someone is faced with something/someone intimidating or unknown displaced aggression often falls on marginalized people or scapegoats when you see an unfamiliar person of another race, *emotion processing centers in the brain become more active automatically* it is only thru ACTIVE self-monitoring that people are able to inhibit prejudiced responses these self-inhibitions weaken with age (explains "racist grandpa")
ageism
prejudice or discrimination against a person based on age, often against the elderly
heterosexism
prejudice or discrimination against a person based on their sexual orientation toward the same sex
sexism
prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex
racism
prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race
hypothalamus
regulates many of the body's basic physiological needs by maintaining homeostasis in multiple systems such as temperature and water balance
non-governmental organization (NGO)
private group that pursues self-defined goals outside of government common activities are publicizing issues, lobbying, making demands on government, and providing direct services
medicalization
process by which a *condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease* with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment looks for the ultimate cause of a person's illness (ex. bacteria)
selective attention
process by which one input is attended to and the rest are tuned out -dichotic listening experiment -cocktail party effect -selective priming -spotlight model -binding problem
assimilation
process in which an individual forsakes aspects of their own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture *common concept that comes up*: more assimilated groups will have lower levels of support and worse overall health when compared to US-born individuals with otherwise similar demographics, more assimilated groups are likely to have less social support over time strong social support in local immigrant communities may partly explain the relatively good health of individuals from some immigrant groups in the US
globalization
process of increasing interdependence of societies and connections between people across the world
encoding
process of transferring sensory info into our memory system
Socialization
process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society
industrialization
process through which societies transform from agrarian to industrial in nature
Hans Eysenck
proposed that a person's level of *extroversion* is based on individual differences in the *reticular formation* (mediates arousal and consciousness) -introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require and tolerate less external stimulation -extroverts are less easily aroused and therefore comfortable in more stimulating env'ts *neuroticism* is based on differences in the *limbic system*
Jeffrey Alan Gray (biological perspective)
proposed that personality is governed by interactions among three brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli -fearfulness and avoidance are linked to *sympathetic nervous system* -worry and anxiety are linked to the *behavioral inhibition system* -optimism and impulsivity are linked to the *behavioral approach system*
deterministic model of personalisty
proposes people began as *blank slates* and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's behavior and personalities development of personality occurs thru classical or operant conditioning
inclusive fitness theory
proposes that an organism can improve its overall genetic success thru altruistic social behaviors
Mindfullness-based stress reduction
protocol commonly used in the medical setting to help alleviate stress
humanistic therapy
provide an env't where clients trust and accept themselves and emotional reactions so they can learn and grown from their experiences therapist is on an equal level with the client, show active listening and unconditional positive regard problem: barriers to self-understanding and self-acceptance therapy goals: personal growth through self-insight general method: active listening, unconditional positive regard
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
psychological disorders characterized by distress and decreased functioning due to persistent physical symptoms and concerns, which may mimic physical disease but are not rooted in any detectable pathophysiology
anxiety disorders
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational, and uncontrollable panic disorder generalized anxiety disorder phobias social anxiety
personality disorders
psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning traits deviate from culture norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder or to those in their life many are egosyntonic - generally in harmony with a person's ego or self-image
reverse culture shock
psychological process of readapting to one's home culture
Everett Lee push and pull factors
push factors: things that are unattractive about an area and "push" people to leave (ex. genocide) pull factors: things that are attractive about an area and "pull" people there
Phineas Gage
railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury to his prefrontal cortex that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
population growth rate
rate of population change in a specified time period, reported as percent of initial population
dependency ratio
ratio of the number of economically dependent members of the population to the number of economically productive members
Nativists (language)
rationalist, language must be innate argue that language is a human ability prewired into the brain
self actualization
