P/S AAMC Outline

bipolar disorder

(formerly called manic depression) people experience cyclic mood episodes at one or both extremes or "poles" - depression and mania

Freud's Phallic Stage

3-6 years child seeks sensual pleasure thru genitals they are sexually attracted to the opposite-sex parent and hostile toward same-sex parent (Oedipus and Electra complex) girls experience penis envy

Piaget's 4 stages of development

4 stages: -sensorimotor -preoperational -concrete operational -formal operational

Specialized movement

7-14 years movements applied to completing specific actions ex. grasping, throwing, and jumping combined to shoot a basketball

kinship

A social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption

matriarchy

A society ruled or controlled by women

panic attack

a person experiences dread, shortness of breath, chest pain, choking, rapid heartbeat; many fear they are dying of a heart attack

scapegoat

a person or group that bears the blame for another

bisexual

a person who is attracted to both sexes

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

asserts that people understand their world thru language and that language in turn shapes how we experience the world

dispositional attribution

assigning the cause of an action to an inherent quality or desire

Macrosociology

The study of large-scale groups, organizations, or social systems.

episodic memory

autobiographical memory for info of personal importance ex. situation surrounding your first kiss

availability heuristic

can lead to errors in judgement due to our reliance on memory of specific, easily-recalled events based more on specific examples and how readily particular examples come to mind

interference

can result in a failure to retrieve info that is in storage -proactive interference -retroactive interference -positive transfer

three components of emotion

cognitive (subjective) behavioral (facial expressions and body language) physiological (changes in the autonomic nervous system)

limbic system

collection of brain structures that lie on both sides of the thalamus appear to be primarily responsible for emotional experiences

population

collection of people in a defined geographical area, also refers to this as a number of people

fad

collective behavior in which something experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputation, remains popular among a large population for a brief period, and experiences a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation

mass hysteria

collective behavior that refers to the *collective delusion* of some threat that spread through emotions and escalates until it spirals out of control -differ from outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics, which are the *actual* spread of infectious disease

social movement

collective behavior with the intention of *promoting change* active: attempt to foster social change (revolution) expressive: attempt to foster individual change (support groups)

riots

collective behavior, occur as a result of *general dissatisfaction with social conditions*, like in response to hunger or oppression there is no specific end increase in criminal behavior and unrest

schizoaffective disorder

combines mood and psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive disorder, manic, or mixed episode for at least one month person experiences delusions/hallucinations at times resembles a chronic psychotic disorder with an overlapping bipolar or depressive disorder

displacement

defense mechanism that redirects aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one ex. going home and punching wall instead of boss

projection

defense mechanism where one attributes unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person/object

rationalization

defense mechanism where one believes or states an acceptable explanation for a behavior as opposed to the real explanation

market economies

economic decisions are based on the market (*supply and demand*) and the means of production are often private include laissez-faire and free market economies

capitalism

economic system in which resources and production are mainly *privately owned*, and goods/services are produced for *profit* driving force is the pursuit of personal profit

socialism

economic system where resources and production are *collectively owned* includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit) driving force is collective goals, and economy is usually centrally controlled and run by the gov't

motor neurons

efferent neurons travel down from higher cortical regions ventrally in the spine

medical model of disease

emphasizes *physical or medical* factors as being the cause of all illness

social exclusion

excluding/blocking off someone or a group of people from society's opportunities, rights and resources that other groups have access to

social epidemiology

field that studies how social organization contributes to the prevalence, incidence, and distribution of disease across and within populations

sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight inhibits digestive and urinary systems opens airways increases cardiovascular activity induces sweating constricts eyes and accommodates "far" vision stimulates adrenal medulla to release epinephrine

REM sleep

final stage, characterized by *bursts of quick eye movement*. EEG measures waves that resemble beta waves seen when people are awake, but these are more sawtooth with low intensity and variable freq.; almost no skeletal muscle movement

Francis Galton theory of intelligence

first proposed a theory of general intelligence in mid-1800s believed intelligence had a strong biological basis and could be quantified by testing certain cognitive tasks argued that intelligence is genetically determined

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response *only after a specified number of responses* ex. rat receives food pellet every 10 times it pushes the lever

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response *only after a specified time has elapsed* behavior will increase as the reinforcement interval comes to an end

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an *unpredictable number of responses* ex. gambling

sucking reflex

in response to anything that touches the roof of the infant's mouth, it will begin to suck

tonic neck reflex

in response to its head being turned to one side, the baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and opposite arm bends up at the elbow

palmar grasp reflex

in response to stroking a baby's palm, it's hand will grasp

Babinski reflex

in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out

walking/stepping reflex

in response to the soles of a baby's feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to walk

reticular formation

in the brainstem controls alertness and arousal

normative behavior

social behaviors that follow norms and meet ideal social standard

gender

social construction that is learned and flexible based on behavioral role expectation

superego

inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals; strives for a higher purpose and perfection. seeks to gain psychological rewards such as feelings of pride and self-love as well as avoidance of guilt

colonization

involves migration to settled area in which dominance is exerted over the foreign state often exploitation of the indigenous peoples

cued recall

involves retrieving the information when provided with a cue

free recall

involves retrieving the item "out of thin air"

outsourcing

involves the contracting of third parties for specific operations; can be domestic or foreign

relearning

involves the process of learning material that was previously learned once we have learned and forgotten something, we are able to relearn it more quickly than we originally learned it

terrorism

involves the use of violence with the intention to create fear in the target community

Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia; PDD)

less intense, more chronic form of depression no major depressive episode most often starts during adolescence or early adulthood

adjustment disorder

less severe and shorter term version of PTSD, in which the causes include a stressor as opposed to a trauma and the symptoms last less than 6 months once the stressor is gone

attribution theory

line of research into the causes that people use to explain the observed behaviors of others

C. Robert Cloninger

linked personality to brain systems involved in learning reward, motivation, and punishment proposed that personality is linked to the level of activity of certain NTs in three interacting systems: low dopamine: higher impulsivity and novelty seeking low norepinephrine: higher approval seeking and reward dependence low serotonin: risk avoidance

Broca's area

located in left frontal lobe; involved in the complicated process of *speech PRODUCTION*

Wernicke's area

located in left temporal lobe; plays role in comprehension of speech and written language

frontal lobe

location of higher-level executive functions such as planning and impulse inhibition includes the motor cortex

schizoid personality disorder

loner with little interest or involvement in close relationships

nociceptors

pain receptors, detect chemical signs of tissue damage autonomic vs somatic pain receptors autonomic: frequently give a sensation of dull, aching pain referred pain: illusion of pain on the skin when their nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin

muscle spindle

mechanoreceptor that is an example of an important proprioceptor; detects muscle stretch

Mass Media and Technology

media innovations are important agents of socialization TV, cell phones, educational programming can be + or -

false memories

memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something

semantic memory

memory for factual info ex. knowing the capital of Illinois

explicit (declarative) memory

memory that involves being able to declare or voice what is known explaining a concept involves explicit memory, while not having practiced it indicates a lack of implicit memory -semantic memory -episodic memory

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs rapid acquisition, rapid extinction

nomadism

traditional method of continuous travel in search of natural resources as a method of sustenance not considered migration ex. hunting/gathering

person-situation controversy

trait vs state considers the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality or due to the situation itself

cultural diffusion

transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another can also occur within a single culture, leading to some similarities across different levels of society

placenta

transfers nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus and transports waste and CO2 away acts as a barrier to protect the fetus from harmful substances (but some substances, like alcohol, can cross the barrier)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

relationship between performance and emotional arousal is a U-shaped correlation - people perform best when moderately aroused

church

type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the larger society; membership tends to occur by birth but most churches allow people to join; if independent of the state, known as a denomination

rites of passage

rituals that reflect important life transitions and also include more personal changes such as marriage

catatonic schizophrenia

type of schizophrenia marked by striking motor disturbances, ranging from muscular rigidity to random motor activity

iconic memory

type of sensory memory brief photographic memory for visual information which decays in a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

type of sensory memory memory for sound, lasts ~3-4 seconds

"paradoxical sleep"

type of sleep encountered during REM when internally, the brain and body are active; while externally, the body appears calm and inactive

Beta waves (EEG)

Highest frequency, lowest amplitude. During Awake, and REM sleep.

Polyandry

One female, several males.

polygyny

One male, several females.

Five Factor Model of Personality

Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism OCEAN

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Oral (birth - 1 year : mouth) Anal (1-3 years : potty training), Phallic (3-6 years : boy-girl-mom-dad-thing), Latency (6-11 years : none), Genital (adolescence : marriage) Freud said that these develop personality depending on how they are dealt with. (the first three being the most important) if a stage's requirements are not met, child becomes psychologically fixated at that stage and will continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage

somatic neurons

Provide motor innervation to muscle and skin no pre/post synapse, just one neuron that projects directly onto the neuromuscular junction to release acetylcholine

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

Psychological disorder involving a significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, for at least two weeks many contemplate suicide or devise a suicide plan; these symptoms alone do not indicate major depression if they occur within 2 months of bereavement

brief psychotic disorder

Psychotic disturbance involving delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech or behavior but lasting less than 1 month; often occurs in reaction to a stressor

what to do; what not to do

Reinforcement is *more effective* than punishment because it tells you _______, while punishment just tells you _______.

imitation

we imitate role models, peers, especially those similar to us and those we identify with

role strain

when a *single status* results in conflicting expectations ex. a gay man may feel pressure to avoid being "too gay" but also "not gay enough"

alpha waves

when a person is awake but sleepy, an EEG would show these waves low amplitudes and high frequencies first indicators that a person is ready to fall asleep

bias

when an individual favors the in-group and devalues the out-groups

population momentum

when children produced during periods of higher fertility rates reproduce there are more women of reproductive age and thus more births overall, regardless of the number of births per woman

swimming reflex

when held horizontally on their stomachs, newborns stretch out their arms and legs

task difficulty

when multitasking, if a task is more difficult, it requires more resources in general and would be hard to do simultaneously with another task without passing resource capacity

task practice

when multitasking, practice helps it diminishes task resource demand so that we can free up those resources ex. experienced driver can listen to the radio while driving easily, a new driving might struggle

task similarity

when multitasking, two tasks that involve the same modality for processing results in difficulty ex. listening to the radio while trying to write a paper - both use verbal input/outputs

positive transfer

when old info facilitates the learning of new info ex. learning how to play football may make it easier for someone to learn how to play rugby

Deindividuation

when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility, people may act in startling ways the lose sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality disconnection of behaviors from attitudes results from a confluence of several factors: -group size: larger groups create diminished sense of identity and responsibility -physical anonymity: using facepaint, masks, or costumes -arousing activities: rather than beginning with a frenzy, deindividuating circumstances usually start with arousing activities that escalate

cultural lag

when the creation of new social rules lags behind new innovation ex. material culture changes faster than symbolic

ventral pathway (what)

"what" pathway - travels to the *temporal* lobe towards the base of the brain and is involved in object recognition

dorsal pathway (where)

"where" pathway - projects to the *parietal* cortex and is more involved in perceiving the location of objects

in the auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe of the brain

Where is sound processed?

convergance

a binocular cue that describes the extent to which the eyes turn INWARD when looking at an object *the greater the angle of convergence (inward strain), the CLOSER the object*

night vision

accomplished by the rods, which are more sensitive to dim light and motion concentrated in the periphery of the retina

outer ear

auricle (pinna) and external auditory canal

vestibular senses

awareness of body *balance* and movement are monitored sensations of body rotation and of gravitation and movement arise in the inner ear; the sense organs are the hair cells that send out signals over the auditory nerve

proprioception

awareness of self/body position

organ of Corti

basilar membrane, hair cells, and tectorial membrane within the cochlea

Psychophysics

branch of psychology that deals with the relationships between physical stimuli and mental phenomena relation between stimulus and sensation

stimulus intensity

coded by the frequency of action potentials

divided attention

concerns when and if we are able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously -resource model of attention -task similarity -task difficulty -task practice

macula

contains the fovea centralis, high density area of only cones responsible for extreme visual acuity

sensory adaptation

decrease in firing frequency when the intensity of a stimulus remains constant -nociceptors do not adapt under any circumstance

monocular cues

depth cues that depend on info available to either eye alone important for judging distances of objects that are far from use because the retinal disparity is only slight -relative size -interposition -relative clarity -texture gradient -relative height -relative motion -linear perspective -light and shadow

feature detection theory

explains why a certain area of the brain is activated when looking at a face, and a different area is activated when looking at the letter "s" neurons in the visual cortex fire in response to very specific info; these neurons are specific neurons in the brain that fire in response to a specific visual feature

hyperopia

farsightedness - *corrected by CONVERGING LENS*

referred pain

illusion of pain on the skin when their nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin

presbyopia

inability to accomodate (focus) - results from loss of flexibility of lens, which occurs with aging

loudness

larger vibrations cause *more frequent APs* in the auditory canal

difference thresholds

minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli *50% of the time*

absolute thresholds

minimum stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor *50% of the time* and thus detect a sensation

Golgi tendon organs

monitor tension in tendons

interposition

monocular cue for depth perception; if one object partially blocks our view of another object, we perceive it as closer

linear perspective

monocular cue for perceiving depth; parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases the greater the convergence, the greater the perceived distance

myopia

nearsightedness - *corrected by DIVERGING LENS*

emmetropia

normal vision

distal stimulus

objects and events out in the world around you

inner ear

oval window, cochlea, semicircular canals

eustachian tube (auditory tube)

passageway from the back of the throat to the middle ear functions to equalize pressure on both sides of the eardrums; cause of the "ear popping" experienced at high altitudes or underwater

opsin

pigment proteins in rods and cones that are bound to retinal (derived from vitamin A)

Gestalt law of common fate

predicts that objects moving in the same direction or moving in synchrony are perceived as a group/unit ex. flock of birds flying together

Gestalt law of connectedness

predicts that things that are joined/linked/grouped are perceived as connected ex. a square around 9 circles in a square of 25 circles leads us to perceive that the 9 are, in some way, different

top-down processing

processing that occurs when the brain applies past experience and expectations to interpret sensory info

interoreceptors

receptors that detect internal stimuli

exteroreceptors

receptors that detect stimuli from the outside world

Gestalt law of similarity

things that are similar tend to appear grouped together

middle ear

tympanic membrane (eardrum), ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes), oval window

texture gradient

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture indicates increasing distance

stimulus location

communicated by the receptive field of the sensory receptor sending the signal -localization can be improved by overlapping receptive fields of neighboring receptors -discrimination can be improved by lateral inhibition of neighboring receptors

resource model of attention

says that we have a limited pool of resources from which to draw when performing tasks, both modality-specific and general if the resources required to perform multiple tasks simultaneously exceeds the available resources to do so, then the tasks CANNOT be done at the same time

three factors associated with multi-tasking

task similarity task difficulty task practice

Alan Baddeley's model of working memory

working (short term memory) consists of 4 components: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and central executive

