PSy 256 terms smart book
The highest incidence of game-playing occurs between what ages?
10 and 12
The average North American newborn weighs ______ pounds.
7.5
Turner syndrome
A missing X chromosome in Hormone therapy in childhood and 1 in 2,500 female births (XO) females can cause intellectual puberty. disability and sexual underdevelopment.
Which theorists developed a temperament classification system in which most children are considered to be easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm-up?
Chess and Thomas
______ play occurs when children engage in the self-regulated creation of a product or a solution.
Constructive
Cognitive Benefits of play
CreativityAbstract thinkingImagination, attention Concentration, and persistence Problem-solving; social cognition Empathy, and perspective taking LanguageMastery of new concepts
breast feeding makes mothers less likely to
Developbreastcancerandovariancancer • Developtype2diabetes
Self-Recognition
Develops by about 18 months
True or false: The life-span perspective involves sociocultural and individual factors, but not biological factors.
FALSE
temporal lobe
Hearing Language Processing Memory
Peer Influences
Preschoolers prefer socializing with same genderGroup Size: Boys tend to create larger clusters
Zygote
Single cell formed through fertilization
frontal lobe
Thinking Voluntary Movement Personality Intentionality Purpose
What is the close emotional bond between two people called?
attachment
The maturation of the frontal regions of the cerebral cortex allows infants to
begin to regulate their emotions.
Second stage
begins when the baby's head starts to move through the cervix and birth canal - 45 minutes to 1 hour. • Ends when the baby completely emerges from the mother's body.
Reflexes
ch 3 slides p 9
Symbolic function substage
child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present
DNA
complex double-helix molecule that contains genetic code or information
FASD may occur in offspring whose mothers ______ during pregnancy.
drank alcohol
According to the epigenetic view, development is
due to heredity and environment each affecting the other.
Which prenatal period lasts about seven months?
fetal
Germinal period
first 2 weeks after conception
The roles that each of the following play in development are debated, EXCEPT
good-evil.
Freud
infants become attached to the person that provides oral satisfaction
When watching a hockey game, spectators can hear the sound of the stick hitting the puck and see the puck slide across the ice. This ability is known as
intermodal perception.
In the life-span perspective, no age period dominates development. This highlights the view that development is considered to be
lifelong
As the environment changes, some species adapt in a way that helps them survive and reproduce, while other species do not adapt well and die. This process is called
natural selection.
The female egg is known as the
ovum
The second stage of Piaget's cognitive theory of development lasts from ages 2 to 7 and is called the
preoperational stage.
Pragmatics
the appropriate use of language in different contexts
Jeremy is a very active toddler whose parents try to avoid putting him in situations where he must sit still for long periods of time. This illustrates
the concept of goodness of fit.
Heteronomous morality
the first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, occurring from approximately 4 to 7 years of age Justice and rules are seen as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.
Which view of language acquisition emphasizes both the biological and the experiential contribution to language development?
the interactionist view
Semantics
the meaning of words and sentences
Fast-Mapping
the process in which young children learn the connection between a word and its referent quickly
Gender Identity
the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by 2 1/2 years
Non-normative life events
unusual occurrences that have a major life impact e.g., losing a parent as a child, winning the lottery
Securely attached babies
use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment
birth First stage
uterine contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart and last up to 1 minute. • Longest stage - 6 to 12 hours.
Low birth weight infants:
weighs less than 51⁄2 pounds at birth; very low, 31⁄2; extremely low, 2 lbs.
Third stage (Afterbirth):
when the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled, lasting minutes.
BABY-LED WEANING
• Caretakers introduce new foods each week • The baby feeds him or herself• An alternative to "baby food"
Erikson's psychosocial stages (early childhood)
"Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt" (2-3 yrs) "Initiative versus guilt" (3-5 yrs) Children develops independence and uses perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen. CHART ON CH 6 SLIDE PAGE 2
Negative effects of exposure in fetal period:
- stunted growth.- fetal brain development problems. - organ functioning problems.
