PSCYH 3030 Test 4

Which of the following is not true about divergent thinking?

It has a single correct answer (divergent thinking: It is open-ended, It has a large number of potential solutions, It is the cornerstone of creativity.)

Kosslyn

Map-Scanning experiments - scanning an image/real map. learn locations. - asked to imagine a black dot from one object to another on map- results: further the distance on map, longer the scanning time.

anaphoric coherence

"Riffifi, the famous poodle, won the dog show. She has now won the last three shows she has entered". inference that involves inferring that both she's in the second sentence refer to Riffifi - allows us the ability to make use of knowledge we bring to the situation

two properties of heuristics

- on the positive side, they are fast, important for language and is about 200 words a minute - on the negative, they can sometimes result in the wrong decision

The expected utility theory of decision making is grounded in which of the following?

Rationality

Metusalem study

- was interested in how our knowledge about a situation is activated in our mind as we read a story - used ERP to measure responses - found that unexpected words in sentences elicits a larger response

What helps us with speech segmentation?

- we have learned that certain sounds are more likely to follow one another within a word - our knowledge of the meanings of the words

Haviland and Clark (1974)

-demonstrated the consequences of not following the given-new contract - they found that it took longer for participants to comprehend the second sentence in pairs like: 1) we checked out the picnic supplies 2) the beer was warm VS 1) we got some beer out of the trunk 2) the beer was warm

Kaplan and Hebert study? Findings? What did they show?

-hypothesized that versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem that were more likely to lead participants to become aware of this principle -all boards have same layout and same solution -found that participants that had boards that emphasized the different in squares completed the task much faster -the fewer the hints the slower the solution -

Candle problem (Duncker, 1945)

-in a room with a vertical chalkboard mounted on the wall -you are given candles, matches, and some tacks, you are told to mount the candle on the wall so that it will burn without getting wax on the floor -represents functional fixedness -use the tacks and the match box as a candle holder

Zwann Study

Participants read sentence: --"Nail was hammered into the floor" or, --"Nail was hammered into the wall" Then shown picture of object and asked if it was mentioned in sentence --Picture of nail was either orientated horizontal or vertical Because object was always in sentence answer was always yes --Response time was faster when nail was orientated to match sentence

What affects our ability to hear and understand spoken words?

1) how frequently we have encountered a word in the past 2) the context in which the words appear 3) our knowledge of statistical regularities of our language 4) our knowledge of word meanings

Stanfield & Zwaan

1) the ranger saw the eagle in the sky 2) the ranger saw the eagle in its nest the picture of an eagle with its wings outstretched elicited a faster response when it followed sentence 1 rather than sentence 2 because reaction times are faster when the pictures match the situation described

Four major concerns of psycholinguistics

1. Comprehension - How do people understand spoken language? 2. Speech production - How do people produce language, included both mental and physical processes. 3. Representation - How is language represented in the mind? 4. Acquisition - How do people learn language?

Mental Imagery

A chapter detailing the history of research on mental imagery. Has an excellent bibliography at the end.

Situation model

A mental representation of an event, object, or situation constructed at the time of comprehending a linguistic description. - an approach to how we understand sentences

mental set

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person's experience or what has worked in the past.

mental scanning

A process of mental imagery in which a person scans a mental image in his or her mind.

propositional representations

A representation in which relationships are represented by symbols, as when the words of language represent objects and the relationships between objects.

causal interference

A statement about cause and effect that claims that a change in one variable is the cause of a change in another variable. "Sharon took an aspirin. Her headache went away"

unilateral neglect

A syndrome in which people ignore objects located toward their left and the left sides of objects located anywhere; most often caused by damage to the right parietal lobe

mental walk task

A task used in imagery experiments in which participants are asked to form a mental image of an object and to imagine that they are walking toward this mental image.

Visual Spatial Test

A test designed to assess your ability to manipulate objects in your head

Garden Path Model of Parsing

Frazier - states that as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of processing mechanisms called heuristics

Psycholinguistics

The study of how language is acquired, perceived, understood, and produced.