4 components of working memory

1. phonological loop 2. visuospatial sketchpad 3. episodic buffer 4. central executive

fovea centralis

area of the retina with only cones responsible for extreme visual acuity

Anne Treisman's Attenuation Model

attempts to account for the cocktail party effect rather than a filter, the mind has an *attenuator* which works like a volume knob - it "turns down" unattended sensory input rather than eliminating it

signal detection theory

attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (signal to noise) four possibilities- hit: present and detected miss: present and not detected false alarm: not present but detected correct rejection: not present and not detected

sensory pathways

axons cross over in the spine to the other side - processed in the cerebral cortex on the other side from where the stimulus came in for cranial sense (with receptors in the face), crossing over still happens in the brain stem if one side of the brain is injured, there is a loss of somatosensation on the other side

binocular cues

depth cues that depend on the info received from BOTH eyes and are most important for perceiving depth when objects are CLOSE to us in our visual field -retinal disparity -convergence

figure/ground (Gestalt)

describes our perceptual tendency to separate the figure or object from a background based on the ground ex: face-vase illusion this principle helps explain why we cannot perceive the image as both a vase and two faces at the same time

depth perception

describes the ability to see in 3D despite the fact that images are imposed on the retina in only 2D; appears to be largely innate

joint capsule receptors

detect pressure, tension, and movement in joints

spotlight model

explains visual attention the spotlight is a beam that can shine anywhere within an individual's visual field this beam describes the *movement of attention*, NOT the movement of the eyes shifts in attention actually precede the corresponding eye movements

tonic receptors

fire action potentials as long as the stimulus continues -subject to *adaptation*: freq. of APs decreases as the stimulus continues at the same level

information-processing models

focuses on what happens in the human mind and tries to view it as a computer processor has a few basic *assumptions*: info is taken from the env't and processed thru a series of steps including attention, perception, and storage into memory along the way, info is systematically transformed

pitch

frequency, distinguished by regions of basilar membrane that vibrate, stimulating different auditory neurons thick and sturdy near oval window, become thin and floppy near apex of cochlea low freq detected farthest away from oval window high freq sounds stimulate hair cells near oval window

visual pathway

light -> cornea -> anterior chamber -> pupil -> lens -> vitreous chamber -> retina (rods and cones) -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells (optic nerve) -> thalamus -> occipital lobe

bottom-up processing

processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration info occurring in the brain ex: info enters the eyes in one direction ("bottom"), and then is turned in to an image by the brain ("top") tend to use this processing when we have little or no prior experience with a stimulus

thermoreceptors

receptors stimulated by changes in temperature autonomic and somatic examples cold-sensitive, warm-sensitive, and thermal nociceptors (can detect painfully hot stimuli)

electromagnetic receptors

receptors that are stimulated by electromagnetic waves rod and cone cells of the retina

mechanoreceptors

receptors that respond to mechanical disturbances -Pacinian Corpuscle: shaped like an onion, depolarized from firm pressure -auditory hair cell: vibrations from sound waves -vestibular hair cells: located within semicircular canals, also in the inner ear; detect acceleration and position relative to gravity -stretch receptors

chemoreceptors

receptors that respond to particular chemicals -olfactory receptors: detect airborne chemicals and allow us to smell things -gustatory receptors: tastebuds -autonomic chemoreceptors in the walls of the carotid and aortic arteries; respond to changes in arterial pH, CO2, and O2 pressure levels

retinal in the dark

retinal has several trans double bonds and one cis double bond - this conformation keeps sodium channels OPEN and depolarized

retinal in the light

retinal is converted to an all-trans form which CLOSES sodium channels and is hyperpolarized prevents the release of glutamate which originally inhibits bipolar cells

selective priming

suggests that people can be selectively primed to observe something, either by encountering it frequently or by expecting it

Gestalt law of proximity

suggests that things that are near each other seem to be grouped together ex. see a square composed of dots rather than 25 individual dots

multistability (Gestalt)

tendency of ambiguous images to pop back and forth unstably between alternative interpretations in our brains ex: images of the impossible object ("How many legs does THIS elephant have?")

binding problem

the problem of how all the different aspects of an object are assembled together and *related to a single object* rather than something else in the visual field -> VISUAL ATTENTION is the solution to this problem if we focus on a particular object, then the feature detector's input of shape, color, etc will all be related to the object being attended to it has been found that when people are distracted while viewing two items, they may have issues with binding - the color of one may be attributed to the other

somatosensation

the skin sensations: touch/pressure, warmth, cold, and pain ex pain perception

Donald Broadbent

thought of the brain as a processing system with a limited capacity and sought to map out the steps that went into creating memories from raw sensory data

Weber's Law

two stimuli must differ by a *constant proportion* in order for their difference to be perceptible ex: 2 objects must differ in weight by 2%, two lights must differ in intensity by 8%, etc

stimulus modality

type of stimulus, based on which type of receptor is firing (ex. vision, balance, etc)

Gestalt law of continuity

we perceive the smooth, continuous lines and forms, rather than a disjoined one ex. we see 2 overlapping circles rather than 2 semicircular lines and a football shape

emergence (Gestalt)

when attempting to identify an object, we 1st ID its outline, which then allows us to figure out what the object is only AFTER the WHOLE emerges do we start to ID the PARTS that make up the whole

culture shock

personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life

temperament

"emotional excitability" infants considered "difficult" have a temperament that is more irritable and unpredictable, while "easy" infants have a more placid, quiet, and easygoing temperament

factitious disorder

(Munchhausen syndrome when imposed on the self, "Munchhausen by proxy" when imposed on someone else) when imposed on oneself, a person has not just fabricated an illness, but also falsified evidence or symptoms of illness, or inflicts harm to oneself to induce injury or illness

cognitive theories of motivation

*Expectancy theory*- states that our behavior is a result of conscious choices that we make to minimize pain and maximize pleasure *Goal-Setting theory*- states that there is a link between goal setting and task performance, and that by setting and achieving small goals (and receiving positive feedback), we are more likely to accomplish more difficult goals later

cohort studies

*Longitudinal Studies* Monitor over time to find associations between risk factors and health Minimize selection bias Relative risk is the ratio of disease incidence in an exposed population Indicates strength of exposure to illness causality

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion

*STIMULUS --> PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE --> COGNITION --> EMOTION* stimulus first produces a physiological response, which we then interpret cognitively to produce an emotion like the James-Lange theory, it proposes that physiological response come first after the stimulus, but emotions *AREN'T* a one-to-one correlate of the physiological response

James-Lange theory of emotion

*STIMULUS --> PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE --> EMOTION* proposes that when we encounter a stimulus, we first experience the physiological response and then the emotion suggests that emotional experience is the result of the physiological response evidence: breathing patters can lead to certain emotions problems: assumes that each emotion originates from a distinctive physiological state, but emotions share very similar physiological profiles

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

*STIMULUS --> PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE : EMOTION* criticizes the James-Lange theory proposes instead that in response to a stimuli, experience of the emotion and physiological/behavioral response occurs at the same time *independently* a problem arises because it fails to explain how controlling for physiological responses (ex. breathing) can help make us feel calm

Erikson's 2nd Stage of Development

*autonomy vs shame vs doubt* 1-3 years toddler must resolve crisis of autonomy vs shame vs doubt needs to explore and make mistakes, otherwise will be dependent as an adult

twin studies

*compare traits in monozygotic and dizygotic twins* if identical twins share the same phenotype more than fraternal twins, genes likely play an important role

Erikson's 7th stage of development

*generativity vs stagnation* 35-60 years middle aged person must resolve crisis of generativity vs stagnation if they do not feel productive by helping the next generation and resolving differences between actual accomplishments and earlier dreams, may become stuck in psychological stagnation

crowds

*group that shares a purpose*, can influence herd behavior -not all crowd behavior is irrational -include acting crowds (for specific goal), casual crowds, conventional crowd (gathered for planned event), expressive crowds (ex. funeral) -panic: situation in which fear escalates to the point that it dominates thinking and affects entire groups

Erikson's 5th stage of development

*identity vs role confusion* 12-18 years adolescent kid must resolve crisis of identity vs role confusion if they do not test limits and clarify identity, goals, and life meaning, they will develop role confusion

Erikson's 4th stage of development

*industry vs inferiority* 6-12 years school-aged kids must resolve the crisis of industry vs inferiority needs to succeed in school and attain personal goals or may feel inadequate as an adult

Erikson's 3rd stage of development

*initiative vs guilt* 3-6 years preschool-age kid must resolve crisis of initiative vs guilt needs to be allowed to make decisions or may be guilty taking initiative and will allow others to choose as an adult

Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention

*inputs from the env't first enter a sensory buffer* one of these inputs is then selected and filtered based on physical characteristics of the input (modality) it then goes on to higher level processing and into working memory this theoretical filter is designed to keep us from becoming overloaded with info only attended info passes thru the filter other info stays in the sensory buffer briefly, but decays

Erikson's 8th stage of development

*integrity vs despair* 60+ years person must resolve crisis of integrity vs despair if person looks back with regrets and lack of personal worth, may feel hopeless, guilty, and self-loathing

informal means of social control

*internalization of norms and values by a process known as socialization* which is defined as "the process by which an individual, born with behavioral potentialities of enormously wide range, is led to develop actual behavior which is confined to the narrower range of what is acceptable for him by the group standards"

Erikson's 6th state of development

*intimacy vs isolation* 18-35 years young adult faces crisis of intimacy vs isolation if a person does not form intimate relationships at this stage, may become alienated and isolated

Charles Cooley

*looking glass self* idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others *people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them*

three key elements of persuasion

*message characteristics*: logic, number of key points, length, grammatical complexity *source characteristics*: of the person or venue DELIVERING the message, like expertise, trustworthiness, importance *target characteristics*: of the person RECEIVING the message, such as self-esteem, intelligence, mood

neural nets

*patterns of activation* nearby neurons that fire impulses simultaneously form associations with each other if any part of this is activated, a memory may be recalled *involves increased interconnectivity of the brain thru increasing the synapses between existing neurons*

perspectives on globalization

*proponents*: economic growth and development *criticisms*: colonialism, inequality, cultural assimilation

"I" (Mead)

*the response* to the "me" this is the response of the individual to the attitudes of others self as the subject

Erikson's 1st stage of development

*trust vs mistrust* 0-1 year infant's physical and emotional needs must be met, otherwise will later mistrust the world and relationships

Forms of Government

-aristarchic governments (aristocracies, meritocracies) -autocratic governments (dictatorship, fascist) -monarchic governments

Heuristics and biases

-availability heuristic -representativeness heuristic -belief bias -belief perseverance -overconfidence -framing

factors that affect attitude change

-changes in behavior --> observed by others --> changes attitude -message --> influences target --> changes attitude -social = env't --> influences individual attitudes

Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development

-genetics provide the biological predispositions that an individual has -sociocultural influences then help mold and channel this potential into the development of particular capabilities -language: Noam Chomsky argues that kids could not learn the amount of vocab they quickly do simply through env't influences; genetics and heredity must also be involved

Some cognitive changes in late adulthood

-memory declines in recall but recognition seems to be intact -time-based tasks can be challenging, like remembering to take medication 3x/day -slower info processing abilities, reaction times, and speech

Forms of Authority

-rational-legal authority: legal rules and regulation are stipulated in a document like the Constitution -traditional authority: power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice -charismatic authority: leaders are powerful due to their charisma

factors contributing to globalization

-telecommunications: use modern tech to ease the challenges of communication across distances -economic interdependence: can be thought of as the division of labor on a global scale; countries might have the demand for products without the internal means of production -outsourcing: involves the contracting of third parties for specific operations; can be domestic or foreign -non-governmental organizations (NGOs): organizations without an official gov't affiliation with the intention of contributing to the lessening of global issues

types of problem solving

-trial and error -algorithm: step-by-step procedure -heuristics: mental shortcuts -insight: "sudden thought in the shower"

some situations in which attitudes predict behavior:

-when social influences are reduced -when general patterns of behavior, rather than specific behavior, are observed -when specific, rather than general, attitudes are considered -when attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection

Reflexive movements

0-1 years primitive, involuntary movements that serve to "prime: the neuromuscular system and forms the basis for more sophisticated movement to come ex. palmar grasp reflex primes the nervous system for the more controlled grasping learned later overlaps with rudimentary stage

Rudimentary movements

0-2 years the first *voluntary movement* performed by a child includes sitting, rolling, crawling, standing, and walking

Forms of religious organizations

1) Ecclesia - dominant religious organization that includes most members of society; recognized as the national or official religion and tolerates no other religions 2) Church - type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the larger society; membership tends to occur by birth but most churches allow people to join; if independent of the state, known as a denomination 3) Sect - religious organization that is distinct from that of a larger society, often occurring by breaking away from larger religious institutions (ex. Mormons, Amish) 4) Cult/New religious movement - religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle

Freud's Anal Stage

1-3 years child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination

processes that aid in encoding memories

1. Mnemonic ( Acronym) 2. Rehearsal (use of phonological loop) 3. Chunking ( magic number = 7) 4. Hierarchies (for organization) 5. Depth of processing (info that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered. 6. Dual coding hypothesis - easier to remember words with assoc. Images than either words or images alone. 7. Method of loci- imagining moving through a familiar place, and in each place, leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered. 8. Self reference effect- excellent recall for personally relevant information.