Four Phases:
1. Formationofneuraltube(18-24dayspostconception)2. Neurogenesis(proliferationofnewneuronsbeginsaboutweek5) 3. Neuralmigration(outwardmovementbetween6-24weeks) 4. Neuralconnectivity(begintoformaround23weeks)
Malnutrition in low-income families
11 million preschool children are experiencing malnutrition. Biggest problem is iron deficiency anemia
Perceptions, emotions, and desires are all mental states that children from ______ begin to understand.
2 to 3 years of age
While Piaget believed that deferred imitation doesn't occur until about a year-and-a-half of age, Meltzoff showed that ______ infants could imitate actions they had seen performed 24 hours before.
9-month-old
childbirth
98.5 percent of births in the United States take place in hospitals. 1.5 percent outside of hospitals (63% at home, 31% at birthing centers)Midwives at 8 percent of hospital births.
Mitosis
A cell's nucleus, including the chromosomes, duplicates itself, and the cell divides.
Which of the following best describes Erikson's theory of development?
A multistage theory in which a developmental task in each stage confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
Meiosis
A specialized form of cell division forms eggs and sperm only.
When infants correctly find an object hidden at location A and then continue to look in location A even when they see the object hidden in a new location, they are engaging in which of the following?
A-not-B error
Leading causes of death in U.S. children are
Accidents (unintentional injuries)Congenital malformations • Deformities• Chromosomal abnormalities
Executive attention
Action planningAllocating attention to goalsError detection and compensation Monitoring progress on tasks Dealing with difficult circumstances
Developmental changes
Age 18 months to 3 years: children begin to understand three mental states (Perceptions, desires, and emotions) Age 3 to 5 years: children understand false beliefs Age 5 to 9 years: deepening appreciation of the mind Age 7+ years: understand beliefs and thoughts of others
Perceptual development
Age 3 to 4 years: detection of boundaries between colors Age 4 to 5 years: children can focus eyes and sustain attention effectively on close-up objects Motor Development
Factors that influence the effects of Child Care:
Age of the childType of child care Quality of the program
Preoperational stage (Piaget's 2nd Stage)
Ages 2 to 7 years Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings. Form stable concepts and begin to reason Cognitions are dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs
Human life begins as a single cell.
All of the cells in the body, except sperm and egg, have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. Humans have about 22,000 genes
Fertilization
An egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell.
Klinefelter syndrome
An extra X chromosome causes Hormone therapy can be effective. 1 in 1,000 male births (XXY) physical abnormalities.
XYY syndrome
An extra Y chromosome can No special treatment required 1 in 1,000 male births cause above-average height.
Down syndrome
An extra chromosome causes mild to severe intellectual disability and physical abnormalities. Surgery, early intervention, infant stimulation, and special learning programs. 1 in 1,900 births at age 20; 1 in 300 births at age 35; 1 in 30 births at age 45
FragileXsyndrome
AnabnormalityintheX Specialeducation,speechand Morecommoninmalesthanin chromosome can cause language therapy females intellectual disability, learning disabilities, or short attentions span.
parietal lobe
Attention Spatial Location Motor Control
Neurons:
Babies are born with 20 to 100 billion neurons Neurons are nerve cells in the brain that handle information processing at a cellular level
Emotional expression: Crying
Basic cry: Rhythmic pattern usually consisting of Cry, brief silence, short whistle, brief rest, next cry Anger cry: variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords Pain cry: sudden long, loud cry followed by breath holding
During preschool years, children:
Become sensitive to the sounds of spoken words Produce all the sounds of their language
______ try to figure out what is responsible for the differences among people: genes, environment, or a combination of these.
Behavior geneticists
The brain
Brain growth slows during early childhood. Brain reaches 95% of adult volume by 6 yrs
Which region of the brain is associated with the production of words?
Broca's area
Which theorist believed that development reflects the influence of five environmental systems?
Bronfenbrenner
Color vision
By 4 to 8 weeks color vision develops, and by 4 months, babies prefer saturated colors.
Centration and the limits of preoperational thought
Centration: centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others Conservation: altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties
emotions Biological, cognitive, environmental influences
Certain brain regions play a role in emotions. Children learn cognitive strategies to control emotions and emotional arousal.