realizing one's human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes
Dishabituation
recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation occurs when the previously habituated stimulus is removed after a person has been habituated to a given stimulus, and the stimulus is removed person is no longer accustomed to the stimulus if presented again, person will react to it as if it was a new stimulus
upward mobility
refers to an increase—or upward shift—in social class
stereotype threat
refers to self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype ex. females performing worse on a math test after being told males are better at math
Morbidity rate
refers to the *nature and extent of a disease* in a population
cultural capital
refers to the *non-financial social assets* that promote social mobility ex. education
gentrification
refers to the *renovation of urban areas in a process of urban renewal* often specific to the introduction of wealthier residents to the cities who then help to restore the existing infrastructure raises rend and property values
social mobility
refers to the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system
implicit (procedural) memory
refers to the conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something also called *nondeclarative memory* it is not conscious and may be difficult to vocalize most COMMONLY associated with the *basal ganglia and cerebellum* - receives input from the cortex and stores it, but does NOT send that info back to the cortex for conscious awareness also associated with priming
relative deprivation
refers to the conscious experience of individuals or groups that do not have the resources needed for the social experiences and services that are seen as appropriate to their social position
mortality rate
refers to the death rate in a population
population-lag effect
refers to the fact that changes in total fertility rates are often not reflected in the birth rate for several generations
urbanization
refers to the growth of urban areas as people move from rural to urban areas
neural plasticity
refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, the env't, and neural processes for example, shortly after someone becomes blind, neurons devoted to vision take on different roles, improving other sensory perception
Suburbanization
refers to the population growth on the fringes of urban areas leads to urban decline
social reproduction
refers to the structures and activities in place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next
social stratification
refers to the way that people are categorized in society (by wealth, race, education, income, etc)
institutional discrimination
refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codifies into operating procedures ex. don't ask, don't tell
social aging
reflects the biological changes in a multidimensional process in which the individuals experience complex emotional and social changes
Stages of Motor Development
reflexive movements (0-1) rudimentary movements (0-2) fundamental movement (2-7) specialized movement (7-14) lifelong application (14+)
temporal lobe
region of the cerebral cortex responsible for auditory, language, and olfactory info
occipital lobe
region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information
hypothalamus and stress
releases CRH which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, which signals the adrenal cortex to release *cortisol* this shifts the body from using sugar as a source of energy to using fat instead, which helps keep blood sugar high for the brain prolonged cortisol release can LOWER immune response
adrenal gland
releases adrenaline during fight or flight response
sympathetic nervous system and stress
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine fast-acting
sect
religious organization that is distinct from that of a larger society, often occurring by breaking away from larger religious institutions (ex. Mormons, Amish)
Cult/New religious movement
religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle
prestige
reputation in society
Harry and Margaret Harlow
researchers who separated infant monkeys from their mothers at birth and provided them with a baby blanket when blankets were removed, infants became distressed this physical attachment seemed to counteract the idea that attachment was formed based on nourishment two artificial mothers, one nourishing and the other not (only had blanket) - infants still preferred the blanket mother rather than the nourishing mother
suburbs
residential satellite communities located in the peripheral regions of major urban centers
parasympathetic nervous system
rest and digest stimulates glands in the digestive and urinary system constricts airways in the bronchial smooth muscle decreases cardiovascular activity constricts eyes and accommodates "near" vision stimulates erection/lubrication
memory decay
results in a failure to retain stored info does not happen in a linear fashion - the forgetting curve indicates that the longer the retention interval (time since info was learned), the more info will be forgotten with the most forgetting occurring rapidly in the first few days before leveling off it is possible that neurons involved in memory may die off, or perhaps the associates among memories need to be refreshed in order to be retained
sanctions
rewards and punishments for behaviors that are normative or not normative ex. disapproving, uncomfortable look
Processes by which behavior influences attitudes