Role of culture in cognitive development

1. Sociocultural perspective 2. Culture is transmitted to children by their parents 3. Children's intellectual processes are developed to handle problems important to their surroundings different languages may result in different ways of thinking

Modern ways to study the brain

1. Structure: (CAT / CT) - uses xray MRI - uses radio waves 2. Function: EEG - electrodes placed on scalp; can only show the sum totals of electrical activity in the brain (can indicate seizures, sleep, etc) MEG - magnetic fields; higher resolution 3. Combined: fMRI; neurons that fire more require more oxygen and have more oxygen uptake PET: glucose injected; more active cells take up more radiolabeled glucose

Fundamental movement

2-7 years child is beginning to coordinate its limbs includes running, jumping, throwing, catching highly influenced by env't

Totalitarianism

A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.) unelected leaders regulate BOTH *public and private life* thru coercive means of control

patriarchy

A form of social organization in which males dominate females

Gestalt Laws of Organization

A series of principles that describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes -proximity -similarity -continuity -closure -common fate -connectedness

Three components of emotion

ABCs affective: involves someone's feelings or emotions, which largely shape our attitude (ex. if you love someone, you will most likely address them with a positive, loving attitude) behavioral: involves someone's actions. our behavior is greatly dependent on our attitude (ex. if we have a positive attitude, we are more likely to behave productively) cognitive: involves someone's beliefs and knowledge. what someone knows to be true can affect one's attitude towards certain issues (ex. if you know lions are dangerous, your attitude towards them may be negative/fearful)

panic disorder

An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations have suffered from at least one panic attack and is worried about having more

Monarchic governments

Controlled by single person or small group who *inherited* the position, like kings/queens

it is believed that info is stored in LTM as an organized network and in this network exists individual ideas called *nodes* which can be thought of like cities on a map connecting these nodes are *associations*, which are like roads connecting the cities the STRENGTH of an association is related to how FREQUENTLY and DEEPLY the connection is made so that *retrieval of info improves if there are more and stronger connections to an idea* a node does not become ACTIVATED until it receives input signals from its neighbors that are strong enough to reach a *response threshold* the effect of input signals is cumulative - the response threshold is reached by the *summation* of input signals from multiple nodes once the response threshold is reached, the node "fires" and sends a stimulus to all of its neighbors, contributing to their activation in this way, the activation of a few nodes can lead to a pattern of activation within the network that spreads onward (*spreading activation*) this helps explain why hints can be helpful - they can activate nodes closely connected to the node being sought after and contribute to that node's activation

Describe semantic networks and spreading activation

Role of Emotion in Memory Retrieval

Emotions act as retrieval cues, in that retrieval of memory is strongest when the emotional state during retrieval is similar to that of memory formation. Additionally, memories of higher emotional significance are more readily available for retrieval.

formal means of social control

External sanctions enforced by government* to prevent the establishment of chaos or anomie in society Some theorists, such as Émile Durkheim, refer to this form of control as *regulation*

McCrae and Costa

Five Factor Personality Traits openness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness, extraversion (OCEAN)

McDonaldization

George Ritzer's term describing the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization four components: -efficiency -calculability (assessing performance thru quantity and/or speed of output) -predictability -control (automating work where possible in order to make results more predictable) *problems*: set procedures, may lose sight of overall target; inflexibility

General Adaptation Syndrome

Hans Selye described three predictable stages the body uses to respond to stressors first stage: *alarm stage* - provides a burst of energy second stage: *resistance stage* - body attempts to resist or adapt to the stressor third stage: *exhaustion stage* - energy is depleted

STM is different from working memory in that it is strongly correlated with the *hippocampus*, and is where NEW INFO sought to be remembered temporarily resides It is then encoded to LTM or forgotten Working memory is *strongly correlated with the prefrontal cortex*, and is a storage bin used to hold either STM or LTM needed at a particular moment in order to process info or solve a problem

How is short-term memory different from working memory?

reverse migration

Immigrants returning to their country of origin

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response *negative reinforcement is not punishment*

theories of emotion

James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer

Crude Death Rate (CDR)

annual number of deaths per 1000 people in a population below 10 is low above 20 is high

immigration

Movement of individuals into a population

need-based theory of motivation

People are motivated by the desire to fulfill unmet needs; Maslow's Hierarchy

Teacher expectancy theory

Students will perform at the level the teacher expects of them -teachers quickly form expectations of individual students and act towards the student with these expectations in mind -can help kids exceed their own expectations of themselves -can also underestimate students

Foraging behavior

Set of behaviors through which animals obtain food social behavior animals optimize this to maximize the energy available through food and to minimize the energy expenditure involved in obtaining it

gender segregation

Social structures contribute to separation of genders for economic, political, religious, or social reasons -Better described as sex segregation based on biological distinctions rather than gender identities

Microsociology

Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through experimental means. Interested in the effects of individuals on the social structure

Secularization

The process through which religion's influence on other social institutions diminishes

True! The enjoyable behaviors produce activity in dopamine circuits in the brain, most noticeably in the *nucleus accumbens*, the pleasure center of the brain many addictive drugs share the characteristic of stimulating the release of dopamine

True or false: Addiction is biologically based

False - it is possible to jump between various stages while sleeping. The average sleep cycle is 90 minutes. REM sleep is shortest early in the night and get longer as the night progresses. Deep sleep is longest early in the night and gets less frequent.

True or false: People go through sleep stages in a set order throughout the night.

argues that people will choose the central route only when they are interested in the topic and are not distracted otherwise, they will choose the peripheral route

What does the elaboration likelihood model argue?

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment *criticism: deviance is assumed to be an automatic process: people may be able to ignore social expectations

retinal disparity

a binocular cue where the brain compares the images projected onto the two retinas in order to perceive distance the *greater the difference or disparity between the two images on each retina, the SHORTER the distance to the observer*

mixed economies

a blend of market and planned economies with both public and private ownership public oversight of private production, like in the US

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event subjectively vivid, compelling memories

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that governs the timing of circadian rhythms darkness causes the SCN to signal the pineal gland to produce melatonin, making you feel tired

global stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole

nuclear family

a couple and their dependent children, regarded as a basic social unit direct blood relations

values

a culture's standard for evaluating what is good and bad

cost-benefit analysis

a decision-making process in which you compare what you will sacrifice and gain by a specific action minimize costs and maximize benefits

downward mobility

a decrease in social class

Incongruence (Rogers)

a discrepancy between the image we hold of ourselves and the sum of all our experiences

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

a disorder characterized by chronic excessive worry accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance does not experience panic attacks may be no identifiable source

conversion disorder

a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found experience a change of sensory or motor function (weakness, tremor) that has no discernible physical or physiological cause and seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors emotion or anxiety is "converted" into a physical symptom

illness anxiety disorder (hypochondriasis)

a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease distress is predominantly psychological with people experiencing persistent preoccupation with their health somatic aspect of illness is not as central or can be nonexistent

premenstrual dysphoric disorder

a disorder marked by repeated episodes of significant depression and related symptoms during the week before menstruation, that then disappear after the week of menstruation

delusion

a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false one or more delusions have been present for at least 1 month, and counterevidence is generally denied or distorted to keep the delusion intact common: erotomania, grandiosity, and persecution

Hallucinations

a false sensory perception that has no direct external cause and occurs while a person is conscious can be auditory, visual, or tactile

egalitarian family

a family structure in which both partners share power and authority equally

peer pressure

a feeling that you should do something because that is what your friends/society want

Presidential Government

a form of government in which the executive and legislative branches of the government are separate, independent, and coequal

Direct Democracy

a government in which all or most citizens participate directly

leptin

a hormone released by white adipose tissue to reduce hunger

asexuality

a lack of sexual attraction to people of either sex

stigma

a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person

schema

a mental blueprint containing common aspects of some part of the world ex. if asked to describe what your 4th grade classroom looked like, you may remember chalkboard, chalk, desks, etc based on this for such a classroom

Dreaming

a mental state that usually occurs during REM sleep that features visual imagery

method of loci

a mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations

light and shadow

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; closer objects reflect more light than distant objects the dimmer of two identical objects seems farther away

relative size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; if objects are assumed to be the same size, the smaller one appears more distant

relative clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; we perceive hazy objects as being farther away than sharp/clear objects

relative height

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; we perceive objects that are higher in the visual field as farther away

dysthymic disorder

a mood disorder involving a pattern of comparatively mild depression that lasts for at least two years more of a chronic mood state

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced -continuous: every occurrence of the behavior is reinforced; results in RAPID acquisition, but also rapid extinction -intermittent: occurrences are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not; results in SLOWER acquisition, but greater PERSISTENCE *can initially condition a behavior using continuous schedule, maintain with intermittent reinforcement

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior) person's feelings and behaviors are seen as reactions not to *actual events*, but to the person's *thoughts about those events* problem: maladaptive behavior, self-defeating thoughts therapy goals: extinction and relearning of undesired thoughts/behaviors and healthier thinking and self-talk general method: reconditioning, desensitization, reversal of self-blame

Schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression diagnosed when person has been experiencing symptoms for more than 6 months NO complete remission without meds

intermittent reinforcement schedule

a schedule in which reinforcements are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred slower acquisition, but greater persistence fixed-ratio variable-ratio fixed-interval variable-interval

psychological disorders

a set of behavioral, emotional, and/or psychological symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms and are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning diagnosable based on specific symptoms and symptom threshold treatable or manageable with various types of medication and/or therapy

midbrain

a small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward relay station for auditory and visual signals

Educational stratification

a social arrangement that becomes entrenched through educational segregation and is reproduced in new generations of children, such that the children's educational achievements mirror those of their parents

reference group

a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions

anarchy

a state of disorder due to absence or nonrecognition of authority refers to societies without a public gov't

master status

a status that dominates the others and determines that individuals' general position in society

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past, even if it doesn't apply to the current situation

Symbolic Interactionism

a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another *preparatory stage*: children merely imitate others *play stage* children take on roles of others through playing (ex. playing "house") *game stage*: children learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously and can understand the responsibilities of multiple roles

incentive theory

a theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli

drive-reduction theory

a theory of motivation that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need by engaging in some behavior

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events ex. Pavlov's dogs *unconditioned stimulus (US)*: stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UR) -presentation of food is US and salivation is UR *conditioned stimulus (CS)*: an originally neutral stimulus (bell) that is paired with an US (food) until it can produce the conditioned response (CR) without the US *conditioned response (CR)*: the learned response to the CS

counterculture

a way of life and set of attitudes opposed to or at variance with the prevailing social norm

social network

a web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected thru others (ex. Facebook)

DSM-5

a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream symbolic versions of underlying unconscious drives and wishes

Heritability

ability of a trait to be passed from one generation to the next does not pertain to an individual, but rather how two individuals differ ex. heritability of intelligence is 50%... this does not mean that genes are responsible for 50% of your intelligence, rather they are responsible for 50% of the difference between your intelligence and someone else's

power

ability to get other people to do something

parasomnias

abnormal behaviors that occur during sleep tends to appear more in kids includes somnambulism and night terrors

dyssomnias

abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

delivery of health care (in the US)

accomplished by teams of healthcare providers with different training backgrounds and specialty areas, such as physicians and nurses of all specialties, hospitalists, social workers, etc

deviance

actions that dominate social norms, whether formal or informal also a social construct, situational and contextual -murder is acceptable in war and self-defense -subject to change

short-term memory

activated memory that is limited in duration and capacity capacity for adults is *seven items, plus or minus 2* even chunking is still subject to this limit of 7 +/- 2 info is only retained for about 20 seconds UNLESS it is actively processed to be transferred into LTM

Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

annual number of births per 1000 people in a population 10-20 is low 40-50 is high

positive punishment

addition of something unpleasant pair undesirable stimulus with behavior to decrease that behavior

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

conventional morality

adolescent social roles conformity: seeks approval of others law and order: social order

postconventional morality

adult social rules social contract: individual rights universal human ethics: abstract principles

sensory neurons

afferent neurons travel up dorsally in the spine to higher cortical regions all somatic sensory neurons have a long dendrite extending from a sensory receptor toward the soma, which is located *just outside the CNS in a DORSAL ROOT GANGLION* there is a pair of DRG for every segment of the spinal cord. they are protected within the vertebral column but are outside the meninges

Freud's Latency Stage

age 6 - puberty sexual interests subside and are replaced by interests in other areas like school, friends, sports

Lifelong application stage

ages 14+ movements are continually refined and applied

organic solidarity

allows society to integrate thru a division of labor, which leads to each person *having a different personal experience*, this each movement is distinguishable and separate arises out of the need of individuals for one another's services common in advanced, modern societies

General Fertility Rate (GFR)

annual number of births per 1000 women

infant mortality rate

annual number of deaths per 1000 infants under one year of age

mechanical solidarity

allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the *same fundamental experience* individuals share a *collective conscience* which presumes the existence of a greater social order that guides individual actions thru shared beliefs, morals, and values common in *primitive, traditional societies* like agricultural societies

Hallucinogens

also called psychedelics distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input includes LSD and marijuana

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) obsessions: repeated, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress compulsions: repeated physical or mental behaviors that are performed in response to an obsession or in accordance with a strict set of rules in order to reduce distress or "prevent" something dreaded from occurring

cognitive aspect of emotion

an appraisal or interpretation of the situation describes how the situation is interpreted or labeled many emotions share the same or very similar physiological and behavioral responses; it is the mind that interprets differently

hindbrain

an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord

inclusive fitness

an explanation for altruism that focuses on the adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such as through kin selection, rather than focusing on individual survival defined by the number of offspring an organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how its offspring support others in a group

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

class consciousness

an individual's active awareness of his/her membership in a social class members of the Bourgeoisie take capitalism for granted instead of seeing it as a historically situated and transient economic system the communist revolution is based on promoting this of the lower class

gender expression

an individual's behavioral manifestations of gender

Moro (startle) reflex

an infant will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need ex. food, avoiding pain/danger

residential segregation

an instance of social inequality on the local scale food deserts (fewer grocery stores/fresh affordable food options)

generalized other (Mead)

an internalized sense of the total expectations of others in a variety of settings - regardless of whether we've encountered those people or places before

intersectionality

analytical approach that seeks to highlight the ways different *identities intersect within individuals and social groups* to produce unique social groups ex. a black lesbian cannot be understood by considering her blackness and then her non-heterosexuality; the unique social position of a black lesbian must be considered in its own right

Cluster B personality disorders

antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders associated with emotional, dramatic, and attention seeking behaviors

secondary reinforcer

any reinforcer that is learned to be a reinforcer neutral stimulus paired with primary reinforcers to make them conditioned ex. receiving stamps for reading, exchanging those stamps for pizza

mnemonic

any technique for improving retention and retrieval of info from memory

reinforcement (operant conditioning)

anything that will increase the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated -positive reinforcement: a desirable stimulus that occurs immediately following a behavior (ex. give food pellet) -negative reinforcement: removing an undesirable stimulus (ex. remove shock) --amygdala is very important in neg. reinforcement

food desert

area where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find because there are no proper grocery stores

Thomas Robert Malthus

argued that population is the result of available resources for sustenance, such as productive farmland argued that the possible rate of population increase exceeds the possible rate of resource increase, and the rules of nature make it impossible for population to increase *unchecked* without serious distress due to insufficient resources

Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association Theory

argues that *deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities* when a n individual participates in communities that condone deviant behaviors, it becomes easier for the individual to learn those behaviors and become deviants *criticism: people are reduced to their env't, not considered as independent, rational actors with personal motivations

Methodological Individualism

argues that all social realities are the result of *individual actions and interactions* fails to consider large-scale structures

social constructionism

argues that people shape their reality thru social interactions society is constructed, not inherent

linguistic relativity hypothesis

asserts that not only do language and thought overlap, but cognition and perception are determined by the language one speaks native speakers in different language groups conceptualize the world differently