Biological processes
Changes in an individual's physical nature
Socioemotional processes
Changes in an individual's relationships, emotions, and personality.
Cognitive processes
Changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language.
During the Preschool Years:
Children Demonstrate a knowledge of morphology rules (plurals, possessives, prepositions, articles, and verb forms)
emotions Plays important role in
Communication with others Behavioral organization Emotions influence infants' social responses and adaptive behaviors as they interact with others in the world Infants communicate important aspects of their lives through joy, sadness, interest, and fear
Within-Subject Design
Data are collected for all participants in all conditions
Between-Subject Design
Data are collected from different participants in each condition
State of illness and health of the world's children
Devastating effects of health occur in countries with high poverty rates. Dramatic increase in deaths due to HIV/AIDS, especially in poor countries.
Cephalocaudal pattern
Developmental sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top - the head - with physical growth and differentiation of features gradually working their way down from top to bottom.
Chess and Thomas' classifications
Easy child: Generally in a positive mood Quickly establishes regular routines in infancy Adapts easily to new experiences Difficult child: Reacts negatively and cries frequently Engages in irregular daily routinesSlow to accept change Slow-to-warm-up child: Low activity level Somewhat negativeDisplays a low intensity of mood
Socioemotional Benefits of play
EnjoymentRelaxation Self-expression CooperationSharing, and turn-taking Anxiety reduction Self-confidence
Two most important contributors to height differences
Ethnic origin Nutrition
True or false: Life-span development focuses mostly on the rapid growth and development that occurs during childhood. True false question.
FALSE: Reason: The focus of life-span development is from conception to death.
Moral feelings:
Feelings of anxiety and guilt are central to the account of moral development. Emotions and guilt can motivate behavior.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Milestones (1st year):
Grasping, rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, & walking Larger birth size is the strongest predictors of reaching milestones earlier The time at which infants reach milestones varies by 2-4 months Level of experience can influence onset of milestones
Emotional regulation and coping
Infants develop ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity and duration of emotional reactions Infants with negative temperaments have fewer regulation strategies. Caregivers' actions influence emotional regulation. Soothing a crying infant helps infant develop an adaptive emotion regulation, a sense of trust and secure attachment to caregiver Depressed mothers rock and touch their crying infants less.
Type of Conservation: matter
Initial Presentation: two identical balls of clay are shown to the child. The child agrees they are equal. Manipulation: experimenter changes the shape of one ball and asks child whether they still contain equal amounts of clay Preoperational Child's Answer: "No, the longer one has more."
Which of the following are characteristics of the life-span perspective of development?
It is multidimensional. It is multidirectional. It is lifelong.
Which theorist(s) developed a temperament classification system based on inhibition and lack of inhibition?
Kagan
Prepared childbirth
Lamaze method• Breathing technique to control pushing in the final stages of labor. • Provides detailed anatomy and physiology course.
Posture:
Locomotion and postural control are closely linked Motor development milestones like sitting, standing, and walking, require the development of adequate posture MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Maintaining adequate posture remains important throughout the lifespan
SES
Low-income infants receive lower-quality child care. High-quality childcare linked to better cognitive and language skills, cooperation, positive play with peers, fewer behavioral issues Good caregiver training and low child-to-staff ratios linked to higher cognitive and social competence when child is 4 years old
Context of Abuse
Maltreatment is associated with parenting stress, substance abuse, social isolation, single parenting, and lower SES* About 1/3 of parents who were abused themselves when they were young go on to abuse their own children.
Consequences of preterm birth and low birth weight.
More health and cognitive developmental problems than normal birth weight infants.
Parental Influences
Mothers' socialization strategies for daughters to be obedient restrict autonomyFathers' socialization strategies for sons to engage in activities promote intellectual development
Which theorist believed that humans are biologically programmed to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way?
Noam Chomsky
normative age-graded influence.
Normative age-graded influences are those biological and environmental factors that have a strong correlation with chronological age, such as puberty or menopause, or age-based social practices such as beginning school or entering retirement.