Heuristic

a rule that can be applied rapidly to make a decision involving the unfolding of sentence structure over time

Lexicon

all of the words that we know; mental dictionary

instrument inference

an inference about tools or methods that occurs while reading text or listening to speech like what is on someone's desk?

Define restructuring

changing a problem's representation

If it's a robin then it is a bird. It is a bird. Therefore, it is a robin. In the example above, "Therefore, it is a robin" is an ________ of a ______ syllogism.

conclusion ; conditional

initial state

conditions at the beginning of a problem

Mental Imagery

experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input

how does story context influence the understanding of the sentence?

garden path sentences like 1) the horse raced past the barn fell what happens here? look at the sentence in greater context 2) there were two jockeys who decided to race their own horses. one raced his horse along the path that went past the garden. the other raced his horse along the path that went past the barn. The horse raced past the barn fell.

Experts categorize problems based on

general principles that problems share

What happened with RM

had suffered brain damage to his occipital and parietal lobes. RM was able to recognize objects and to draw accurate pictures of objects that were placed before him -- however, he was unable to draw objects from memory, a task that requires imagery.

How did Noam Chomsky explain language acquisition? How did he react to Skinner's explanation?

he said that human language is encoded in genes - just as they are genetically programmed to walk, they are genetically programmed to learn and acquire new language. He disagreed with Skinner and said that Skinner's behaviorist view did not explain everything because children can say sentences that they have never been taught before.

Shepard and Metzler's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated

imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms

Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _____ reasoning.

inductive

Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using

inductive reasoning

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

initial

What is a problem?

occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

The application of a ________ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem.

permission schema

Kosslyn's transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment on brain activation that occurs in response to imagery found that the brain activity in the visual cortex

plays a casual role in both perception and imagery

Stellman and Brennan

reference: identifying something by naming or describing it - where two partners : A and B had identical sets of cards with pictures of abstract geometrical objects. - the idea was that is does not matter what the object is called, it matters that both partners have the same information about the object. This common ground that is established allowed conversation to run much more smoothly.

narrative

refers to texts in which there is a story that progresses from one event to another

B.F. Skinnner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

reinforcement

imagery neurons

respond to both perceiving and imagining an object

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.

garden path sentences

sentences that begin by appearing to mean one thing, but then end up meaning something else

Finke

showed that when participants followed instructions to imagine a capital letter D, then rotate it 90 degrees to the left and place a capital letter J at the bottom, they reported seeing an umbrella.

subgoals

small goals that help create intermediate states that are closer to the goal

goal state

solution to a problem

Altmann & Kamide (1999)

speech perception is fast sentence like "the child ate" as soon as sound t in ate is said person looks at image of food amongst others we anticipate sentences

complete the following analogy: perception is to ______ as imagery is to _________.

stone, smoke

Farah: Study of L.H.

study: L.H. had lesions in ventral area did horribly on sentences like "do elephants have tails?" & "what's the color of Rhinos?" [aka: couldn't access attributes of different object (the what)] did really well on mental manipulation tasks like letter rotation and 3D image rotation [so both spatial location AND manipulation intact!]

What did behaviorism say about imagery?

studying imagery was unproductive because visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.

Word frequency

the frequency in which a word appears in language

Entrainment

the process of creating common ground results

coherence

the representation of the text in a person's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text

topographic map

the way that the visual cortex is organized into specific locations on a visual stimulus cause activity at specific locations in the visual cortex, and points next to each other on the cortex.

Consider the sentence, "Because he always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him." The principle of late closure states that this sentence would first be parsed into which of the following phrases?

"because he always jogs a mile"

Brannigan's findings

- found that 78% percent of the trials showed that B's description matched the form of A's priming statement - supports the idea that speakers are sensitive to the linguistic behavior of other speakers and adjust their behaviors to match - it is easy to copy the form of someone else's sentence rather than creating your own

how is common ground created

- this is the mental knowledge and beliefs shared among conversational parties - key word is "shared" - in a two-party conversation, each person may have some idea of what the other person knows about what they are discussing, and as the conversation continues -- the amount of shared information increases

syntactic priming task

- two people engage in conversation - the experimenter determines whether a specific grammatical construction used by one person causes the other person to use the same construction

influence the scene context

- visual world paradigm - involves determining how information in a scene can influence how a sentence is processed - this is the study with the one-apple condition -involves determining how information in a scene can influence how a sentence is processed. Participant's eye movements were measured as they saw objects on a table, based on how directions were given and whether or not they contained ambiguity in their directions. When sentences contained ambiguity, 55% of the participants looked at the wrong objects that were placed on the table before realizing the actual directions. When the directions were fixed, none of the participants even looked at the other objects.