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

at the base are *physiological* needs, followed by *safety*, then *love/belongingness*, *esteem* needs, and then *self-actualizations*

expressive social movement

attempt to foster individual change ex. support groups

sociology

attempts to *understand the behavior of groups* studies how individuals interact with, shape, and are shaped by the society in which they live

behavioral genetics

attempts to determine the role of inheritance on behavioral traits

active social movement

attempts to foster social change revolution

pansexual

attracted to people irrespective of gender or sex

parenting styles

authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative

Cluster C personality disorders

avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders associated with tense, anxious, over-controlled behaviors

self-consciousness

awareness of one's self

Population Pyramid

bar graphs that represent population distributions expansive population pyramid is wide at the base, representing a higher birth rate x axis is population y axis is different age groups

normative social influence

based on social desirability, wanting to be accepted or admired by others

Freud's Genital Stage

begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface

non-normative behavior

behavior in which individuals do not conform to the expectations implicit in social structure; it challenges shared values and institutions, thus threatening the social structure and cohesion; viewed as incorrect, seen as abnormal and thus is discouraged

altruistic behavior

behavior that helps ensure the success or survival of the rest of a social group

B. F. Skinner

behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

empiricists and language

behaviorists who argued that language is just another example of conditioned behavior

instincts

behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species

taboo

behaviors that customs forbid, results in disgust toward the violator often a moral or religious component ex. eating pork in certain cultures, cannibalism, incest, murder

self-schema

beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

Materialist approach to language

believe that we should only look at what is happening in the brain when we study thought and words

sex

biological characteristic that is assigned at birth based on chromosomes, external genitalia, gonads, and hormones

circadian rhythm

biological waxing and waning of alertness over the 24 hour day. most people feel alert mid-morning, experience a dip in energy early afternoon, and feel alert again early evening exposure to light stimulates a nerve pathway from the retina to the *suprachiasmatic nucleus* (SCN) in the *hypothalamus*. the SCN signals other parts of the brain and is essentially our internal clock melatonin is a hormone made by the pineal gland darkness causes the SCN to signal the pineal gland to produce melatonin, making you feel tired

biological factors that affect nonassociative and associative learning

biology serves as a constraint for learning - we can not learn to do simply anything/everything learning occurs more quickly if it is biologically relevant or essential for survival the process of learning results in physical changes to the CNS; certain synaptic connections develop in the brain when a memory is formed STM lasts for seconds to hours, and can potentially be converted to LTM thru *consolidation*

Freud's Oral Stage

birth - 1 year child seeks sensual pleasure through sucking and chewing

neurogenesis

birth of new neurons has been found to occur to a small extent in the hippocampus and cerebellum

Piaget's sensorimotor stage

birth to ~2 years babies experience the world thru their senses and movement, such as looking/touching they learn about *object permanence* - the understanding that things continue to exist when they are out of sight they also demonstrate *stranger anxiety* - distress when confronted with an unfamiliar person

status

broad term in sociology that refers to all the socially defined positions within a society ex. president, parent, resident of Wisconsin, etc

aggression

broadly defined as behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking considered to be an innate instinct three predictors: -genetic -neural -biochemical

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

can arise when a person feels intense fear/horror while experiencing/witnessing extremely traumatic events most people will experience at least one traumatic event in their life but only few develop this disorder traumatic event is often relived through dreams and flashbacks in which the person feels as though the event is actually, currently happening person is chronically physiologically hyperaroused and hypervigilant

phobias

can be specific and/or social specific: persistent, strong, unreasonable fear of a certain object or situation -situational (flying), natural env't (storms), blood-injection-injury (getting shots), animal (spiders)

economic interdependence

can be thought of as the division of labor on a global scale; countries might have the demand for products without the internal means of production

secondary care

care that includes acute care (emergency department) as well as specialty care which is often received following a referral from a primary care provider

different types of stressors

catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles, learned helplessness

etiology

cause or set of causes or causal conditions for a particular disease

sleep apnea

causes people to intermittently stop breathing during sleep can repeat hundreds of times per night

somatic symptom disorder

central complaint is one or more somatic symptoms and diagnosis also requires evidence of diminished functioning stemming from excessive preoccupation and anxiety about the symptom

The two cognitive routes that persuasion follows

central route: people are persuaded by the content of the argument peripheral route: people focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech or orator

changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning

changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning the process of forming memories involves electrical impulses thru brain circuits somehow, these impulses leave permanent neural traces that are physical representations of info

Obedience

changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure

theta waves (EEG)

characteristic of the 1st and 2nd stages of sleep

Korsakoff's syndrome

chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) most commonly caused by alcohol use thiamine helps brain cells produce energy from sugar, so when levels fall too low, the brain cannot generate enough energy to function properly causes problems *learning new info, inability to remember recent events, and LTM gaps*

biopsychosocial approach to health and illness

claims that illness cannot be understood by only examining biological factors considers social factors to be integral to functioning at the level of individual biology

extended family

closely related people of several generations

nonverbal communication

communication using body movements, gestures, and facial expressions rather than speech

three ways an individual's behavior may be motivated by social influence:

compliance: compliant behavior is motivated by desire to seek reward or avoid punishment identification: motivated by desire to be like another person or group internalization: motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one's own value system (most endearing motivation)

front stage self

component of the dramaturgical approach encompasses the behavior that a person performs in front of an audience the person knows they are being watched and that their behavior is subject to judgment by an audience

back stage self

component of the dramaturgical approach encompasses the behavior that a person performs when with other players, but no audience is present can include behavior that would be unacceptable when performed in front of the audience, or when we can *let our guard down*

drug addiction

compulsion to use a drug repeatedly

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes the test uses *reaction times* to measure people's *automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words* easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger *unconscious associations*

sick role

concept developed by sociologist Talcott Parsons when a person is ill, they are not able to be a contributing member of society being ill is a type of *deviance* others must consider the person's illness to be legitimate to take up the extra work the sick person should seek medical care and make an attempt to get well

social construct

concept or practice that is a construct of a group, but this concept or practice may have no inherent values; its only value is the value society ascribes to it ex. marriage - exists entirely within a human society, containing own specific rules, morals, etc

anomie

concept that describes the social condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines to norms and values, and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic state of *normlessness*

feminism

concerned with the differences in social experiences of men and women collection of social movements with purpose of establishing men and women as equals in terms of social rights

economics

concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of resources (both goods and services)

impression management

conscious or unconscious process where people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others express parts of oneself depending on the person on the receiving end of the interaction

Punishment (operant conditioning)

consequence that makes target behavior UNLIKELY (opposite effect as reinforcement) -Positive punishment: ADD something *bad* -Negative punishment: TAKE away something *good* *punishments work best in nature where it helps us avoid dangers should be CERTAIN and IMMEDIATE can be applied to parenting (not good idea) and self-improvement

heteronormative beliefs

consider heterosexual behavior to be the preferred sexual orientation

traditional economies

consider social customs in economic decisions common in rural areas and often involves *bartering* and *trading*

Republican Government

consider their countries to be public concerns and are thus *democratic* in nature (the people have the supreme power in these societies)

Max Weber's characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

considered bureaucracy to be a necessary aspect of modern society ideal bureaucracy: -covers a fixed area of activity -hierarchically organized -workers have expert training in area of specialty -organizational rank is impersonal, advancement depends on technical qualifications -workers follow set procedures to increase predictability and efficiency

class system

considers both social variables and individual initiative groups together people of similar wealth, income, education, etc

democratic governments

consist of elected leaders; the public has some degree of political decision-making power through either direct decisions or representation -direct democracies -representative democracies

personal identity

consists of one's own sense of personal attributes ex. smart, funny

social identity

consists of social definitions of who you are ex. race, gender, occupation

symbolic culture

consists of symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture include *rituals, gestures, signs, and words* that help people within a society communicate and understand each other ex. wedding ring, statue of liberty

Diencephalon

consists of thalamus and hypothalamus thalamus: control center that processes almost all sensory info (except olfactory) before it reaches higher cortical areas as well as receiving motor commands from these cortical areas on their way to the spinal cord hypothalamus: regulates many of the body's basic physiological needs by maintaining homeostasis in multiple systems such as temperature and water balance

Authoritarian Government

consists of unelected leaders public has *no control over representation*

ideal self

constructed out of one's life experiences, societal expectations, and the things you admire about role models -the person you ought to be (vs. real self, person you actually are) -if this is similar to real self, result is a positive self-concept -usually, this is an impossible standard and the results is *incongruity*

forebrain

contains cerebrum or cerebral cortex location of many higher level functions: consciousness, memory, cognition, planning, emotion

parietal lobe

contains the somatosensory cortex which maps the body's sensation of touch also creates a map of the body - large portions of somatosensory cortex make their corresponding regions particularly sensitive somatosensory homunculus

thalamus

control center that processes almost all sensory info (except olfactory) before it reaches higher cortical areas as well as receiving motor commands from these cortical areas on their way to the spinal cord

regulatory genes

control the expression of other genes

Autocratic Government

controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, with *absolute* decision-making power dictatorship: ruled by a single person fascist: ruled by small group of leaders

Aristarchic governments

controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power; the public is not involved in most political decisions aristocracies: ruled by elite citizens, like those with noble births meritocracies: ruled by the meritorious

pons

coordinates communication between motor cortex and cerebellum

illusatory correlation

created between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases ex. seeing Michael Jordan and concluding that all Black people are athletic

adoption studies

creates two groups: genetic relatives and environmental relatives adopted individuals can be compared with both groups to determine if they are more similar to their genetic relatives or their environmental relatives *adopted kids have personalities more similar to their biological parents than adopted parents*

situational attribution

deciding that environmental forces were in control of one's behaviors

aging and memory

decline in memory is influenced by how active the person is: increased activity (both physical and mental) is a protective factor against neuronal atrophy retrieval can also become trickier with time ability to ENCODE NEW MEMORIES of events or facts as well as working memory may decline episodic memory is especially impaired

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation ex. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner "forming a habit" an action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic you "tune out" the stimulus note!! this isn't *really* forming a habit, you just decrease responsiveness to stimulus

delta waves (EEG)

deep sleep waves on EEG

regression

defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated ex. child reverts to bed-wetting after trauma

sublimation

defense mechanism in which unacceptable energies are directed/channeled into socially admirable outlets, such as art

reaction formation

defense mechanism that expresses the opposite of what one really feels when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling ex. acting hateful toward someone you love

denial

defense mechanism that is the forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory

repression

defense mechanism that is the lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory

Stage 2 sleep

denoted by two distinct wave patterns on EEG: -theta waves intermixed with two patters, K complexes and sleep spindles -K complex: 1/2 second long, large and slow, occurs as a single wave amongst theta waves -sleep spindles: bursts of waves with a freq of 12-14Hz, moderately intense but do no last long no eye movement, EMG measures moderate activity. decreased HR, temp, and respiration

Barbiturates (tranquilizers)

depress the sympathetic nervous system often prescribed as sleep aids dangerous in combination with alcohol, prone to overdose

opiates

derivatives of opium (ex. morphine and heroin) depress neural functioning temporarily reduce pain by mimicking the brain's own pain relievers, endorphins pain is replaced with a blissful feeling prolonged use leads to the brain stopping the production of endorphins, leading to painful withdrawal

caste system

describes a closed stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into

primary care

describes care provider responsible for ongoing preventative care or disease management

popular culture

describes features of culture that appeal to the masses often communicated thru mass media like TV

rationalization and bureaucracy

describes the process by which tasks are broken down into component parts to be efficiently accomplished by workers within the organization ex. Ford's assembly line -McDonaldization

gender roles

describes the social and behavioral expectations for men and women

ethnicity

description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics include common ancestral, cultural, geographical, historical, linguistic, or national experiences distinct from nationalities ex. Han Chinese, Hindustani people, Arabs, Bengalis, Russian

race

description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics often inherited biological traits but can also be cultural, ethnic, and geographical in nature ex. Black, white, Asian, American Indian, Native Hawaiian

George Herbert Mead

developed idea of *social behaviorism* mind and self emerge through process of communicating with others the idea that the mind and self emerge thru social process of communication or use of symbols was the beginning of the *symbolic interactionism* schools of sociology

Moral (Kohlberg)

development of moral thinking by cognitive reasoning, resolving moral dilemmas, and the concept of right and wrong

bipolar 1 disorder

diagnosed only if there has been a spontaneous manic episode not triggered by treatment for depression or caused by another medical condition/medication person has experienced at least one manic or mixed episode

schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

diagnosed when someone has been experiencing one or more of the following symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behavior and one or more negative symptoms: decreased emotional expressing, avolition (lack of motivation), alogia (decreased or absent speech)

culture and attribution

different cultural patterns of thought affect the process of attribution; the *fundamental attribution error* may be characteristic of Western viewpoints (individualistic) while East Asian shows a lower bias towards *dispositional attributions* and may have a tendency to be biased towards *situational attributions*

culture shapes emotional expression

different ways to express common emotions across different cultures gestures also vary widely across cultures -ex. thumbs up is positive in American culture, negative in others certain facial expressions seem to be universal cultures that promote individuality also encourage emotional expressiveness

dissociative disorders

disorders where some of a person's thoughts, feelings, and memories are separated from conscious awareness and control, occurring sometimes as a defense against a traumatic situation these disruptions in awareness are extreme and cause distress

ecclesia

dominant religious organization that includes most members of society; recognized as the national or official religion and tolerates no other religions

Alfred Binet theory of intelligence

early 1900s administered intelligence tests to schoolchildren in France with the goal of developing a measure to determining who needed special education his test was revised and renamed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale aka IQ

Charles Spearman theory of intelligence

early 1900s first coined the term *general intelligence* believed that intelligence could be strictly quantified through cognitive test and those who possessed high general intelligence could do well on lots of different measures of cognitive ability

Command/Planned Economy

economic decisions are based on a *plan of production* and the means of production are often public include socialism and communism

social model of disease

emphasizes the effect one's social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors can have on a person's health looks for a more proximate cause for illness (ex. something about the patient's life putting them at greater risk of exposure to bacteria)

three main stages of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

thyroid gland

endocrine gland that surrounds the trachea in the neck regulates consumption of energy/metabolism

random mating

ensures the largest amount of genetic diversity and protects against genetic drift and bottlenecking

id

entirely unconscious, source of energy and instincts. ruled by *pleasure*; seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. does NOT use logical or moral reasoning. young kids function almost entirely from this

formal norms

established, written rules (laws)

Population predictions

estimates of future populations made from mathematical extrapolations of previous data population pyramids: bottom heavy = population growth top heavy = population decline

social comparison

evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others facilitates the development of a distinct self of self in terms of similarity/difference from other people

significant life changes

events such as moving, leaving home, losing a job, marriage, death

daily hassles

everyday minor events that annoy and upset people including bills, traffic, etc

physical dependence

evidenced by withdrawal, an uncomfortable and often physically painful experience without use of a drug

surface traits

evident from a person's behavior ex. talkative, exuberant, etc)

attributional biases and prejudice

ex. the sick or disadvantaged often face prejudice because others believe they have done something wrong

age cohorts

example of statistical cohorts in which a group of subjects share the characteristic of age

consciousness altering drugs

examples of these drugs include depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens

social roles

expectations for people of a given social status

Mary Ainsworth's strange situation

experiment where mothers leave their infants in an unfamiliar env't to see how the infants react *securely attached infants* will play and explore in the presence of their mother, but become distressed when mother leaves, but is easily consolable when she returns -tend to grow up demonstrating better social skills, greater capacity for effective intimate relationships, and are better able to promote secure attachments in their kids *insecurely attached infants* in the presence of the mother are less likely to explore their surroundings and when the mother leaves, they will cry loudly and remain upset or become indifferent when she returns

racial formation perspective

explains that *race is not genetic but constructed* through economic, political, and social forces that have the social control to create categories of race

social interactionist theory

explanation of language development emphasizing the role of social interactions between the developing child and linguistically knowledgable adults based largely on the socio-cultural theories of Lev Vygotsky

source traits

factors underlying personality and behavior fewer and more abstract

false consciousness

failure to recognize the state of class relations under capitalism

vicarious

feeling an emotion even if you don't share it ex. seeing someone skateboard and feeling like it must be fun, even if you've never skateboarded before "living vicariously thru someone"

empathy

feeling an emotion that you share with another person

attraction

feeling of being drawn toward another and desiring the company of a person between members of the same species is a primary component of love *appearance and similarity*