Dominant-recessive genes principle
One gene of a pair always exerts its effects, overriding the potential influence of the other gene.
Postpartum
Period after childbirth that lasts until the mother's body has completed its adjustment and has returned to a nearly prepregnant state.
Periods of Development
Prenatal period (conception to birth) Infancy (birth to 18 to 24 months) Early childhood (3 to 5 years) Middle and late childhood(6 to 10/ 11 years) Adolescence (10 to 12 to 18 to 21 years) Early adulthood (20s and 30s) Middle adulthood (40s and 50s) Late adulthood (60s to 70s to death) Emerging Adulthood 18-25 years
______ theories view development as being primarily the result of unconscious processes.
Psychoanalytic
Language and Thought (Vygotsky)
Purpose: Children use speech to communicate socially and to help them solve tasks. Private speech: use of language for self- regulation Inner speech becomes their thoughtsMore private speech = more social competence
Importance of secure attachment in infants
Reflects a positive parent-infant relationship Provides a foundation for healthy socioemotional development Developmental Cascades
______ occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors.
Sensation
True or false: As of 2019, in the United States, there are more people over 60 years of age than under 18 years of age.
TRUE
Height and Weight
The average American newborn is 20 inches long and weighs 7.6 pounds. Most newborns are 18 to 22 inches long and weigh between 5 and 10 pounds. Babies grow about 1 inch per month during the first year. By 2 years of age: Infants weigh approximately 26 to 32 pounds. Average 32 to 35 inches in height.
Why does memory span change as children age?
The efficiency with which children process information improves. The speed with which memory items can be identified increases. Older children are more likely to rehearse information.
Which statement about the human life span is TRUE?
The maximum human life span has not changed since the beginning of recorded history.
Why does memory span change as children age?
The speed with which memory items can be identified increases. Older children are more likely to rehearse information. The efficiency with which children process information improves.
Longitudinal Design
The strategy of repeatedly testing the same sample of participants across the ages of interest
Cross-Sectional Design
The strategy of testing different groups of people at different ages (in the same time frame)
True or false: Personality in infants is thought to involve a sense of self, trust, self-recognition, and independence.
True
sleep
Typical newborn sleeps 16 to 17 hours a day. Infant sleep-related problems affect 15 to 25% of infants. Night-time waking Linked to separation distress, anxiety.
Wernicke's area
UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE
Prenatal Diagnostic Tests
Ultrasound sonography Chorionic villus sampling Maternal blood screening Fetal sex determination
Books can be valuable tools
Use books to initiate conversation.Use "what" and "why" questions.Encourage children to ask questions about stories. Include books that play with language.
"The Marshmallow Experiment"
Using self-distraction to delay gratification for the purpose of receiving two marshmallows on a researcher's return linked to later success in life
occipital lobe
Vision
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Vygotsky. range of tasks too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidance
Which region of the brain is associated with comprehension of language?
Wernicke's area
Sex-linked genes
When a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome, the result is called X-linked inheritance. Female = XX Male = XY Most X-linked inherited diseases manifest in males who have only one X chromosome. MALE FEMALE
What statements best describe the advances in pragmatics in early childhood?
Young children are able to present competent narratives. Young children can adapt their speech based on their setting. Young children can learn rules regarding politeness in conversations.
Gender Role:
a cultural set of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel
Gender Typing
acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
The ______ is like a bag or envelope and contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats.
amnion
What is the term for the loss or impairment of language processing?
aphasia
Parents as compared to non-parents:
are typically more satisfied with their lives feel relatively better on a daily basis have more positive feelings toward children and daily activities
Children begin the transition from saying simple to more complex sentences
between 2 and 3 years of age.