role-playing: most famous example is the Stanford prison experiment public declarations: in order to please others, people may feel pressure to adapt what they say. saying something publicly can become believing it - as we continue to express ourselves, we become more and more entrenched in believing what we say ("saying can become believing") justification of effort example: a student who works hard to study for the MCAT and earns a fantastic score, only to feel a calling towards becoming an actor. in order to justify the effort already put into the process, he will feel pressured to go to medical school (*sunk cost fallacy*)
ego
ruled by *reality* principle; uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id. tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id's desire for pleasure
aristocracies
ruled by elite citizens, like those with noble births
pancreas
secretes digestive enzymes (exocrine) and insulin (endocrine)
subcultures
segment of society that shares a distinct pattern, differs from that of the larger society ex. bike enthusiasts
secondary kin
separated by one kin on a pedigree ex. grandparents, aunts/uncles
tertiary kin
separated by two kin on a pedigree ex. cousins
privilege
set of *unearned* benefits one receives because of some attribute largely outside of their control ex. gender, race, class, sexual identity, citizenship status, or ability
sociocultural evolution
set of theories describing the processes thru which societies and culture have progressed over time
Kinsey Scale of Sexual Orientation
sexual orientation of human beings is on a continuum from exclusively heterosexual (0) to exclusively homosexual (6)
sleep spindles
short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep
cultural icons
signs that represent their meaning in a given culture ex. single crystal glove is representative of Michael Jackson
acute stress disorder
similar to PTSD but its symptoms are present for less than 1 month
Thomas Theorem
situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences
night terrors
sleep disruptions that occur during stage 3 and 4 of sleep, unlike nightmares that occur during REM person experiencing them may sit up, walk around, babble, appear terrified, scream, etc but none is recalled in the morning
somnambulism
sleepwalking; tends to occur during slow wave (stage 3) sleep, usually during the first third of the night
tribes
small sub-ethnic groups develop into independent ethnic groups
agents of socialization
social institutions, including families and schools, that help to shape individuals' basic political beliefs and values family: teach kids customs, beliefs, and traditions of their cultures schools: value logic and linear thinking, creativity, etc peer groups: more important as kids grow older workplace: through written codes and rules, as well as thru informal norms religion/goverment: create "rites of passage" like coming of age and marriage, legal rules (voting, drinking) mass media/tech: TV, phones, educational programming (can be + or -)
hypnotism
social interaction in which a hypnotist has a subject focus attention on what is said, relax/feel tired, and accept suggestions easily can promote recall of memories, but patient is also susceptible to creating false memories works by blocking attention to sensory inputs
collective behavior
social norms for the situation are *absent* or unclear more *short-lived* than group behavior and less conventional values influence the group's behavior -don't reflect the existing social structure but are instead *spontaneous situations* in which individuals engage in actions that are otherwise unacceptable and violate social norms
racialization/ethnicization
social process in which the dominant group ascribes racial or ethnic identities to groups that do not otherwise relate to the labels ex. identification of Jewish people as an ethnic group
ethnogenesis
social process that results in the creation of separate ethnicities
Herbert Blumer
sociologist whose ideas were foundational in the understanding of collective behavior
arousal
some behaviors may be motivated by a desire to achieve an optimal level of arousal
behavioral aspect of emotion
some kind of expressive behavior (i.e screaming and putting hands over mouth)
social geography
spatial distribution of individuals and social groups
norms
spoken/unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of its members, posited by society
sleep stages
stage 1: non REM. EEG dominated by theta waves (low to moderate intensity, intermediate freq.); eye movement is slow, rolling movements; EMG measures moderate activity. person less responsive to stimuli and has fleeting thoughts stage 2: denoted by two distinct wave patterns on EEG: -theta waves intermixed with two patters, K complexes and sleep spindles -K complex: 1/2 second long, large and slow, occurs as a single wave amongst theta waves -sleep spindles: bursts of waves with a freq of 12-14Hz, moderately intense but do no last long no eye movement, EMG measures moderate activity. decreased HR, temp, and respiration stage 3 and 4: person transitions into slow wave deep sleep. *delta waves*: high amplitude, low freq. signifies the deepest level of sleep. no eye movement, moderate muscle movement. HR and digestion slow, growth hormones secreted REM sleep: final stage, characterized by *bursts of quick eye movement*. EEG measures waves that resemble beta waves seen when people are awake, but these are more sawtooth with low intensity and variable freq.; almost no skeletal muscle movement
communism
the specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the *absence of currencies, classes, and states* based on shared economic, political, and social ideologies
groupthink