Metcalfe and Wiebe study

- was designed to distinguish between insight problems and non-insight problems - it was hypothesized that there should be a difference in how participants feel they are progressing toward a solution in insight problems vs non insight problems - they predicted that insight problems where the answer appears suddenly should not be very good at predicting how near they are to the solution - i. The triangle problem is to demonstrate a way that a ten dotted triangle pointing up can be rearranged to face down. The idea is to monitor your progress until you get to the solution ii. The chain problem is to demonstrate another insight problem where you can see your progress. The idea is to use four separate linked chains all made up of three links each, to make a single closed loop chain with only 15 cents of change when it costs 2 cents to open the chain and 3 cents to close a link. iii. Analytically based problems are problems that are solved by a process of systematic analysis that often uses techniques based on past experiences. iv. The results of this study indicated that for insight problems the self-generated progress rating started at 2 and did not change until it jumped from a 7—where a period of time the participants did not feel as though they were close to a solution (15 seconds of this to be exact). Mechalfe and Wiebe demonstrated that the solutions for the problems that have been called insight, occur suddenly. v. This means that solving an insight problem can involve analytical processes.

Hauk study

-Hauk determined the link between movement, action words, and brain activation by measuring brain activity using fMRI under two conditions (1) as participants moved their right or left foot, left or right index finger, or tongue; (2) as participants read "action words" such as kick, pick, or lick. - There is a link between action words and activation of action areas in the brain - determined that people comprehend stories by understanding text in a very dynamic process.

What happened in Maier's two string problem study? Findings? What does this mean for Gesttalt ideas?

-functional fixedness -tie two strings together that were hanging on the ceiling -you cannot reach both at the same time -you are given pliers and a chair... how do you solve the problem? -place pliers on chair, create a pendulum - looked into: mental set; how people's perceptions get in the way of solving the problems -this means that mental set can arise out of the situation created as a person solves a problem

object-relative construction is more difficult to understand than subject-related construction because

-more difficult to understand because it demands more of the readers memory -it is more complicated because the subject of the main clause and the object of the embedded clause in sentence

What happened in the water jug problem?

-participants were told that their task was to figure out on paper how to obtain a required volume of water, given three empty water jugs as measures -demonstrated the first way to solve the first example then participants were told to solve the rest -Had a mental set group and a no mental set group - found that only 23% of the mental set group used the easier solution but all of the participants in the no mental set group used the easier solution -presentation of the problem is very important to how the problem ends up being solved

Newell and Simon

-saw problems between initial and goal state of a problem -three discs on a peg, certain actions were required to approach the problem - as you try solving the problem, you will see that there are multiple ways to solve the problem -looked at the intermediate state

universal need to communicate with language

1) people need to communicate so badly that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where nobody speaks their language, they invent a sign language themselves. 2) all humans with normal capacities develop a language and learn to follow its complex rules, even if they are not aware of these rules. 3) language is universal across cultures. There are more than 5,000 different languages, and not a single culture without a language. 4) language development is similar across cultures. 5) even though languages are very different from one another, we can describe them as being "unique but the same".

The rule of the Wason four-card problem is, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Let's say you are presented with A, 8, M, and 13, each showing on one of four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing

A and 13

multilated checkerboard problem

A problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person's ability to reach a solution.

lexical decision task

A procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or a nonword.

multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA)

A technique that analyzes patterns of activation across voxels in a particular brain region that consistently correspond to certain stimulus or event types, rather than the overall increase or decrease in activation of the entire region.

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

the use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions

Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that

the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving.