According to Gilbert Gottlieb's epigenetic view, which of the following characterizes the relationship between heredity and environment in development?
bidirectional
Insecure resistant babies
cling to the caregiver, then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness
Attachment
close emotional bond between two people
Select the issues of development among the following.
continuity and discontinuity nature and nurture stability and change
Which of the following are factors in which ethnicity is rooted?
cultural heritage race nationality
Which four of the following concepts are particularly useful when studying the sociocultural context?
culture ethnicity gender socioeconomic status
The pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span is known as
development
______ is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span.
development
Which of the following are biological influences relating to emotion?
development of the brain stem development of the hippocampus maturation of the cerebral cortex
Which of the following theories states that children appraise marital conflict in terms of their sense of security and safety in the family?
emotional security theory
Which of the following is LEAST likely to influence an individual's emotions?
environmental quality
The term ______ comes from the Greek word for "nation."
ethnicity
Harlow's baby monkey study demonstrated that ______ is not the crucial element in the attachment process and that ______ is important.
feeding; contact comfort
Emotion
feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or interaction that is important to self and well-being Characterized by behavior that reflects the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the state a person is in or the transactions being experienced Classified as positive or negative
A cluster of abnormalities that may appear in the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy is referred to as
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.
UNINVOLVED/NEGLECTFUL
few rules & demands, uninvolved & insensitive Childhood Social incompetence, lack of self-control Externalizing problems Adolescence Even Worse
Memory-span task:
hear short list of stimuli (usually digits), then asked to repeat the list
What is it called when individuals' genes may influence the types of environments to which they are exposed?
heredity-environment correlations
Which of the following have been associated with shorter duration of infant sleep?
infant screen time maternal depression during pregnancy inconsistent bedtime routines
Sensorimotor play is best defined as behavior engaged in by
infants to derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemas.
Small for date or gestational infants:
infants' birth weights are below normal considering the length of pregnancy. • May be full term or preterm.
Gross motor skills
involve large-muscle activities.
Which of the following concepts refers to the specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex?
lateralization
Nonnormative
life events are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individual's life, but do not occur to every individual and do not always influence people in the same way.
Melissa is intrigued by how people change from infancy through late adulthood. She would learn about this subject by studying the field of human development called ____BLANK ____development.
lifespan
AUTHORITARIAN
many rules & demands, little sensitivity Childhood Lower social competencies, higher levels of aggression Adolescence Average academic performance and social skills; more conforming than adolescents of permissive parents
The middle layer of the embryo, which will become the circulatory system, bones, and muscles, is called the
mesoderm.
In the field of perceptual development, those who emphasize the role of nature are referred to as
nativists.
The most common infant sleep-related problem is
nighttime waking.
According to the life-span perspective, which age dominates development?
no age
During play, the ball rolls out of view behind a chair. The infant walks behind the chair in search of the ball. This behavior is an example of which of the following?
object permanence
What two processes underlie Piaget's theory of cognitive development?
organization and adaptation
The ______ is a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join.
placenta
Preschool children tend to compare things in a haphazard way, whereas elementary school age children exhibit ______ by comparing two items systematically, one detail at a time.
planfulness
Psychoanalytic theory
preschool child develops a sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent
Which age group is the most susceptible to suggestion?
preschoolers
Primary emotions
present in humans and other animals and emerge early in life. joy sadness fear surprise
According to Erikson, humans develop in ______ stages.
psychosocial
authoritative parenting
reasonable demands, sensitivity & acceptance High self-esteem, excellent social skills, strong moral/prosocial concern, high academic achievement High cognitive and social competencies Children are more prosocial
Behaviors that are built-in reactions to stimuli that allow infants to respond to their environment before they have learned the behavior are called
reflexes
Increases in which of the following are reasons that memory span changes with age?
rehearsal of information processing speed
Fertilization
reproductive stage when egg and sperm fuse to create a zygote.
An infant's fear of a caregiver leaving, which results in crying when the caregiver leaves, is called
separation protest.
According to today's psychoanalytic theories, Freud's theory overemphasized
sexual instincts.
Which of the following are self-conscious emotions?
shame guilt embarrassment pride
Equilibration is the name Piaget gave to the mechanism by which children
shift from one stage of thought to the next.
Behavioral inhibition is characterized by
shyness with strangers.