state of harmony within a group, can lead to some pretty terrible decisions; manifests when certain factors come together: -group is overly optimistic of its capabilities, has unquestioned belief in its stances -group becomes increasingly extreme by justifying its own decisions while demonizing those of opponents -some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating by filtering out info that goes against beliefs of the group (*mindguarding*) -there is a pressure to conform, so individuals censor their own opinions in favor of consensus
Icek Ajzen's theory of planned behavior
states that one's behavioral beliefs influences one's attitude towards the behavior, which then affects how someone decides to behave
Expectancy Theory
states that our behavior is a result of conscious choices that we make to minimize pain and maximize pleasure
Goal Setting Theory
states that there is a link between goal-setting and task performance, and that by setting and achieving small goals (and receiving positive feedback), we are more likely to accomplish more difficult goals later on
ascribed status
status assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts ex. race, gender
achieved status
status considered to be largely due to the person's efforts ex. doctor
dramaturgical approach
stems from symbolic interactionism posits that we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others *our identities are not necessarily stable, but dependent on our interactions with others* front stage vs back stage self
stigma and deviance
stigma: assigning demeaning labels to devalue deviant members deviance: violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations (can involve neg or pos acts)
MDMA
stimulant and mild hallucinogen triggers the release of dopamine and serotonin, as well as blocks serotonin reabsorption causes emotional elevation, but long-term effects include damage to serotonin-producing neurons
cocaine
stimulant that works by causing a "rush" - release of the brain's supply of NT including dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine creates a brief period of intense pleasure, followed by a depressive crash
self-handicapping
strategy in which people *create obstacles and excuses* to avoid self-blame when they do poorly
prejudices
strict generalizations about other groups of people developed thru *schemas* schematic processing is relevant to explaining response times during the IAT because speed with which memory schemas are activated and processed is presumed to indicate the participant's implicit attitude
fundamentalism in religion
strong attachment to traditional religion and argue that religion should be part of social life argues that religion should be integral part of social life ex. Westboro baptist church
histrionic personality disorder
strongly desires to be the center of attention expressions of emotion are dramatic, yet the emotions themselves are shallow and shifting
amygdala
structure involved in associating EMOTION with memories, particularly negative emotions
cerebellum (memory)
structure involved in learning skills and conditioned associations (implicit memory)
Hippocampus
structure necessary for encoding new explicit memories, associated with LTM patients with damage to this area may not have declarative memory for a skill they have recently learned, yet be able to demonstrate the skill
authoritarian parenting
style of parenting that involves attempting to control kids with strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally will utilize punishment or discipline kids grow up to display more aggressive behavior or may act shy and fearful lower self-esteem
role conflict and role strain
the stress that occurs when the behavioral expectations from various roles come into play simultaneously
borderline personality disorder
suffers from enduring or recurrent instability in their impulse control, mood, and image of self and others involves impulsive and reckless behavior, extreme mood swings, etc terrified of abandonment, tends to devalue or demonize
Sigmund Freud
suggested that two instinctual drives motivate human behavior: life instinct (libido) and death instinct psychic energy distributed among three personality components: id - entirely unconscious, source of energy and instincts. ruled by *pleasure*; seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. does NOT use logical or moral reasoning. young kids function almost entirely from this ego - ruled by *reality* principle; uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id. tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id's desire for pleasure superego - inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals; strives for a higher purpose and perfection. seeks to gain psychological rewards such as feelings of pride and self-love as well as avoidance of guilt
Noam Chomsky (language)
suggested that we all possess an innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during the sensitive developmental years in early childhood *universal grammar*
Howard Becker's Labeling Theory
suggests that deviance is the *result of society's response to a person rather than something inherent in the person's actions* it assumes that the act itself is not deviant for intrinsic moral reasons the use of negative labels can have serious consequences - *self-fulfilling prophecies*
Stress-diathesis theory
suggests that genetic inheritance provides biological predisposition, and stressors elicit the onset of disease
dissociation theory of hypnosis
suggests that hypnotism is an extreme form of consciousness an example would be putting an arm into an ice bath under hypnosis and dissociating from the pain stimulus
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