Depersonalization

feelings of detachment from one's mental processes or body "out of body experience"

narcissistic personality disorder

feels grandiosely self-important with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power arrogant and haughty

avoidant personality disorder

feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable preoccupied with feats of criticism and conflict

dependent personality disorder

feels need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being able to take care of oneself

replacement fertility rate

fertility rate at which the population will remain balanced

biomedical approach to health and illness

focuses narrowly on the physical aspects of illness

humanistic theory

focuses on healthy personal development humans are seen as inherently good and as having *free will*

hypomanic episode

for at least 4 days, person has abnormally euphoric or irritable mood, but at a less severe level impairment or distress is less serious, and there is no psychosis or hospitalization

manic episode

for at least one week, person experiences an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood and marked increase in goal-directed activity or in a psychomotor agitation

involuntary migration

forced migration result of external factors that pose a threat to the individual in their initial env't and are often a form of social control ex. ethnic cleansing

political parties

formal groups of people that share the same principle political beliefs and organize with a common purpose of ensuring governance that supports these principles through appropriate policies

cognitive psychology

formed in response to behaviorism researchers began to focus on the brain, cognitions, and their effects on how people navigate the world -insight learning: previously learned behaviors are *suddenly combined in unique ways* -latent learning: something is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior until it is required

Carl Rogers

founder of the humanistic psychology perspective believed that personality is composed of ideal self and real self

parathyroid glands

four small glands on the posterior of the thyroid gland controls release of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and levels of calcium in the body (high levels of PTH cause body to increase calcium in blood)

stranger anxiety

from approximately ages 8-12 months, young kids display this crying and clinging to caregiver in response to unknown people faces that do not fit an already developed schema lead to distress gradually declines around 13 months

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that *fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so* the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

Biological factors that affect cognition

frontal lobes play a role in executive function *hippocampus* is involved in the formation of new memories the interconnectivity of various regions of the brain essentially underlie our cognitive abilities

representativeness heuristic

generalizations about people and events ex. people are rude to you when you go to the post office, you conclude that the post office has all rude people

personality trait

generally stable *predisposition* toward a certain behavior

informal norms

generally understood but not precisely recorded, often carry no specific punishments (ex. removing cap during national anthem)

epigenetics

genes that modify their expression without changing the overall genetic code this changes the phenotype without changing the genotype largely influenced by env't but can be inherited ex. DNA methylation prevents expression of some genes

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

genetic disease in which the afflicted individual is unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, leading to extreme developmental issues treatment: avoid foods that contain phenylalanine

Representative Democracy

governments in which there is indirect public participation thru the *election of representatives*

dyad

group of 2 people more intimate and intense can be equal or unequal

publics

group of individuals *discussing a single issue, ceases as the discussion ceases*

society

group of people who share a culture and live with each other in a definable area

triad

group of three can be hierarchical or unequal

masses

group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of *mass media* share common interest

in group

group with with an individual shares identity with and toward which one feels loyalty

generational cohort

groups of people born in the same period

group polarization

groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members the average view of a member of the group is accentuated it does not mean that the group becomes more divided on an issue, but suggests that the entire group tends toward *more extreme versions* of the average views they initially had when you consider this with the fact that people tend to preferentially interact with like-minded people, you can see why group negotiations are difficult

secondary groups

groups that are larger and more impersonal, may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time meet for *instrumental functions*, meeting pragmatic needs

primary groups

groups that play a more important role in an individual's life usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in-person in longer term emotional ways ex. family, friends, peer groups meet for *expressive functions*, meeting emotional needs

role conflict

happens when there is a conflict in society's expectations for multiple roles held by the same person ex. male nurse, gay priest

universal emotions

happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger (HSSFDA) most people can readily ID these emotions simply by observing facial expressions

schizotypal personality disorder

has several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including limited or inappropriate affect; magical/paranoid thinking, and odd beliefs, speech, and perceptions

parasympathetic nervous system neurons

have long preganglionic cell that projects onto a short postganglionic cell all preganglionic efferent neurons have cell bodies in the brainstem or sacral regions of the spine (craniosacral system) has more specific effects because when maintaining homeostasis, we can afford to be more specific in our innervation the fact that the ganglion is closer to the effector organ for this system reflects its closer degree of control

Cerebellum

heavily involved in coordination and planning of movement

Biological Perspective of Personality

heritability of basic personality traits

white flight

historical example of suburbanization that involved the migration of whites from cities to more racially homogenous suburbs

antisocial personality disorder

history of serious behavior problems, including significant aggression against people or animals, property destruction, lying, or rule violation disregards rights of others

B.F. Skinner's behaviorist model of language acquisition

holds that infants are trained in language by operant conditioning argued that language use is a form of behavior like any other

effects of the endocrine system on behavior

hormones and NTs affect mood, sexual arousal, and circadian rhythm

appraisal

how a stressor is interpreted by the individual when stressors are appraises as challenges, they can be motivating if appraised as threatening aspects of our identity, well-being, or safety, they cause severe stress

self concept

how an individual defines oneself based on beliefs that person has about itself (*self-schemas*)

"me" (Mead)

how the individual believes the general other perceives it the social self self as the object *responsible for preventing the "I" from responding to society in a way that will violate social norms*

self-esteem

how you feel about yourself

Ghrelin

hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

looking-glass self

idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others *people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them*

Gestalt Psychology

idea that the organized whole EXCEEDS the sum of its parts when humans perceive an object, rather than seeing lines, angles, colors, shadows, etc, they perceive the whole (like a face or table or dog) does NOT explain HOW the brain does this

Mating behavior and mate choice

involves courtship rituals, copulation, and the building of nests -random mating -associative mating -negative assortative mating

self-fulfilling prophecy and race

if a race is stereotyped a certain way, people will have those expectations from you and create conditions to fit those stereotypes ex. if the stereotype is your race being good at math, people will expect you to be good at it without even knowing you in the end, this makes it easy for you to become that stereotype, thus, a self-fulfilling prophecy

discrimination (classical conditioning)

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus opposite of generalization ex. dog does NOT salivate to sound of buzzer or horn

spontaneous recovery

in classical conditioning, when an extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some period of time (*without* the pairing of the unconditioned stimulus)

informational social influence

in group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint, persuading others to take a stronger stance toward this viewpoint and provides the opportunity to rehearse and validate these opinions, strengthening them

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response *at unpredictable time intervals* produces a slow, steady behavior response rate

recognition

involves identifying specific information from a set of information that is presented

absolute poverty

inability to meet a *bare minimum* of basic necessities like clean water, food, safe housing

relative poverty

inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

retrograde amnesia

inability to recall info previously encoded caused by damage to the hippocampus

fixation

inability to see the problem from a fresh perspective -results from the existence of a *mental set*: tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past even though they may not apply to current situation -functional fixedness: tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging

defensive strategies of impression management

include avoidance or self-handicapping (strategy in which people *create obstacles and excuses* to avoid self-blame when they do poorly)

needs

include basic biological needs and higher-level needs

Parliamentary Government

include both executive and legislative branches that are *interconnected* members of the executive branch are accountable to members of the legislature

stimulants

include caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines typically work by either increasing the release of NT, reducing the reuptake of NT, or both overall affect is to speed up body functions, resulting in increased energy, respiratory rate, HR, and pupil dilation

Federalist Government

includes a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups there is the *division* between the *central* (or federal) gov't, and the *constituent* (ex. state, provincial, local) gov'ts

healthcare disparities

includes population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and quality of healthcare across different social groups

material culture

includes the physical items one associates with a given group, such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools

dual coding hypothesis

indicates that it is easier to remember words with associated images than memorizing either words or images alone

sub-replacement fertility

indicates that the birth rate is less than the death rate, thus the population size will *not be sustained*

horizontal mobility

individual changes social identity but maintains similar level of income

escape behavior

individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior ex. child does not want to eat veggies, instead throws a temper tantrum

How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others

influence of our self perceptions group identification also has an effect in-group members are viewed more *positively* and are though to have a greater variability on assorted personality traits when we put ourselves in other's shoes and assume they feel the same way we feel

cocktail party effect

info of personal importance from previously unattended channels catch our attention

sensory memory

initial recording of sensory information in the memory system very brief snapshot that quickly decays if not passed through *Broadbent's filter* into short-term memory -iconic memory -echoic memory

Wernicke's aphasia

injury to this area does not create a problem in producing speech, but are incapable of producing intelligible, meaningful language speech production retains a natural sounding rhythm and syntax, but is completely meaningless

Broca's aphasia

injury to this area leads to the loss of the ability to speak people know what they want to say but are unable to say it

actualizing tendency

innate drive to maintain and enhance the organism, most basic motive of all people

factors that influence motivation

instincts, arousal, drives, and needs instincts: behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species arousal: some behaviors may be motivated by a desire to achieve an optimal level of arousal drives: urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness (often work through *negative feedback systems* needs: include basic biological needs and higher-level needs

retroactive interference

interference that happens when *NEWLY LEARNED* info interferes with the recall of info learned previously ex. someone who moved frequently may find that learning new addresses and directions interferes with ability to remember old addresses and directions

proactive interference

interference that happens when info *PREVIOUSLY* learned interferes with the ability to recall info learned later ex. remembering where you parked in a parking garage will be more difficult once you have parked for months in different locations

traits

internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality should be consistent

civil unrest

involve forms of collective behavior in which there is public expression of the group's concern, often in response to major social problems

discrimination

involves *acting*/*behaving* a certain way toward a group vs. prejudice which involves thinking

self-concept

made up of all the child's conscious, subjective perceptions and beliefs

Barriers to effective problem solving

irrelevant information, functional fixedness, mental set, unnecessary constraints, confirmation bias

Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

kids saw adults punching an inflated doll while narrating their aggressive behaviors such as "kick him" kids were then put in a toy-deprived situation... and acted out the same behaviors they had seen

kinesthetic sense

kinesthesis / kinesthesia is the perception of *body movements* it involves being able to detect changes in position and movements without relying on information from the 5 senses

Noam Chomsky and language

language development is something you were born with every child is born with a biological predisposition to learn any language

K complex

large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep

organization

large, more impersonal groups that come together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently serve the purpose of increasing efficiency, predictability, control, and uniformity in society ex. businesses, governments, religious groups

oligarchic governments

leaders can be elected or unelected controlled by a small group of people with shared interests -people have little influence on directing decisions and social change ex. theocracies: gov't ruled by a *religious elite*

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) describes the process of learning that one event, object, or action is directly connected with another

observational learning

learning through watching and imitating others

trends

longer-lived and often lead to permanent social changes (ex. hippie trend) not a form of collective behavior

symbolic interactionism (micro)

looks at society from a micro perspective championed by George Herbert Mead interested in the *symbols* that people use to contribute values and beliefs to others (ex. dress codes at the workplace can communicate a sense of whether the setting is casual or formal) holds the principle of meaning to be the central aspect of human behavior -we ascribe meaning to things, language allows humans to generate meaning, etc

amygdala and emotion

main structure involved in emotion in the limbic system almond-shaped structure deep within the brain can communicate with the hypothalamus (which controls the physiological aspects of emotion) and the prefrontal cortex (which controls the behavioral aspects of emotion)

social support

major determinant of health and wellbeing for humans and other animals

auditory processing

malleus receives vibrations, function with the incus and stapes to amplify sound vibrations -> vibrates oval window pressure waves in the perilymph and endolymph (fluids in cochlea) cause vibration in the basilar membrane (covers the lining of cochlea) basilar membrane is covered with hair cells that have cilia, which bend when the membrane vibrates and moves across the *tectorial membrane*, opens ion channels in the hair cells, and results in RELEASE of NT stimulates dendrites from bipolar auditory afferent neurons

bipolar 2 disorder

manic phases are less extreme cyclic moods - include at least one major depressive episode and one hypomanic episode, but has not met criteria for a manic or mixed episode

anterograde amnesia

marked inability to encode new memories caused by damage to the hippocampus

Exogamy

marriage to someone outside one's social group

negative assortative mating

mating that is nonrandom mating more likely between disparate traits

associative mating

mating that is nonrandom similar genotypes or phenotypes mate more frequently

Alzheimer's disease and memory

may involve an inability to manufacture enough of the NT acetylcholine, which results in, among other things, neuronal death in the hippocampus

meditation

may involve focusing intensely on one object of attention, such as breathing, or may broaden their attention and be aware of multiple stimuli has been successfully used to manage pain, stress, and anxiety disorders

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

may not have true obsessions or compulsions, but may instead accumulate money or worthless objects perfectionist, rigid, and stubborn with a need for control resists authority and will not cooperate often a workaholic

stimulus duration

may or may not be coded explicitly. ex. tonic receptors, phasic receptors

biofeedback

means of recording and feeding back info about subtle autonomic responses in an attempt to train the individual to control those involuntary responses ex. people can be trained to adjust their muscle tension, HR, and respiration rates

case fatality rate

measures *deaths as a result of a set diagnosis* or procedure sometimes specific to the beginning or late states of a disease

prevalence rate

measures the *number of individuals experiencing a disease*

incidence rate

measures the number of *new cases* of a disease

Raymond Cattell theory of intelligence

mid-20th century proposed 2 types of intelligence: -fluid: ability to think on your feet -crystallized: recall facts and apply learned info

external migration

migration across an international border

rural flight

migration from rural areas to urban areas

urban sprawl

migration of people from urban areas to otherwise remote areas

REM rebound

missing REM sleep for one night results in an increase in REM sleep later to make up for it

paranoid personality disorder

mistrusts and misinterprets others' motives and actions with sufficient cause

relative motion

monocular cue for depth perception; as we move, stable objects appear to move as well objects that are *near* to us appear to move faster than objects that are farther away

cyclothymic disorder

moods are less extreme than bipolar disorder, with symptoms not meeting criteria for either manic or major depressive episode

mere presence

most basic level of experience between members of society, means that people are simply in each other's presence either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business the mere presence of others has a measurable effect on an individual's performance

insomnia

most common sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep

proximity and attachment

most powerful predictor for friendship mere exposure effect: people prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli - familiarity breeds fondness

Biological basis of Alzheimer's disease

most prevalent form of *dementia* - loss of cognitive ability beyond what is normal for aging characterized by *anterograde amnesia* (inability to form new memories) and retrograde amnesia, with more recent memories degrading first it is a cortical disease caused by *neuritic plaques* and *neurofibril tangles* that "gunk up" neuronal connections, preventing exchange of nutrients and waste also some evidence of abnormalities in activity of acetylcholine in the hippocampus