Brocas area
speech control
Which of the following are cognitive strategies that children might use to control their emotions?
suppression disengagement
What two aspects of attention develop in early childhood?
sustained attention executive attention
Phonology
the sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined.
Psychoanalytic theories of development place heavy emphasis on the role of
the unconscious.
Morphology
the units of meaning involved in word formation Young children can intuit morphological rules. Children were shown pictures of a bird-like "wug." When asked what two of them were, children responded, "Wugs."
Chromosomes
threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid
Stages of Play Mildred Parton (1932)
1. Unoccupied Play: observing (while stationary)2. Solitary (Independent) Play: focus on an activity3. Onlooker Play: watches other but does not participate 4. Parallel Play: adjacent but separate activities5. Associative Play: mutual interest but little coordination 6. Cooperative Play: interest in the person and the activity
Parental Guilt:
1/2 of fathers and 1/4 of mothers report feeling they are not spending enough time with their children
The upper boundary of the human life span (based on the oldest age documented) is _____ years.
122
Common generational experiences due to historical events
1930's Great Depression 9/11/2001 Terrorist attacks 1960s to 70s Civil and Women's rights movements COVID-19 Pandemic
Embryonic period:
2-8 weeks after conception Rate of cell differentiation intensifies Three layers of cells: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm (inner, middle, and outer layers). Life-support systems for the embryo form and organs appear. Amnion: contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats.
Fetal period:
2-9 months after conception
Milestones (2nd year):
By 13-18 months, they can climb steps By 18-24 months, they can...walk quickly and run short distances Balance on their feet while squatting Walk backwardsKick a ballStand and throw a ballJump in place
hearing
Changes in hearing•As infants age, sensitivity increases to: • Loudness• Pitch• Localization
Which of the following statements best describe the key elements of Piaget's second stage of cognitive development?
Children continue to be egocentric and have magical beliefs. Children are able to use words to describe their world. Children form stable concepts and begin to reason.
Trends in Play
Children have a smaller amount of free play time Play time at home and school is restricted so that children can focus on academic subjects Learning in playful contexts can captivate children's minds in a way that facilitates cognitive and socioemotional development
Good Quality Sleep
Children should get 10-13 hours/day Consistent sleep and wake times Total sleep/day may include a nap
Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky)
Children think and understand primarily through social interaction
Many problems children experience after parents divorce preexist the divorce
Children with difficult temperament have problems coping with divorce. The opposite is also true. Frequent noncustodial parents visits benefit children Co-parenting after divorce helps children adjust, reduces anxiety and depression, and increases self-esteem and academic performance.
Understanding emotions
Children's understanding of emotion linked to increase in pro-social behavior Children begin to understand that same event can elicit different feelings in different people By age 5, most children show more ability to reflect on emotions and growing awareness of the need to manage emotions according to social standards
Many U. S. children today experience multiple caregivers.
Currently over 2 million children receive formal, licensed care. Many more are cared for by unlicensed babysitters.
Gene-Linked Abnormalities
Cystic fibrosis Glandular disfunction that interferes with mucus production; breathing and digestion are hampered, resulting in a shortened life span. Physical and oxygen therapy, synthetic 1 in 2,000 births enzymes, and antibiotics; most individualslive to middle age. Diabetes Body does not produce enough insulin, Early onset can be fatal unless treated with 1 in 2,500 births which causes abnormal metabolism of insulin. sugar. Hemophilia Delayed blood clotting causes internal Blood transfusions/injections can reduce or 1 in 10,000 males and external bleeding. prevent damage due to internal bleeding. Huntington's Central nervous system deteriorates, disease producing problems in muscle coordination and mental deterioration. Does not usually appear until age 35 or 1 in 20,000 births older; death likely 10 to 20 years aftersymptoms appear. Phenylketonuria Metabolic disorder that, left untreated, Special diet can result in average 1 in 10,000 to 1 in (PKU) causes intellectual disability and intelligence and normal life span. 20,000 births hyperactivity. Sickle-cell anemia Blood disorder that limits the body's Penicillin, medication for pain, antibiotics, oxygen supply; it can cause joint swelling, blood transfusions, and hydroxyurea.as well as heart and kidney failure. 1 in 400 African American children (lower among other groups) Spina bifida Neural tube disorder that causes brain Corrective surgery at birth, orthopedic 2 in 1,000 births and spine abnormalities. devices, and physical/medical therapy. Tay-Sachs Deceleration of mental and physical Medication and special diet are used, but 1 in 30 American disease development caused by an accumulation death is likely by 5 years of age. Jews is a carrier. of lipids in the nervous system.