suggests that the pathway for the NT dopamine is hyperactive in people with schizophrenia, due to both *overabundance of dopamine* and *hypersensitive dopamine receptors*
frustration-aggression principle
suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression
state capitalism
system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the gov't in forming laws and regulations ex. in the US, most businesses are privately owned, but the gov't runs many operations such as the postal service and military
welfare capitalism
system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society most countries in Western Europe demonstrate welfare capitalism because most of their economies are based on capitalist principles, but universal healthcare is provided by the state
illness experience
takes the patient's subjective experience of illness as its main concern encompasses both the individual's understanding of their condition as well as the material impact being ill has on that person's daily life
states
temporary patterns of thought, feeling, or behavior depend on the situation; unstable, temporary, and variable aspects of personality that are influenced by external env't
fundamental attribution error
tendency for observers to automatically *favor dispositional attributions* over *situational* ones when judging other people dispositional attribution happens quickly, requires LESS info and attention
door-in-the-face phenomenon
tendency for people who won't agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made
iron law of oligarchy
tendency of organizations to become increasingly dominated by small groups of people
belief bias
tendency to *judge arguments* based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic we accept conclusions that fit with our beliefs
self-serving bias
tendency to attribute one's *success* to INTERNAL factors while attributing one's *failures* to EXTERNAL factors thereby functioning to serve self-esteem different cultural patterns of thought affect the process of attribution; the *fundamental attribution error* may be characteristic of Western viewpoints (individualistic) while East Asian shows a lower bias towards *dispositional attributions* and may have a tendency to be biased towards *situational attributions*
self-reference effect
tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves can be linked to existing memories
self reference effect
tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves inconsistent info is more difficult easier to externalize info that opposes a self concept (ex. blaming a bad test score on bad sleep rather than on intelligence)
belief perseverance
tendency to cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence
Ethnocentrism
tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of your own an example of favoritism for one's in-group of out-groups
primacy effect
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
confirmation bias
tendency to search ONLY for info that confirms our preconceived thinking rather than info that might not support it tends to be stronger for emotionally charged topics
self-verification
tendency to seek out (and agree with) info that is consistent with one's self concept
bureaucracy
term used to describe an administrative body and the processes by which this body accomplishes work tasks arise from an advanced division of labor in which each worker does his or her small task
Solomon Asch
tested the effects of group pressure on individual's behavior subjects were asked to determine which of three lines were most similar to a comparison line when done alone, everyone got perfect scores when placed in a room with *confederates*, all of whom chose the wrong lines, more than a third of the subjects conformed
pitutary gland
the "master" endocrine gland a pea-sized body attached to the base of the brain, important in controlling growth and development and the functioning of the other endocrine glands secretes growth and reproductive hormones can secrete NTs
fertility
the ability of a woman to reproduce
recall
the ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously encountered material -free recall -cued recall
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
Hawthorne effect
the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed
medulla
the base of the brainstem; important role in regulating cardiovascular and respiratory systems chemoreceptors monitor CO2 levels in bloodstream and trigger appropriate respiration changes receives info about blood pressure and can respond by altering levels of sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the heart
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream hypothalamus adrenal glands pituitary gland reproductive organs thyroid gland parathyroid pineal gland pancreas
Hypothalamus (endocrine system)
the bridge between the nervous system and endocrine systems controls the actions of the endocrine system
interaction between heredity and environmental influences
the characteristics of someone's personality that are encoded by genetics collaborate with the person's env't to create their behavior and personality
urban renewal
the clearing and rebuilding and redevelopment of urban slums
game theory
the study of how people behave in strategic situations used to try to predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behavior of a population ex. might be useful in predicting behavior of a large crowd of people in an enclosed space during a disaster
Situational Approach to Explaining Behavior
the concept of enduring personality traits is fatally flawed because of the variations in behavior that occur across different situations
rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage uses the phonological loop
beliefs
the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold
identity formation (individuation)
the development of a distinct individual personality
rate of population change
the difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate
intragenerational mobility
the differences in social class between *different members of the same generation*
Extinction (classical conditioning)
the diminishing of a conditioned response in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS) CR eventually stops occurring
environmental justice
the equal treatment of all people regardless of race, gender, or other social groupings with *regard to prevention and relief from environmental and health hazards*
migration
the geographic movement of individuals, families, or other groups of people implies the intention of permanent relocation
out group
the group with which an individual does NOT identify with and towards which one may feel competition or hostility
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
attachment theory
the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life parent-child relationships strongly influence the child's attitudes about the self and world
depth of processing
the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered
social behaviorism
the idea that the mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others
non-material culture
the ideas created by members of a society
Religiosity
the importance of religion in a person's life
reciprocal determinism
the interactions between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (individual motivational forces), and their environment (situational factors) three ways people interact with env't: -people choose their env't which in turn shapes them (ex. choose what college you go yo) -personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their env't (ex. people with depression view their job as pointless) -personality influences the situation to which you then react (ex. how you treat someone influences how they treat you) *in these ways, people both shape and are shaped by their env'ts*
transgenesis
the introduction of an exogenous or outside gene into an organism; alter genotype of an animal so that researchers can study the effect of a gene
similarity and attraction
the more things two people have in common, the more likely they are to have a longer relationship impacts attraction
glass ceiling
the mostly invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to the top levels at work
socioeconomic gradient in health
the notion that socioeconomic status can influence health lower SES has worse health than the upper class graded relationship between social class and health
life expectancy
the number of years an individual is expected to live given present mortality rates
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions basic involuntary functions needed for survival
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
acquisition
the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together process of learning the conditioned response the time during Pavlov's experiment when the bell and food are ALWAYS *paired*
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
nucleus accumbens
the pleasure center of the brain; enjoyable behavior produces activity in these dopamine circuits
overpopulation
the point at which there are more people than can be sustained
social capital
the potential for *social networks* to allow for upward social mobility
fecundity
the potential reproductive capacity of a woman
cultural relativism
the practice of judging another culture by its own standards
Endogamy
the practice of marrying within one's own group
language acquisition
the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native language
role exit
the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one's self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage -recall -recognition -relearning
source monitoring
the process of making inferences about the origins of memories or info
cultural transmission
the process thru which information is spread *across generations* or the mechanism of learning meme: element of culture that spreads from person to person much occurs thru socialization processes
manifest functions
the recognized and *intended* consequences of any social pattern ex. a hospital's _____ _____ may be to heal people
long-term memory
the relatively permanent storage of information believed to have infinite capacity
negative punishment
the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior recurring removal of a desirable stimulus after behavior has occurred to decrease that behavior
global inequality
the systematic differences in wealth and power between countries certain countries hold a majority of the resources access to resources among countries seriously impact other social factors, such as mortality burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present ex. Kitty Genovese: involved stabbing of a woman in NYC late at night with lack of effect of neighbors to help her while she cried for help
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
generalization (classical conditioning)
the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response ex. dog salivating to the sound of the doorbell
misinformation effect
the tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
carrying capacity
the total possible population that can be supported with relevant resources populations tend to increase and decrease until *population equilibrium* is met at this maximal level
modernization of religion