Neo-Malthusianism

movement based on Malthus' theory which advocates for population control in order to reduce the negative effects of population strain

biological basis of Parkinson's disease

movement disorder caused by death of *dopamine-generating cells in basal ganglia and substantia nigra*, two subcortical regions of the brain symptoms involve resting tremor, slowed movement, rigid movements and facial expressions most patients eventually experience dementia L-dopa is a dopamine precursor treatment that can cross the blood-brain barrier

voluntary migration

movement in which people relocate in response to perceived opportunity can be result of internal factors or personal decision not forced

Emigration

movement of individuals out of an area

life course perspective

multidisciplinary approach to understanding the mental, physical and social health of individuals, which incorporates both *life span and life stage* concepts that determine the health trajectory

polysomnography (PSG)

multimodal technique to measure the physiological processes during sleep includes: -EEG -EMG -eye movement tracking

polygamy

multiple wives/husbands

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

sympathetic nervous system neurons

neurons of the autonomic system that prepare the body for danger or excitement all preganglionic efferent neurons have cell bodies in the thoracic or lumbar regions of the spine (thoracolumbar system) have SHORT preganglionic neuron that projects onto a long postganglionic close to the spine the postganglionic will project onto its target gland has more general effects on the body because in times of severe stress, the body doesn't have time to be too specific

motor development in infants

newborns have some automatic behaviors (*reflexes*) useful for survival moro (startle) reflex rooting reflex sucking reflex babinski reflex tonic neck reflex palmar grasp reflex walking/stepping reflex swimming reflex

primary kin

next to each other on a pedigree ex. husband-wife, parent-child, siblings

Stage 1 sleep

non REM. EEG dominated by theta waves (low to moderate intensity, intermediate freq.); eye movement is slow, rolling movements; EMG measures moderate activity. person less responsive to stimuli and has fleeting thoughts

mores

norms that are highly important for the benefit of society *strictly enforced* ex. no treason or animal abuse

folkways

norms that are not strictly enforced but shape everyday behavior ex. styles of dress, ways of greeting

feral children

not raised with human contact or care proof of the importance of human contact during development ex. Genie

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; *fake shock study* participants believed they were in control of equipment that delivered shocks to a student attempting to pass a memory test (no shocks actually used) researched directed him to administer levels of increasing shock when student answered incorrectly participant could hear shouts of pain but were still obedient

modeling

observer sees the behavior being performed by another person later, the observer imitates the behavior

schizophreniform disorder

occupies a middle position on the schizophrenia spectrum: person experiences at least one of the positive symptoms but can also experience one or more negative symptoms for at least a month, but not longer than six months

division of labor

occurs as societies become so complex that it is not possible for an individual to meet all of his or her needs alone; different occupations emerge as a response

urban blight

occurs when *less functioning areas of large cities degrade* as a result of urban decline

Desensitization

occurs when a stimulus that previously evoked an exaggerated response no longer evokes that response ex. going to a rock concert may make you more sensitive to loud noises, even right after a concert, but gradually regular loud noises won't bother you as much

nonassociative learning

occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts to the *content* or the argument

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

pineal gland

regulates levels of melatonin allows nervous system to send signals to endocrine system

serial position effect

occurs when someone attempts to memorize a series, such as a list of words in an immediate recall condition, the person is more likely to recall the first and last items on the list (the primacy and recency effects) first items may be more easily recalled because they had the most time to be encoded and transferred to LTM last items may be more easily recalled because they might still be in the phonological loop and readily available

Malthusian Catastrophe

occurs when the means of sustenance are not enough to support the population, resulting in population reduction through actual or predicted famine

population aging

occurs when there is a disproportionate amount of older people in a population

intergenerational mobility

occurs when there is an increase or decrease in social class between *parents and children within a family*

long-term potentiation (LTP)

occurs when, following brief periods of stimulation, an increase in the synaptic strength between two neurons leads to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli the sending neuron needs less prompting to fire its impulse and release NT the receiving neurons have more receptors for the NT (increased sensitivity means either of these two possibilities occurring) can last hours or weeks after it occurs, passing an electric current thru the brain doesn't disrupt the memory associations between the neurons involved, although other memories may be wiped out

psychological dependence

often associated with the use of a drug in response to painful emotions related to depression and anxiety

high culture

often limited to the consumption of the elite, like ballet or opera

pathway of light traveling through eye (in regard to glutamate, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, LGN, etc)

once light travels through the eye and is detected by photoreceptors, info must be conveyed to higher levels of the nervous system after light strikes rods and cones, series of events leads to HYPERPOLARIZATION of the membrane of the photoreceptor this has an INHIBITORY effect by reducing the rate of neurotransmitter release glutamate is usually excitatory, but not for cells that receive it from photoreceptors bipolar cells may be inhibiter or excited by changes in the amount of glutamate released by photoreceptors (different bipolar cells respond to different receptive fields) bipolar cells are *also affected by signals from horizontal cells*, which provide "horizontal" information from photoreceptors at the edge of the bipolar cell's receptive field *if bipolar cells experience an overall EXCITATORY effect from both the vertical and horizontal inputs, they RELEASE NT at an INCREASED rate, producing an excitatory effect on the ganglion cells (the sensory neurons that produce action potentials) the axons of ganglion cells gather to form the *optic nerve*, which leaves the eye to convey visual info to the brain some of the axons from each eye cross to the opposite side of the brain optic nerve travels to the *lateral geniculate nucleus* of the thalamus which preserves the visual map created by ganglion cells and projects this info to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe neurons project from the visual cortex along TWO visual pathways, which detect different features of visual stimuli: ventral and dorsal ventral ("what") pathway: travels to the *temporal* lobe towards the base of the brain and is involved in object recognition dorsal ("where") pathway: projects to the *parietal* cortex and is more involved in perceiving the location of objects

mood

person's sustained INTERNAL emotion that colors their view of life

Jean Piaget

one of the 1st developmental psychologists who studied cognitive development in kids argued against the belief that kids were like mini-adults in their thought processes and abilities he thought that the process of cognitive development involved forming *schemas* (mental frameworks that shape and are shaped by experience) as we encounter new experiences, we either *assimilate* them by conforming them into our existing schemas, or we *accomodate* them by adjusting out schemas to take into account the new experience ex. young girl thinks there is a monster under her bed, her parents turn the light on to show her there is no monster she can assimilate by believing the monster exists, but runs away from the light OR she can accomodate her schema by agreeing there must be no monster

phasic receptors

only fire APs when the stimulus begins, they do not explicitly communicate the duration of the stimulus (i.e. it's only a phase) -important for communicating changes in stimuli -adapt immediately if a stimulus continues at the same level

sensitization

opposite of habituation there is an increase in the responsiveness due to either a repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive/noxious stimulus stimulus actually produces a more exaggerated response

utilitarian organization

organization in which members get *paid* for their efforts, like businesses

normative organizations

organizations that motivate membership based on *morally* relevant goals ex. mothers against drunk driving

coercive organizations

organizations where members do not have a choice in joining ex. prisons

Hierarchies for organization

organizing into different hierarchies and groups

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

biological factors that regulate motivation

our bodies have a "sweet spot" at which things are in homeostasis *hypothalamus* is the primary control center for detecting changes in temperature and receives input from skin receptors. causes vasoconstriction (conserving heat) and shivering when cold. also regulate the intake of nutrients into the body *lateral hypothalamus* brings on hunger *ventromedial hypothalamus* depresses hunger

ovaries and testes (endocrine system)

ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone testes produce testosterone

overconfidence bias

overestimation of the accuracy of our knowledge and judgements

stereotypes

oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics can be positive or negative basically, putting things/people into categories

Cluster A personality disorders

paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal personality disorders associated with irrational, withdrawn, cold, or suspicious behaviors

permissive parenting

parenting style that allows kids to lead the show few rules and demands responsive and loving but rather lenient kids lack self-discipline and may be self-involved and demanding

authoritative parenting

parenting style that listens to kids, encourages independence, places limits on behavior consistently follow thru with consequences express warmth and nurturing, allow kids to discuss opinions

motor cortex

part of the frontal lobe creates map of parts of the body, such that specific sets of neurons control certain body parts the amount of the motor cortex that is devoted to each part of the body depends on the complexity of movement required

phonological loop

part of working memory that allows us to repeat verbal info to help us remember it *this is what is used to remember a phone number when you have nothing to write it down with

episodic buffer

part of working memory that integrates info from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad with a sense of time interfaces with LTM stores ex. a man sees a car like the one his dad used to drive, and he can make this connection thru the interaction between the memory of his dad's car and his current visual experience

central executive

part of working memory that oversees the entire process and orchestrates the process by shifting and dividing attention

visuospatial sketchpad

part of working memory that serves a similar purpose as the phonological loop, but for visuospatial info through the use of mental images

proximal stimulus

patterns of stimuli from objects and events that get registered by sensory receptors

cultural universals

patterns or traits that are common *to all people* ex. food and shelter, birth, death, illness

Role of cognition in prejudice

people face a conflict between the desire to express prejudice and the desire to maintain a positive self-concept this conflict causes people to search for justification for disliking an out-group, and to use that justification to avoid negative feelings (*cognitive dissonance*) about themselves when they act on their dislike of the out-group our brains also seek to categorize and organize data based on similarities, which can lead to *stereotypes* on the other hand, our brains hone in on differences, so people seen as distinctive draw more attention and are often more likely to be seen as representative of a group

social cues

people tend to modify their behaviors based on these verbal or nonverbal hints that guide social interactions

social facilitation effect

people tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks *better* when other people are present explanation: arousal - presence of others stimulates arousal, which serves to activate our dominant responses and the practiced responses come most easily to us

alcohol

people using this are more likely to be impulsive and hyperactive, but it is the *result of slowing of the brain activity related to judgement and inhibition* affects skilled motor performance (cerebellum) excessive use can lead to memory blackouts for recent memories suppresses REM sleep overdose can cause death by depressing the respiratory control centers in the medulla to the point that breathing ceases works by stimulating *GABA and dopamine* systems

How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others

perceptions of the environment also affect our attributions and perceptions of people ex. body language changes the way you feel about someone also, you are more likely to perceive someone positively if you are in a relaxed, comfortable environment

narcolepsy

periodic, overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last ~5minutes caused by a dysfunction in the region of the hypothalamus that produces the NT hypocretin

internal migration

permanent movement within the same country

depressive disorders

persistent pattern of abnormal and often painful mood symptoms severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

dissociative identity disorder

person alternates among two or more distinct personalities states, only one of which interacts with other people at a given time involves amnesia for one or more of the personality states many people incorrectly label this is schizophrenia

Derealization Disorder

person experiences a feeling that people or objects in the external world are unreal, even though the person knows this feeling to be inaccurate

major depressive episode

person has felt worse than usual for most of the day for at least 2 weeks straight has at least *five of the following symptoms*: depressed mood, decreased interest, significant increase/decrease in weight, excessive/insufficient sleep, fatigue, impaired decision making, thoughts of death

dissociative amnesia

person has had at least one episode of forgetting some important personal info, creating gaps in memory that are usually related to severe stress or trauma person wanders aimlessly during the episode - *dissociative fugue* begins and ends suddenly, with full recovery of memory, though it may also linger with some info only gradually coming back to consciousness

Mixed Episode in Bipolar disorder

person has met the symptoms for both major depressive and manic episodes nearly every day for at least a week, and the symptoms are severe

avoidance behavior

person performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is NOT presented in the first place ex. you avoid touching a snake so that it doesn't bite you

Stages 3 and 4 of sleep

person transitions into slow wave deep sleep. *delta waves*: high amplitude, low freq. signifies the deepest level of sleep. no eye movement, moderate muscle movement. HR and digestion slow, growth hormones secreted

dichotic listening experiment

person wears headphones and hears different dialogue in each ear they are told to ignore one of the dialogues (unattended channel) and pay attention to the other (attended channel) they will remember SOME of the message from the attended ear, but lose almost everything from the unattended ear "shadowing the attended ear" - repeat info RIGHT after it is presented

transsexual

person who has gender identities that are inconsistent with their biological sex divisions

attitude

person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around them and their tendency to react behaviorally based on those underlying evaluations has three components: affect (emotion), behavior tendencies, and cognition

affect

person's observable emotion in the moment

social-cognitive perspective

personality is formed by a *reciprocal interaction* among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors behavioral component: patterns of behavior learned thru classical and operant conditioning social component: observational learning

Behaviorist Perspective of Personality

personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's env't

Robert Merton's structural strain theory

perspective purports that deviance is the result of experienced strain Merton specified that anomie is the state in which there is a mismatch between the common social goals and the structural, institutionalized means of obtaining these goals in this state, they experience strain, and there is pressure to use deviant methods to prevent failure ex. lower class expected to use deviant methods of reaching economic success

multiculturalism (pluralism)

perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions promotes idea of cultures coming together in a melting pot, not a hierarchy each culture is able to maintain its own practices

mood-dependent memory

phenomenon that describes that what we learn in one state is most easily recalled when we are once again in that emotional state

physiological arousal

physical aspect of emotion, excitation of the body's internal state (heart pounding, palms sweaty, rapid breathing)

appearance and attraction

physical attractiveness is an important predictor of attraction

cerebrum

physically divided into two halves (hemispheres) connected by the corpus callosum for the most part, these two halves carry out the same functions, but there is some lateralization of cortical functions (ex. language localized to left hemisphere)

social network theory

posits that *people's networks are important and necessary* for the spread of ideas and resources there is much strength in weak ties because even weak ties allow the sharing of new resources to a vast network

charismatic authority

power legitimized by extraordinary personal abilities that inspire devotion and obedience

rational-legal authority

power legitimized by legally enacted rules and regulations ex. The Constitution

traditional authority

power legitimized by respect for long-established cultural patterns

taste-aversion

powerful and very long-lasting association in most animals, caused by nausea quick acquisition phase, indefinite extinction phase

preconventional morality

preadolescent centered on consequences obedience: fear of punishment self interest: desire to gain reward

Gestalt law of closure

predicts that we will perceive things as a complete, logical entity because our brains fill in any gaps in info ex. seeing a triangle when looking at an image of unfilled concentric circles at the angles

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

predicts the *total number of births per single woman* in a population ideal = 2.1