Benefits of breast feeding and outcomes for the child
Fewer gastrointestinal infections Fewer respiratory tract infections Protects against wheezing in babies, but may or may not be linked to preventing asthma Fewer ear, throat, and sinus infections Reduced infant hospitalizations for various infections Not linked to reduced risk of developing allergies
Changes in neurons during first years of life:
Increased connectivity among neurons creates new neural pathways. Myelination
Nutritional needs and eating behavior
Infants should consume approximately 50 calories per day for each pound they weigh. As motor skills improve, infants' eating changes • From using suck-and-swallow to chew-and-swallow movements. • As they can eat semisolid and then complex foods.
Type of Conservation: number
Initial Presentation: two identical rows of objects are shown to the child, who agrees they have same number Manipulation: one row is lengthened, and child is asked whether one row now has more objects. Preoperational Child's Answer: "Yes, the longer row."
Autobiographical memory
Involves memory of significant events and experiences in one's life In some areas (remembering a story, a song, or interesting event or experience), young children have been shown to have reasonably good memories.
Morals
Involves thoughts, feelings, and behavior regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people
What do critics of Vygotsky's theory think of his view of collaboration and guidance?
It has potential pitfalls if facilitators are too helpful or children are lazy.
Consequences of Excessive Screen Time
Less time playing and socializing with peers Decreased physical activity (and increased obesity) Distracts from homeworkLower cognitive developmentPoor sleep habitsTurns children into passive learners
Lower-SES parents
More concerned that their children conform to society's expectations Create a home atmosphere in which it is clear that parents have authority over children, among others Are more directive and less conversational Use more physical punishment
Higher-SES parents
More concerned with developing children's initiative and delay of gratification Create a home atmosphere in which children are more nearly equal participants and in which rules are discussed Are less directive and more conversational Less likely to use physical punishment
Visual acuity and human faces
Newborn's vision is estimated at 20/600 on Snellen chart. Vision clarity improves from fuzzy at one month to clear at one year. Within hours of birth, newborns prefer looking at faces over other objects.
Normative history-graded influences
Normative history-graded influences are those influences within the life course that are correlated with historical time and are experienced by the majority of a culture. For example,, wars and epidemics are considered history-graded events.
Consequences of Poor Quality Sleep
Overweight/obesity ADHD Sleep
Consequences of poor posture:
Pain Appearance Reduced ability to perform activities of daily living
Gender, culture, and temperament
Parents may react differently to an infant's temperament depending on gender. Cultural differences in temperament were linked to parent attitude and behaviors. Goodness of fit: match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope
Bowlby: Four phases of attachment
Phase 1: from birth to 2 months (Infants direct their attachment to human figures) Phase 2: from 2 to 7 months (Attachment becomes focused on one figure, primary caregiver). Phase 3: from 7 to 27 months (Specific attachments develop. With increased locomotion, babies actively seek contact with regular caregivers) Phase 4: from 24 months on (Children become aware of others' feelings and goals and account for them in their own actions).
______ involves how sounds are used and how sounds are combined.
Phonology
Types of Child Maltreatment
Physical abuse Sexual abuse Emotional abuse Child neglect
Regulating emotions
Plays a key role in children's ability to manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others Parents can be described as taking an emotion-coaching or an emotion-dismissing approach to help children regulate emotions. Ability to modulate emotions benefits children in their relationships with peers. Emotional Development
Consequences of Good Quality Sleep
Positive interactions with parents Better emotion-regulation
Self-conscious emotions:
Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt During the early childhood years, pride and guilt become more common. Influenced by parents' responses to children's behavior, for example, " You should feel bad about biting your sister."