The crucial question in comparing syntax-first and interactionist approaches to parsing is ____ is involved.

when semantics

Which of the following is NOT commonly associated with people who are considered highly creative?

Analysis

depictive representation

Corresponds to spatial representation. So called because a spatial representation can be depicted by a picture.

Farah's Study

Farah's study was based on a woman who was about to get her right occipital lobe removed as a treatment mechanism for her severe epilepsy. The first thing the staff did was ask M.G.S. (the patient) performs a mental walk prior to treatment. She was told to imagine walking towards an animal 15 feet away and estimated how close she was when the image began to overflow her visual field. After the occipital lobe was removed, the same mental task was performed... this time the image was 35 feet away. This is because of the mere fact that removing part of the visual cortex actually reduced the size of her field view, so the horse filled up the field when she was farther away. This was interpreted as the visual cortex being important for imagery.

Chalmers and Reisberg (1985)

Had participants create mental images of ambiguous figures Difficult to flip from one perception to another while holding a mental image of it

What did Kreiman find?

He was able to study patients who had electrodes implanted in various areas in their medial temporal lobe, which includes the hippocampus and the amygdala. Kreiman found neurons that responded to some objects but not to others. For example, there is a response shown that the neuron responded to a picture of a baseball but did not respond to a picture of a face. He called these imagery neurons. He also demonstrated a possible physiological mechanism for imagery and because these neurons respond in the same way to perceiving an object and to imagining it, showing a close relation between perception and imagery.

Bisiach & Luzzatti (1978)

Hemispatial neglect can also affect our memories - took patients and asked them to imagine and describe being in Duomo facing the cathedral - neglect patients described everything on the right. They were then asked to describe walking towards the other side of the square and actually ended up describing the opposite part of the square so they can actually remember things

given-new contract

In a conversation, a speaker should construct sentences so that they contain both given information (information that the listener already knows) and new information (information that the listener is hearing for the first time).

late closure

In parsing, when a person encounters a new word, the parser assumes that this word is part of the current phrase.

A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of_________________ research.

In vivo problem solving

temporal ambiguity

Lack of clarity about which variable occurred first may yield confusion about which variable is the cause and which is the effect

Subgoals serve a key role in which of the following?

Means-end analysis

Shepard and Metzler

Researchers who demonstrated the concept of mental rotation in a 1971 study.

word frequency effect

Respond more rapidly to high-frequency words like "home" rather than low-frequency words like "hike"

What is language

System of communication using sounds or symbols Express feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences

Johnson and Johnson Study

The 2014 Johnson and Johnson study chose a procedure of multivoxel pattern analysis in which the classifier is calibrated by measuring the pattern of voxel motivation to four pictures. Then the perception test is where the participants are presented with one of the pictured and determined from the pattern of voxel activation, which of the two possible pictures was presented. Then, there is an imagery test, where the participants are asked to imagine one of the pictures and the perception-calibrated classifier determines which of two possible pictures was being imagined. The results deemed impressive because based on the brain activity during the perceiving / imagining there was high accuracy with identifying what the participant was actually looking at.

Kosslyn's Study

The Kosslyn study was carried out because of the ongoing controversy about how imagery and perception are closely related even sharing [most] mechanisms. The result was that there was some overlap between brain activation while still being incomplete: depicting dissociations between imagery and perception. So while there are similarities between the two, there are also differences. Imagery and perception have many features in common, but there are also differences between them.

Imagery debate

The debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms, such as those involved in perception, or on propositional mechanisms that are related to language.

spatial representations

The debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms, such as those involved in perception, or on propositional mechanisms that are related to language.

imageless thought debate

The debate about whether thought is possible in the absence of images.

problem space

The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.

Pavio's Conceptual Model of Imagery

The point of Paivio's study was to use conceptual peg hypothesis to explain the finding of memory for pairs of concrete nouns being better for pairs of abstract nouns. This hypothesis covers concrete nouns that create images of which other words can hang on to. Paivio inferred cognitive processes by measuring the memory inferred cognitive processes by mental chronometry (the amount of time that is needed to carry out various cognitive tasks). In this study, participants were asked to determine, as quickly as possible: whether two objects were the same or not. The results showed that participants were actively engaging in mental rotation of objects to determine if they matched or not. This research also illustrated the similarities between imagery and perception.

speech segmentation

The process of perceiving individual words within the continuous flow of the speech signal.