Role of emotion in prejudice

prejudice leads to arousal or emotions at the core of prejudice is often fear or frustration when someone is faced with something/someone intimidating or unknown displaced aggression often falls on marginalized people or scapegoats when you see an unfamiliar person of another race, *emotion processing centers in the brain become more active automatically* it is only thru ACTIVE self-monitoring that people are able to inhibit prejudiced responses these self-inhibitions weaken with age (explains "racist grandpa")

ageism

prejudice or discrimination against a person based on age, often against the elderly

heterosexism

prejudice or discrimination against a person based on their sexual orientation toward the same sex

sexism

prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex

racism

prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race

hypothalamus

regulates many of the body's basic physiological needs by maintaining homeostasis in multiple systems such as temperature and water balance

non-governmental organization (NGO)

private group that pursues self-defined goals outside of government common activities are publicizing issues, lobbying, making demands on government, and providing direct services

medicalization

process by which a *condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease* with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment looks for the ultimate cause of a person's illness (ex. bacteria)

selective attention

process by which one input is attended to and the rest are tuned out -dichotic listening experiment -cocktail party effect -selective priming -spotlight model -binding problem

assimilation

process in which an individual forsakes aspects of their own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture *common concept that comes up*: more assimilated groups will have lower levels of support and worse overall health when compared to US-born individuals with otherwise similar demographics, more assimilated groups are likely to have less social support over time strong social support in local immigrant communities may partly explain the relatively good health of individuals from some immigrant groups in the US

globalization

process of increasing interdependence of societies and connections between people across the world

encoding

process of transferring sensory info into our memory system

Socialization

process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society

industrialization

process through which societies transform from agrarian to industrial in nature

Hans Eysenck

proposed that a person's level of *extroversion* is based on individual differences in the *reticular formation* (mediates arousal and consciousness) -introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require and tolerate less external stimulation -extroverts are less easily aroused and therefore comfortable in more stimulating env'ts *neuroticism* is based on differences in the *limbic system*

Jeffrey Alan Gray (biological perspective)

proposed that personality is governed by interactions among three brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli -fearfulness and avoidance are linked to *sympathetic nervous system* -worry and anxiety are linked to the *behavioral inhibition system* -optimism and impulsivity are linked to the *behavioral approach system*

deterministic model of personalisty

proposes people began as *blank slates* and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's behavior and personalities development of personality occurs thru classical or operant conditioning

inclusive fitness theory

proposes that an organism can improve its overall genetic success thru altruistic social behaviors

Mindfullness-based stress reduction

protocol commonly used in the medical setting to help alleviate stress

humanistic therapy

provide an env't where clients trust and accept themselves and emotional reactions so they can learn and grown from their experiences therapist is on an equal level with the client, show active listening and unconditional positive regard problem: barriers to self-understanding and self-acceptance therapy goals: personal growth through self-insight general method: active listening, unconditional positive regard

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distress and decreased functioning due to persistent physical symptoms and concerns, which may mimic physical disease but are not rooted in any detectable pathophysiology

anxiety disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational, and uncontrollable panic disorder generalized anxiety disorder phobias social anxiety

personality disorders

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning traits deviate from culture norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder or to those in their life many are egosyntonic - generally in harmony with a person's ego or self-image

reverse culture shock

psychological process of readapting to one's home culture

Everett Lee push and pull factors

push factors: things that are unattractive about an area and "push" people to leave (ex. genocide) pull factors: things that are attractive about an area and "pull" people there

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury to his prefrontal cortex that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

population growth rate

rate of population change in a specified time period, reported as percent of initial population

dependency ratio

ratio of the number of economically dependent members of the population to the number of economically productive members

Nativists (language)

rationalist, language must be innate argue that language is a human ability prewired into the brain

self actualization

realizing one's human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes

Dishabituation

recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation occurs when the previously habituated stimulus is removed after a person has been habituated to a given stimulus, and the stimulus is removed person is no longer accustomed to the stimulus if presented again, person will react to it as if it was a new stimulus

upward mobility

refers to an increase—or upward shift—in social class

stereotype threat

refers to self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype ex. females performing worse on a math test after being told males are better at math

Morbidity rate

refers to the *nature and extent of a disease* in a population

cultural capital

refers to the *non-financial social assets* that promote social mobility ex. education

gentrification

refers to the *renovation of urban areas in a process of urban renewal* often specific to the introduction of wealthier residents to the cities who then help to restore the existing infrastructure raises rend and property values

social mobility

refers to the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system

implicit (procedural) memory

refers to the conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something also called *nondeclarative memory* it is not conscious and may be difficult to vocalize most COMMONLY associated with the *basal ganglia and cerebellum* - receives input from the cortex and stores it, but does NOT send that info back to the cortex for conscious awareness also associated with priming

relative deprivation

refers to the conscious experience of individuals or groups that do not have the resources needed for the social experiences and services that are seen as appropriate to their social position

mortality rate

refers to the death rate in a population

population-lag effect

refers to the fact that changes in total fertility rates are often not reflected in the birth rate for several generations

urbanization

refers to the growth of urban areas as people move from rural to urban areas

neural plasticity

refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, the env't, and neural processes for example, shortly after someone becomes blind, neurons devoted to vision take on different roles, improving other sensory perception

Suburbanization

refers to the population growth on the fringes of urban areas leads to urban decline

social reproduction

refers to the structures and activities in place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next

social stratification

refers to the way that people are categorized in society (by wealth, race, education, income, etc)

institutional discrimination

refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codifies into operating procedures ex. don't ask, don't tell

social aging

reflects the biological changes in a multidimensional process in which the individuals experience complex emotional and social changes

Stages of Motor Development

reflexive movements (0-1) rudimentary movements (0-2) fundamental movement (2-7) specialized movement (7-14) lifelong application (14+)

temporal lobe

region of the cerebral cortex responsible for auditory, language, and olfactory info

occipital lobe

region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

hypothalamus and stress

releases CRH which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, which signals the adrenal cortex to release *cortisol* this shifts the body from using sugar as a source of energy to using fat instead, which helps keep blood sugar high for the brain prolonged cortisol release can LOWER immune response

adrenal gland

releases adrenaline during fight or flight response

sympathetic nervous system and stress

releases epinephrine and norepinephrine fast-acting

sect

religious organization that is distinct from that of a larger society, often occurring by breaking away from larger religious institutions (ex. Mormons, Amish)

Cult/New religious movement

religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle

prestige

reputation in society

Harry and Margaret Harlow

researchers who separated infant monkeys from their mothers at birth and provided them with a baby blanket when blankets were removed, infants became distressed this physical attachment seemed to counteract the idea that attachment was formed based on nourishment two artificial mothers, one nourishing and the other not (only had blanket) - infants still preferred the blanket mother rather than the nourishing mother

suburbs

residential satellite communities located in the peripheral regions of major urban centers

parasympathetic nervous system

rest and digest stimulates glands in the digestive and urinary system constricts airways in the bronchial smooth muscle decreases cardiovascular activity constricts eyes and accommodates "near" vision stimulates erection/lubrication

memory decay

results in a failure to retain stored info does not happen in a linear fashion - the forgetting curve indicates that the longer the retention interval (time since info was learned), the more info will be forgotten with the most forgetting occurring rapidly in the first few days before leveling off it is possible that neurons involved in memory may die off, or perhaps the associates among memories need to be refreshed in order to be retained

sanctions

rewards and punishments for behaviors that are normative or not normative ex. disapproving, uncomfortable look

Processes by which behavior influences attitudes

role-playing: most famous example is the Stanford prison experiment public declarations: in order to please others, people may feel pressure to adapt what they say. saying something publicly can become believing it - as we continue to express ourselves, we become more and more entrenched in believing what we say ("saying can become believing") justification of effort example: a student who works hard to study for the MCAT and earns a fantastic score, only to feel a calling towards becoming an actor. in order to justify the effort already put into the process, he will feel pressured to go to medical school (*sunk cost fallacy*)

ego

ruled by *reality* principle; uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id. tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id's desire for pleasure

aristocracies

ruled by elite citizens, like those with noble births

pancreas

secretes digestive enzymes (exocrine) and insulin (endocrine)

subcultures

segment of society that shares a distinct pattern, differs from that of the larger society ex. bike enthusiasts

secondary kin

separated by one kin on a pedigree ex. grandparents, aunts/uncles

tertiary kin

separated by two kin on a pedigree ex. cousins

privilege

set of *unearned* benefits one receives because of some attribute largely outside of their control ex. gender, race, class, sexual identity, citizenship status, or ability

sociocultural evolution

set of theories describing the processes thru which societies and culture have progressed over time

Kinsey Scale of Sexual Orientation

sexual orientation of human beings is on a continuum from exclusively heterosexual (0) to exclusively homosexual (6)

sleep spindles

short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep

cultural icons

signs that represent their meaning in a given culture ex. single crystal glove is representative of Michael Jackson

acute stress disorder

similar to PTSD but its symptoms are present for less than 1 month

Thomas Theorem

situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences

night terrors

sleep disruptions that occur during stage 3 and 4 of sleep, unlike nightmares that occur during REM person experiencing them may sit up, walk around, babble, appear terrified, scream, etc but none is recalled in the morning

somnambulism

sleepwalking; tends to occur during slow wave (stage 3) sleep, usually during the first third of the night

tribes

small sub-ethnic groups develop into independent ethnic groups

agents of socialization

social institutions, including families and schools, that help to shape individuals' basic political beliefs and values family: teach kids customs, beliefs, and traditions of their cultures schools: value logic and linear thinking, creativity, etc peer groups: more important as kids grow older workplace: through written codes and rules, as well as thru informal norms religion/goverment: create "rites of passage" like coming of age and marriage, legal rules (voting, drinking) mass media/tech: TV, phones, educational programming (can be + or -)

hypnotism

social interaction in which a hypnotist has a subject focus attention on what is said, relax/feel tired, and accept suggestions easily can promote recall of memories, but patient is also susceptible to creating false memories works by blocking attention to sensory inputs

collective behavior

social norms for the situation are *absent* or unclear more *short-lived* than group behavior and less conventional values influence the group's behavior -don't reflect the existing social structure but are instead *spontaneous situations* in which individuals engage in actions that are otherwise unacceptable and violate social norms

racialization/ethnicization

social process in which the dominant group ascribes racial or ethnic identities to groups that do not otherwise relate to the labels ex. identification of Jewish people as an ethnic group

ethnogenesis

social process that results in the creation of separate ethnicities

Herbert Blumer

sociologist whose ideas were foundational in the understanding of collective behavior

arousal

some behaviors may be motivated by a desire to achieve an optimal level of arousal

behavioral aspect of emotion

some kind of expressive behavior (i.e screaming and putting hands over mouth)

social geography

spatial distribution of individuals and social groups

norms

spoken/unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of its members, posited by society

sleep stages

stage 1: non REM. EEG dominated by theta waves (low to moderate intensity, intermediate freq.); eye movement is slow, rolling movements; EMG measures moderate activity. person less responsive to stimuli and has fleeting thoughts stage 2: denoted by two distinct wave patterns on EEG: -theta waves intermixed with two patters, K complexes and sleep spindles -K complex: 1/2 second long, large and slow, occurs as a single wave amongst theta waves -sleep spindles: bursts of waves with a freq of 12-14Hz, moderately intense but do no last long no eye movement, EMG measures moderate activity. decreased HR, temp, and respiration stage 3 and 4: person transitions into slow wave deep sleep. *delta waves*: high amplitude, low freq. signifies the deepest level of sleep. no eye movement, moderate muscle movement. HR and digestion slow, growth hormones secreted REM sleep: final stage, characterized by *bursts of quick eye movement*. EEG measures waves that resemble beta waves seen when people are awake, but these are more sawtooth with low intensity and variable freq.; almost no skeletal muscle movement

communism

the specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the *absence of currencies, classes, and states* based on shared economic, political, and social ideologies

groupthink

state of harmony within a group, can lead to some pretty terrible decisions; manifests when certain factors come together: -group is overly optimistic of its capabilities, has unquestioned belief in its stances -group becomes increasingly extreme by justifying its own decisions while demonizing those of opponents -some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating by filtering out info that goes against beliefs of the group (*mindguarding*) -there is a pressure to conform, so individuals censor their own opinions in favor of consensus

Icek Ajzen's theory of planned behavior

states that one's behavioral beliefs influences one's attitude towards the behavior, which then affects how someone decides to behave

Expectancy Theory

states that our behavior is a result of conscious choices that we make to minimize pain and maximize pleasure

Goal Setting Theory

states that there is a link between goal-setting and task performance, and that by setting and achieving small goals (and receiving positive feedback), we are more likely to accomplish more difficult goals later on

ascribed status

status assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts ex. race, gender

achieved status

status considered to be largely due to the person's efforts ex. doctor

dramaturgical approach

stems from symbolic interactionism posits that we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others *our identities are not necessarily stable, but dependent on our interactions with others* front stage vs back stage self

stigma and deviance

stigma: assigning demeaning labels to devalue deviant members deviance: violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations (can involve neg or pos acts)

MDMA

stimulant and mild hallucinogen triggers the release of dopamine and serotonin, as well as blocks serotonin reabsorption causes emotional elevation, but long-term effects include damage to serotonin-producing neurons

cocaine

stimulant that works by causing a "rush" - release of the brain's supply of NT including dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine creates a brief period of intense pleasure, followed by a depressive crash

self-handicapping

strategy in which people *create obstacles and excuses* to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

prejudices

strict generalizations about other groups of people developed thru *schemas* schematic processing is relevant to explaining response times during the IAT because speed with which memory schemas are activated and processed is presumed to indicate the participant's implicit attitude

fundamentalism in religion

strong attachment to traditional religion and argue that religion should be part of social life argues that religion should be integral part of social life ex. Westboro baptist church

histrionic personality disorder

strongly desires to be the center of attention expressions of emotion are dramatic, yet the emotions themselves are shallow and shifting

amygdala

structure involved in associating EMOTION with memories, particularly negative emotions

cerebellum (memory)

structure involved in learning skills and conditioned associations (implicit memory)

Hippocampus

structure necessary for encoding new explicit memories, associated with LTM patients with damage to this area may not have declarative memory for a skill they have recently learned, yet be able to demonstrate the skill

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting that involves attempting to control kids with strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally will utilize punishment or discipline kids grow up to display more aggressive behavior or may act shy and fearful lower self-esteem

role conflict and role strain

the stress that occurs when the behavioral expectations from various roles come into play simultaneously

borderline personality disorder

suffers from enduring or recurrent instability in their impulse control, mood, and image of self and others involves impulsive and reckless behavior, extreme mood swings, etc terrified of abandonment, tends to devalue or demonize

Sigmund Freud

suggested that two instinctual drives motivate human behavior: life instinct (libido) and death instinct psychic energy distributed among three personality components: id - entirely unconscious, source of energy and instincts. ruled by *pleasure*; seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. does NOT use logical or moral reasoning. young kids function almost entirely from this ego - ruled by *reality* principle; uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id. tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id's desire for pleasure superego - inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals; strives for a higher purpose and perfection. seeks to gain psychological rewards such as feelings of pride and self-love as well as avoidance of guilt

Noam Chomsky (language)

suggested that we all possess an innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during the sensitive developmental years in early childhood *universal grammar*

Howard Becker's Labeling Theory

suggests that deviance is the *result of society's response to a person rather than something inherent in the person's actions* it assumes that the act itself is not deviant for intrinsic moral reasons the use of negative labels can have serious consequences - *self-fulfilling prophecies*