the transformation from traditional social structures to more rational or economics-driven ones classical sociologists predicted that as societies became more modern, there would be a decline in religious practice in favor of more rational thought
telecommunications
the transmission of information over communication lines
latent functions
the unrecognized and *unintended* consequences of any social pattern can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful ex. a hospital's _____ _____ may be reducing crime by providing jobs
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments ex. consumers more likely to but meat advertised as 75% lean than labeled as 25% fat
educational segregation
the widening disparity between children from high income neighborhoods and low income neighborhoods
Rational Choice Theory
theory concerned with the decisions made between multiple courses of actions, with the decision made providing the greatest reward at the lowest cost more concerned with measurable resources (extrinsic costs rather than intrinsic/emotional costs)
elaboration likelihood model
theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route ex. explain when people will be influenced by the *content of the speech* or when they will be influenced by *more superficial characteristics* such as the appearance of the orator or length of speech
social cognitive theory
theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their env't focuses on how we interpret and respond to external events, and how our past experiences, memories, and expectations influence behavior unlike behaviorism, where env't CONTROLS *us*, cognition is also important for determining our behavior
Howard Gardner theory of multiple intelligences
theory of intelligence based on: logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal, and interpersonal
psychoanalytic theory
theory of personality that suggests that personality is shaped by a person's *unconscious* thoughts, feelings, and memories these unconscious elements are derived from past experiences, primarily by early caregivers the existence of this unconscious is inferred from behaviors such as dreams, slips of the tongue, posthypnotic suggestions, and free associations
social exchange theory
theory that applies rational choice theory to social interactions profit from interaction --> reward vs punishment also concerned with emotional rewards, not just economical/extrinsic
activation-synthesis theory
theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story suggests dreams aren't really purposeful
cognitive dissonance theory
theory that explains that we feel tension, or dissonance, when our attitudes and behaviors don't match we may feel like hypocrites when this happens an important application of this principle is in internal attitude change
social influence theory
theory that people do and report what is expected of them in regard to hypnosis they are not consciously faking it, but are like actors who get caught up in their roles
Preventative checks (Malthus)
things that *lower the birth rate* ex. abstinence, birth control, late marriage
Positive Checks (Malthus)
things that *raise the death rate* ex. disease, disaster, hunger, or war
olfactory bulb and emotion
this structure is also a part of the limbic system, which is why smell is so essential to our processes of memory
meritocracies
those ruled by the meritorious, like those with a record of meaningful social contributions
settlers
those who first move into a new region
refugees
those who migrate to settled areas as a result of displacement
Iceberg model of consciousness
three levels of consciousness: conscious level, preconscious level, and unconscious level ego and superego operate on all three levels, id mainly resides in unconscious
demographic transition
transition from overall higher to overall lower birth and death rates as a result of a country's development from pre-industrial to industrial framework due to both economic and social changes
adolescence
transitional stage between childhood and adulthood involves important physical, psychological, and social changes puberty occurs brain undergoes three major changes: cell proliferation in certain area, synaptic pruning of unnecessary connections, and myelination prefrontal cortex develops and limbic system develops even more rapidly, explaining behavior that appears more emotionally driven
cultural transmission vs diffusion
transmission = vertical = passing culture DOWN from generation to generation diffusion = horizontal = spreading culture to OTHER places
monogamy
two individuals
ego defense mechanisms
unconsciously deny or distort reality. normal and are only unhealthy when taken to extremes repression denial reaction formation projection displacement rationalization regression sublimation
catastrophes
unpredictable, large-scale disasters that threaten us
social anxiety disorder
unreasonable, paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is seen or watched by others
classes in the US
upper: top 3% of the population who earn millions to billions in annual income middle: top 40% of the population who earns $46,000 up to the cut-off for "upper class" working: the 30% of the population who earns between $19,000 - 45,999 lower class: the 27% who earn less than $18,000
drives
urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness (often work through *negative feedback systems*
Assertive strategies of impression management
use of active behaviors to shape our self-presentations, such as talking oneself up and showing off flashy status symbols to demonstrate a desired image
Raymond Cattell