Simonides

Thought to be the inventor of the method of Ioci, otherwise known as the mind palace technique. He found that he could remember things by imagining a physical space.

What happened in the study of C.K.?

a 33 year-old graduate who was struck by a car while jogging. He suffered from visual agnosia, the inability to visually recognize objects. He could recognize parts of the object but couldn't integrate them into a meaningful whole. C.K. was able to draw objects from memory, a task that depends on imagery.

Monique is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using

a depictive representation

"You can't have any pudding unless you eat your meat," says a man to his son at the dinner table. This is an example of

a permission schema

According to the concept of topographical mapping, which of the following stimuli encountered on a beach trip will activate the farthest forward in the visual cortex?

a pink beachball on your towel

means-end analysis

a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states

How do we deal with the variety of pronunciation of words?

accents, speeds, own way of pronouncing words based on who you are talking to. - found that words were more difficult to understand when taken out of context. - when participants were shown single word pronunciations (even their own voices too) , could only identify about half of the words - context aids perception

operators

actions that take the problem from one state to another

Mia has lived in New York City all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan walk really fast, but people from lower Manhattan tend to walk slowly. Mia's observations are likely influenced from a judgment error based on her using

an illusory correlation

insight

any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem solution that involves a reorganization of a person's mental representation of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious 1

Perky's Study

demonstrated the connections between imagery and perception to show how they interact with one another. The idea was that imagery affects perception, perception affects imagery, and imagery and perception both have access to the same mechanisms.

visual imagery

descriptive language that appeals to the sense of sight

mental chronometry

determining the amount of time needed to carry out a cognitive task

What is the method of recording from single neurons in humans?

electrodes are implanted in these patients' brains and are then monitored over a period of a few days in the hope that spontaneous seizures will help pinpoint the location of the focus. Since the electrodes are implanted, it is possible to record the activity that is caused by cognitive actions such as perceiving, imagining, and remembering. Also, how to study how these neurons respond when the patients carry out cognitive activities such as imaging and remembering.

How did B.F. Skinner explain language acquisition?

he said that language is learned through reinforcement

Galton

he said that people who had great difficulty forming visual images were still quite capable of thinking

What did Bihan find?

he used brain imaging to show how activity that both perception and imagery activate the visual cortex. The activity in the striate cortex increased both when a person observed presentations of actual visual stimuli (perception) and when the person was imagining the stimulus (Imagery).

syntatic priming

hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a sentence will be produced with the same construction - leads people to coordinate the grammatical form of their statements during a conversation

Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that this is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a

instrument interference

subject-relative construction

involves two clauses: -the main clause -the embedded clause sentences with the same words but different arrangement - account for 65% of relative clause constructions

intermediate state

involving a sequence of choices of steps, with each action creating an intermediate

the "image debate" is concerned with whether imagery

is based on spatial or language mechanisms

the hierarchical nature of language

it consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units. ex: words can be combined to create phrases, which in turn can create sentences, which themselves can become components of a story.

If human speech is represented as a string of taffy on a candy-making assembly line, then what function does speech segmentation serve at the candy factory?

it cuts the taffy into pieces

Why is the Tower of Hanoi problem important?

it shows sometimes how many intermediates there are in a problem, and how to follow operators with a goal state in mind

Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying

language acquisition

Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?

meaning dominance

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a

novel object

functional fixedness

one type of fixation that can work against solving a problem, focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object

fixation

people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution

One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children

produce sentences they have never heard

Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentation at the conference is segregated based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on

psycholinguistics

Tanenhaus

researcher who showed word with multiple meanings at the end of the sentence in either noun or verb form (bought watch/will watch); then flashed up a lexical decision tasks (is clock/look a word?); RT faster for both a 0 msec; RT faster for actual same meaning after 200 msec (because context clues/top-down set in); backs up exhaustive/multiple access theory