Stress-diathesis theory

suggests that genetic inheritance provides biological predisposition, and stressors elicit the onset of disease

dissociation theory of hypnosis

suggests that hypnotism is an extreme form of consciousness an example would be putting an arm into an ice bath under hypnosis and dissociating from the pain stimulus

dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

suggests that the pathway for the NT dopamine is hyperactive in people with schizophrenia, due to both *overabundance of dopamine* and *hypersensitive dopamine receptors*

frustration-aggression principle

suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression

state capitalism

system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the gov't in forming laws and regulations ex. in the US, most businesses are privately owned, but the gov't runs many operations such as the postal service and military

welfare capitalism

system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society most countries in Western Europe demonstrate welfare capitalism because most of their economies are based on capitalist principles, but universal healthcare is provided by the state

illness experience

takes the patient's subjective experience of illness as its main concern encompasses both the individual's understanding of their condition as well as the material impact being ill has on that person's daily life

states

temporary patterns of thought, feeling, or behavior depend on the situation; unstable, temporary, and variable aspects of personality that are influenced by external env't

fundamental attribution error

tendency for observers to automatically *favor dispositional attributions* over *situational* ones when judging other people dispositional attribution happens quickly, requires LESS info and attention

door-in-the-face phenomenon

tendency for people who won't agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made

iron law of oligarchy

tendency of organizations to become increasingly dominated by small groups of people

belief bias

tendency to *judge arguments* based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic we accept conclusions that fit with our beliefs

self-serving bias

tendency to attribute one's *success* to INTERNAL factors while attributing one's *failures* to EXTERNAL factors thereby functioning to serve self-esteem different cultural patterns of thought affect the process of attribution; the *fundamental attribution error* may be characteristic of Western viewpoints (individualistic) while East Asian shows a lower bias towards *dispositional attributions* and may have a tendency to be biased towards *situational attributions*

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves can be linked to existing memories

self reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves inconsistent info is more difficult easier to externalize info that opposes a self concept (ex. blaming a bad test score on bad sleep rather than on intelligence)

belief perseverance

tendency to cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence

Ethnocentrism

tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of your own an example of favoritism for one's in-group of out-groups

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

confirmation bias

tendency to search ONLY for info that confirms our preconceived thinking rather than info that might not support it tends to be stronger for emotionally charged topics

self-verification

tendency to seek out (and agree with) info that is consistent with one's self concept

bureaucracy

term used to describe an administrative body and the processes by which this body accomplishes work tasks arise from an advanced division of labor in which each worker does his or her small task

Solomon Asch

tested the effects of group pressure on individual's behavior subjects were asked to determine which of three lines were most similar to a comparison line when done alone, everyone got perfect scores when placed in a room with *confederates*, all of whom chose the wrong lines, more than a third of the subjects conformed

pitutary gland

the "master" endocrine gland a pea-sized body attached to the base of the brain, important in controlling growth and development and the functioning of the other endocrine glands secretes growth and reproductive hormones can secrete NTs

fertility

the ability of a woman to reproduce

recall

the ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously encountered material -free recall -cued recall

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Hawthorne effect

the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed

medulla

the base of the brainstem; important role in regulating cardiovascular and respiratory systems chemoreceptors monitor CO2 levels in bloodstream and trigger appropriate respiration changes receives info about blood pressure and can respond by altering levels of sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the heart

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream hypothalamus adrenal glands pituitary gland reproductive organs thyroid gland parathyroid pineal gland pancreas

Hypothalamus (endocrine system)

the bridge between the nervous system and endocrine systems controls the actions of the endocrine system

interaction between heredity and environmental influences

the characteristics of someone's personality that are encoded by genetics collaborate with the person's env't to create their behavior and personality

urban renewal

the clearing and rebuilding and redevelopment of urban slums

game theory

the study of how people behave in strategic situations used to try to predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behavior of a population ex. might be useful in predicting behavior of a large crowd of people in an enclosed space during a disaster

Situational Approach to Explaining Behavior

the concept of enduring personality traits is fatally flawed because of the variations in behavior that occur across different situations

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage uses the phonological loop

beliefs

the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold

identity formation (individuation)

the development of a distinct individual personality

rate of population change

the difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate

intragenerational mobility

the differences in social class between *different members of the same generation*

Extinction (classical conditioning)

the diminishing of a conditioned response in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS) CR eventually stops occurring

environmental justice

the equal treatment of all people regardless of race, gender, or other social groupings with *regard to prevention and relief from environmental and health hazards*

migration

the geographic movement of individuals, families, or other groups of people implies the intention of permanent relocation

out group

the group with which an individual does NOT identify with and towards which one may feel competition or hostility

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

attachment theory

the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life parent-child relationships strongly influence the child's attitudes about the self and world

depth of processing

the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered

social behaviorism

the idea that the mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others

non-material culture

the ideas created by members of a society

Religiosity

the importance of religion in a person's life

reciprocal determinism

the interactions between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (individual motivational forces), and their environment (situational factors) three ways people interact with env't: -people choose their env't which in turn shapes them (ex. choose what college you go yo) -personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their env't (ex. people with depression view their job as pointless) -personality influences the situation to which you then react (ex. how you treat someone influences how they treat you) *in these ways, people both shape and are shaped by their env'ts*

transgenesis

the introduction of an exogenous or outside gene into an organism; alter genotype of an animal so that researchers can study the effect of a gene

similarity and attraction

the more things two people have in common, the more likely they are to have a longer relationship impacts attraction

glass ceiling

the mostly invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to the top levels at work

socioeconomic gradient in health

the notion that socioeconomic status can influence health lower SES has worse health than the upper class graded relationship between social class and health

life expectancy

the number of years an individual is expected to live given present mortality rates

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions basic involuntary functions needed for survival

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

acquisition

the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together process of learning the conditioned response the time during Pavlov's experiment when the bell and food are ALWAYS *paired*

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

nucleus accumbens

the pleasure center of the brain; enjoyable behavior produces activity in these dopamine circuits

overpopulation

the point at which there are more people than can be sustained

social capital

the potential for *social networks* to allow for upward social mobility

fecundity

the potential reproductive capacity of a woman

cultural relativism

the practice of judging another culture by its own standards

Endogamy

the practice of marrying within one's own group

language acquisition

the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native language

role exit

the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one's self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage -recall -recognition -relearning

source monitoring

the process of making inferences about the origins of memories or info

cultural transmission

the process thru which information is spread *across generations* or the mechanism of learning meme: element of culture that spreads from person to person much occurs thru socialization processes

manifest functions

the recognized and *intended* consequences of any social pattern ex. a hospital's _____ _____ may be to heal people

long-term memory

the relatively permanent storage of information believed to have infinite capacity

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior recurring removal of a desirable stimulus after behavior has occurred to decrease that behavior

global inequality

the systematic differences in wealth and power between countries certain countries hold a majority of the resources access to resources among countries seriously impact other social factors, such as mortality burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present ex. Kitty Genovese: involved stabbing of a woman in NYC late at night with lack of effect of neighbors to help her while she cried for help

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

generalization (classical conditioning)

the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response ex. dog salivating to the sound of the doorbell

misinformation effect

the tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

carrying capacity

the total possible population that can be supported with relevant resources populations tend to increase and decrease until *population equilibrium* is met at this maximal level

modernization of religion

the transformation from traditional social structures to more rational or economics-driven ones classical sociologists predicted that as societies became more modern, there would be a decline in religious practice in favor of more rational thought

telecommunications

the transmission of information over communication lines

latent functions

the unrecognized and *unintended* consequences of any social pattern can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful ex. a hospital's _____ _____ may be reducing crime by providing jobs

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments ex. consumers more likely to but meat advertised as 75% lean than labeled as 25% fat

educational segregation

the widening disparity between children from high income neighborhoods and low income neighborhoods

Rational Choice Theory

theory concerned with the decisions made between multiple courses of actions, with the decision made providing the greatest reward at the lowest cost more concerned with measurable resources (extrinsic costs rather than intrinsic/emotional costs)

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route ex. explain when people will be influenced by the *content of the speech* or when they will be influenced by *more superficial characteristics* such as the appearance of the orator or length of speech

social cognitive theory

theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their env't focuses on how we interpret and respond to external events, and how our past experiences, memories, and expectations influence behavior unlike behaviorism, where env't CONTROLS *us*, cognition is also important for determining our behavior

Howard Gardner theory of multiple intelligences

theory of intelligence based on: logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal, and interpersonal

psychoanalytic theory

theory of personality that suggests that personality is shaped by a person's *unconscious* thoughts, feelings, and memories these unconscious elements are derived from past experiences, primarily by early caregivers the existence of this unconscious is inferred from behaviors such as dreams, slips of the tongue, posthypnotic suggestions, and free associations

social exchange theory

theory that applies rational choice theory to social interactions profit from interaction --> reward vs punishment also concerned with emotional rewards, not just economical/extrinsic

activation-synthesis theory

theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story suggests dreams aren't really purposeful

cognitive dissonance theory

theory that explains that we feel tension, or dissonance, when our attitudes and behaviors don't match we may feel like hypocrites when this happens an important application of this principle is in internal attitude change

social influence theory

theory that people do and report what is expected of them in regard to hypnosis they are not consciously faking it, but are like actors who get caught up in their roles

Preventative checks (Malthus)

things that *lower the birth rate* ex. abstinence, birth control, late marriage

Positive Checks (Malthus)

things that *raise the death rate* ex. disease, disaster, hunger, or war

olfactory bulb and emotion

this structure is also a part of the limbic system, which is why smell is so essential to our processes of memory

meritocracies

those ruled by the meritorious, like those with a record of meaningful social contributions

settlers

those who first move into a new region

refugees

those who migrate to settled areas as a result of displacement

Iceberg model of consciousness

three levels of consciousness: conscious level, preconscious level, and unconscious level ego and superego operate on all three levels, id mainly resides in unconscious

demographic transition

transition from overall higher to overall lower birth and death rates as a result of a country's development from pre-industrial to industrial framework due to both economic and social changes

adolescence

transitional stage between childhood and adulthood involves important physical, psychological, and social changes puberty occurs brain undergoes three major changes: cell proliferation in certain area, synaptic pruning of unnecessary connections, and myelination prefrontal cortex develops and limbic system develops even more rapidly, explaining behavior that appears more emotionally driven

cultural transmission vs diffusion

transmission = vertical = passing culture DOWN from generation to generation diffusion = horizontal = spreading culture to OTHER places

monogamy

two individuals

ego defense mechanisms

unconsciously deny or distort reality. normal and are only unhealthy when taken to extremes repression denial reaction formation projection displacement rationalization regression sublimation

catastrophes

unpredictable, large-scale disasters that threaten us

social anxiety disorder

unreasonable, paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is seen or watched by others

classes in the US

upper: top 3% of the population who earn millions to billions in annual income middle: top 40% of the population who earns $46,000 up to the cut-off for "upper class" working: the 30% of the population who earns between $19,000 - 45,999 lower class: the 27% who earn less than $18,000

drives

urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness (often work through *negative feedback systems*

Assertive strategies of impression management

use of active behaviors to shape our self-presentations, such as talking oneself up and showing off flashy status symbols to demonstrate a desired image

Raymond Cattell

used *factor analysis* to ID 16 surface traits, reducing 15 of them to five *global factors* (source traits): extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control problem solving, one of the 16 primary factors is not part of any global factors

behavioral therapy

uses *conditioning* to shape a client's behaviors in the right direction ABC model: determine Antecedents and Consequences of the Behavior proceeds by changing antecedents and consequences ex. client is helped to relax while repeatedly being exposed to something that provokes anxiety

Expressing and detecting emotion

vital in explaining how we react to situations and others some emotional responses, such as likes/dislikes, involve no conscious thought more complex emotions, like hatred, love, and guilt, can have important influences on our memories, expectations, and interpretations *the face is very revealing in conveying emotion* -if we glimpse a face for a mere tenth of a second, we can accurately judge the emotion it portrays -eyes and mouth convey the most emotion (fear and anger in the eyes, happiness in the mouth)

psychoanalytic therapy

uses various methods to help a patient become aware of their unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are presenting difficulties another goal is to strengthen the ego so that choices can be based on reality rather than instinct or guilt sometimes referred to as talk therapy because sessions usually focus on patients talking about their lives, while therapist looks for patterns or significant events that may play a role in the client's current difficulties problem: unconscious forces, childhood experiences therapy goals: reduce anxiety through self-insight general method: analysis and interpretation

hidden curriculum in schools

values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling

tertiary care

very specialized form of healthcare, based on consultation with specialist care providers and often occurs in facilities designed just for the purpose of caring for patients with a limited set of conditions ex. cancer hospitals, burn centers, end-of-life care facilities, rehab hospitals

behaviorism

view that all psychological phenomena are explained by describing the observable antecedents of behaviors and its consequences (conditioning) views brain as a "black box" which does not need to be incorporated into the discussion

conflict theory (macro)

views society as a competition for limited resources those with the most power and influence maintain their positions of power by suppressing the advancement of others

functionalism (macro)

views the society as a living organism with many different parts and organs championed by Emilie Durkheim, father of sociology who argued that complex societies involve many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability, a type of *dynamic equilibrium*

Animal Signals and Communication

visual cues: poisonous animals have *warning colors* - bright colors meant to advertise their toxicity (some animals mimic this coloring even though they aren't poisonous) chemical signals: pheromones, or chemical messengers employed by animals to communicate with each other touch or movement: mating dances

Bem's original experiment

when we put ourselves in other's shoes and assume they feel the same way we feel test subjects see a video of a man raving about doing a boring task if Bem told the subjects the man was bribed $20 to do this, the subjects came to the conclusion that the man hated the task in reality on the other hand, if Bem told them the man was only paid $1, subjects assumed the man actually enjoyed the task *all these are assumptions based on self-perception, as the subject never met the man in the video*

parallel processing

where many aspects of a visual stimulus (ex. form, motion, color, depth) are processed simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion the occipital lobe constructs a holistic image by integrating all the separate elements of an object, in addition to accessing stored info

experience and behavior

while it is true that our genes play an important role in our behavior, our individual experiences and social experience also shape our behavior in important ways as social animals, we learn ways of thinking and behavior from our families and peer groups an individual's development is then determined by a complex interplay of biology, psychology, society, and culture

locus of control

who/what controls your fate internal locus: you control your fate external locus: others/luck control your fate

women and empathy

women are more likely to express this by crying or reporting genuine distress at another's misfortune

gender shapes emotional expression

women may surpass men at reading emotional cues, with greater *emotional literacy* (ability to describe emotions) women also demonstrate greater emotional responsiveness in positive and negative situations, with the exception being anger which is considered a masculine emotion

depressants

work by slowing down neural activity include alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates

self-efficacy

your confidence in your ability

adaptive value of traits and behavior

your traits and behaviors are capable of changing and adapting in response to different experiences and env'ts

Piaget's Formal Operational Stage

~age 12 to adulthood learn abstract reasoning and moral reasoning

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

~age 2 to 7 children learn that things can be represented by *symbols*, like words and images they lack logical reasoning and are *egocentric*

Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage

~ages 7 to 11 children learn to think logically they learn the principle of *conservation* (ex. same volume of water, even if in different containers)