used *factor analysis* to ID 16 surface traits, reducing 15 of them to five *global factors* (source traits): extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control problem solving, one of the 16 primary factors is not part of any global factors
behavioral therapy
uses *conditioning* to shape a client's behaviors in the right direction ABC model: determine Antecedents and Consequences of the Behavior proceeds by changing antecedents and consequences ex. client is helped to relax while repeatedly being exposed to something that provokes anxiety
Expressing and detecting emotion
vital in explaining how we react to situations and others some emotional responses, such as likes/dislikes, involve no conscious thought more complex emotions, like hatred, love, and guilt, can have important influences on our memories, expectations, and interpretations *the face is very revealing in conveying emotion* -if we glimpse a face for a mere tenth of a second, we can accurately judge the emotion it portrays -eyes and mouth convey the most emotion (fear and anger in the eyes, happiness in the mouth)
psychoanalytic therapy
uses various methods to help a patient become aware of their unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are presenting difficulties another goal is to strengthen the ego so that choices can be based on reality rather than instinct or guilt sometimes referred to as talk therapy because sessions usually focus on patients talking about their lives, while therapist looks for patterns or significant events that may play a role in the client's current difficulties problem: unconscious forces, childhood experiences therapy goals: reduce anxiety through self-insight general method: analysis and interpretation
hidden curriculum in schools
values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling
tertiary care
very specialized form of healthcare, based on consultation with specialist care providers and often occurs in facilities designed just for the purpose of caring for patients with a limited set of conditions ex. cancer hospitals, burn centers, end-of-life care facilities, rehab hospitals
behaviorism
view that all psychological phenomena are explained by describing the observable antecedents of behaviors and its consequences (conditioning) views brain as a "black box" which does not need to be incorporated into the discussion
conflict theory (macro)
views society as a competition for limited resources those with the most power and influence maintain their positions of power by suppressing the advancement of others
functionalism (macro)
views the society as a living organism with many different parts and organs championed by Emilie Durkheim, father of sociology who argued that complex societies involve many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability, a type of *dynamic equilibrium*
Animal Signals and Communication
visual cues: poisonous animals have *warning colors* - bright colors meant to advertise their toxicity (some animals mimic this coloring even though they aren't poisonous) chemical signals: pheromones, or chemical messengers employed by animals to communicate with each other touch or movement: mating dances
Bem's original experiment
when we put ourselves in other's shoes and assume they feel the same way we feel test subjects see a video of a man raving about doing a boring task if Bem told the subjects the man was bribed $20 to do this, the subjects came to the conclusion that the man hated the task in reality on the other hand, if Bem told them the man was only paid $1, subjects assumed the man actually enjoyed the task *all these are assumptions based on self-perception, as the subject never met the man in the video*
parallel processing
where many aspects of a visual stimulus (ex. form, motion, color, depth) are processed simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion the occipital lobe constructs a holistic image by integrating all the separate elements of an object, in addition to accessing stored info
experience and behavior
while it is true that our genes play an important role in our behavior, our individual experiences and social experience also shape our behavior in important ways as social animals, we learn ways of thinking and behavior from our families and peer groups an individual's development is then determined by a complex interplay of biology, psychology, society, and culture
locus of control
who/what controls your fate internal locus: you control your fate external locus: others/luck control your fate
women and empathy
women are more likely to express this by crying or reporting genuine distress at another's misfortune
gender shapes emotional expression
women may surpass men at reading emotional cues, with greater *emotional literacy* (ability to describe emotions) women also demonstrate greater emotional responsiveness in positive and negative situations, with the exception being anger which is considered a masculine emotion
depressants
work by slowing down neural activity include alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates
self-efficacy
your confidence in your ability
adaptive value of traits and behavior
your traits and behaviors are capable of changing and adapting in response to different experiences and env'ts
Piaget's Formal Operational Stage
~age 12 to adulthood learn abstract reasoning and moral reasoning
Piaget's Preoperational Stage
~age 2 to 7 children learn that things can be represented by *symbols*, like words and images they lack logical reasoning and are *egocentric*
Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage
~ages 7 to 11 children learn to think logically they learn the principle of *conservation* (ex. same volume of water, even if in different containers)