Ganis's study

showed activation at three different locations in the brain. This shows that perception and imagery both activate the same areas in the frontal lobe. Also showed activation in the visual cortex in the occipital lobe at the back of the brain, indicates that perception activates much more of this area of the brain that does imagery. This greater activity for perception isn't surprising because the visual cortex is where signal from the retina first reach the cortex. THEREFORE, there is almost complete overlap of the activation caused by perception and imagery in the front of the brain, but some difference near the back of the brain.

meaning dominance

some meanings of words occur more frequently than others

epiphenomenon

something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _________________ problem

source

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming

theory of mind

the ability to understand what others feel, think, or believe and also the ability to interpret and react to the person's gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice, and other things

lexical ambiguity

the existence of multiple word meanings

the constraint-based approach to parsing

the idea that information in addition to syntax participants in processing as a person read or hears a sentence

Semantics

the meaning of language, can have more than one meaning

lexical semantics

the meaning of words

The technique in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of spatial layout is known as

the method of loci

Trinh is a famous chef. since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write down her special creations, which makes it difficult to remember their ingredients. to aid her memory, she has created a unique "mental walk" that she takes to recall each recipe. For each one, she has a familiar "route" she can imagine walking through (e.g., from the end of her driveway to her living room) where she places each item in the recipe somewhere along the way (e.g. fish sauce splatted on the front door). By doing so, Trinh is using _______ to organize her memories

the method of loci

In an experiment that combined both physiological and behavioral approaches to the study of decision making, prefrontal cortex activity was recorded while participants accepted or rejected proposals to split a sum of money ($10). Prefrontal cortex activation was

the same for accepted and rejected offers.

how does word meaning influence the understanding of the sentence?

the sentence types differ in how hard they are to figure out 1) the dog buried in the sand was hidden 2) the treasure buried in the sand was hidden which one of these leads to the right conclusion?

Syntax

the structure of a sentence

The paradox in imagery and perception

there is difficulty in interpreting neuropsychological results. For one thing, the damage in individuals cases varies greatly between individuals and usually isn't restricted to the borders between areas in anatomy

Rule based nature of language

these components can be arranged in certain ways ex: "What is my cat saying" vs "Cat my saying is what"

Kozhevnikov

they first presented a questionnaire that was designed to determine participants' preference for using imagery versus the logical and verbal strategies to solve problems. The questionnaire had different problems that all indicated the suggested approach to solving the strategies. They classified the participants as either visualizers or verbalizers so that some people could use imagery to solve problems while others did not. The visualizers were told to engage in spatial imagery (the ability to image spatial relations) and object imagery (the ability to image visual details / features / objects) and measured using VVIQ (vividness of visual imagery questionnaire. The results of the test demonstrate how there are various differences between participants with a low score on the test vs the participants with a high score on the test. It was determined that spatial imagers did better in the mental rotation task, and object imagers did better on the degraded picture task, providing more evidence that distinguishes between spatial and object images.

Rayner and Duffy Study

they measured participant's eye movements while reading and the durations of fixations that occur as the eye pauses at a particular place. While reading sentences that contained high-frequency or low-frequency word explained that the longer fixation on low-frequency words than high-frequency words could be that readers needed longer time to access the meaning of the low-frequency words. Based on the frequency effect, shows that our past experience with words influences our ability to access their meaning.

Which type of research employed a "train on perception, test on perception" method to demonstrate imagery/perception overlap?

transcranial magnetic stimulation

pegword technique

use of familiar words or names as cues to recall items that have been associated with them step 1) create a list of nouns step 2) pair each of the things to be remembered with a peg word by creating a vivid image of your item to be remembered together

Behaviorists branded the study of imagery as being unproductive because

visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.

size in the visual field

wanted to see the affects from observing things from far away, inspected whether or not if you move closer to something whether or not it fills more of your visual field. Kosslyn wondered whether this relationship between viewing distance and the ability to perceive details also occurs for mental images. Kosslyn found that images are spatial, just like perception.

People tend to overestimate

what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.

balanced dominance

when a word has more than one meaning and all meanings are equally likely

biased dominance

when a word has more than one meaning and one meaning is more likely