Moral behavior
Processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior. Situation influences behavior. Cognitive factors are important in the child's development of self-control.
Social relationships
Provide settings to develop a variety of emotions Relationships and culture provide diversity in emotional experiences.
Smiling
Reflexive smile: smile that does not occur in response to external stimuliSocial smile: in response to an external stimulus
Caregivers of insecurely attached infants tend to be
Rejecting Inconsistent Abusive
Which of the following emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction?
Social constructivist approach
Fine motor skills
Still clumsy at 3 yearsImproved fine motor coordination at 4 years Body, arm, and hand-eye coordination by 5 years
Fear
Stranger anxiety: fear and wariness of strangers, appears during the second half of the first year of life Separation protest: distressed crying when the caregiver leaves
Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
Support from a more experienced member of society
Life Expectancy
The upper boundary of human lifespan is 122 years. Life expectancy is 79 years. Prehistoric era average life expectancy was 18 years. People live longer in part due to better sanitation, nutrition and medicine. Currently, there are more people alive above 60 than under 18 in the U.S.
Children learn the words...
They hear most oftenFor things and events that interest themBetter in responsive & interactive contexts than in passive contexts Best in contexts that are meaningfulBest when they access clear information about word meaningBest when grammar and vocabulary are considered
Gender schema theory
children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender- appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture
In 2017, ______ was the most common cause of accidental death in young children.
drowning
Memory
retention of information over time Short-term: individuals can retain information for up to 30 seconds with no rehearsal
Culture, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status are ______ components of life-span development.
sociocultural
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a child who has developed executive function skills?
stimulus-driven
Self-understanding
substance and content of self-conceptions Better understanding of emotions in early childhood enabled children to develop more advanced understanding of others' perspectives
Cesarean delivery
surgically removing baby from the mother's uterus through an abdominal incision. Breech position baby, fetal distress, maternal vaginal bleeding, natural birth hindered by epidural. Debate over benefits versus risk, respiratory complications Rate in United States is higher.
According to Piaget, the first substage of preoperational thought is the substage, in which the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present.
symbolic function
Contemporary view
temperament is a biologically- based but evolving aspect of behavior
Any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes is referred to as a(n)
teratogen.
Infinite generativity
the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules
Which of the following best characterizes theory of mind?
thoughts about how one's own mental processes work and the mental processes of others
The outer layer of cells that will eventually provide nutrition and support for the embryo is called the
trophoblast.
True or false: According to Chomsky, children's language acquisition device (LAD) provides them with the ability to form plural words.
true
Erikson
trust arises from physical comfort and sensitive care
According to Erikson, the foundation for attachment in infancy is
trust.
Which of the following would be most commonly used by a behavior geneticist?
twin or adoption studies
Nutrition and oxygen flow from the placenta to the fetus through the ______ cord.
umbilical
Which of the following are likely characteristics for children of authoritarian parents?
unhappiness and fear weak communication skills failure to initiate activity anxiety about comparing themselves with others
Rank the main causes of death among young children, from the highest incidence to the lowest incidence.
unintentional injuries congenital malformations malignant neoplasms homicide
normative life event
unusual occurrences that have a major impact on individuals life
Diet
• Introduce fruits and vegetables early. • Most common "vegetable" fed to 15 month olds are French fries.
The average North American newborn is ______ inches long.
20 in
Custodial mothers experience the loss of about ______ of their predivorce income.
25 to 50 percent
Match each activity with the appropriate age at which it can be achieved.
3 years old matches Choice, hopping and jumping hopping and jumping 4 years old matches Choice, climbing a low jungle gym climbing a low jungle gym 5 years old matches Choice, running races with friends running races with friends
An fMRI study confirmed capacity of the fetus to hear at ______ into the prenatal period by assessing brain response to auditory stimuli.
33 to 34 weeks
Make-believe play often reaches a peak at ______ years of age, then gradually declines.
4 to 5
Medication.
Analgesia, anesthesia, and oxytocin
Consequences of abuse
Attachment problemsPoor emotion regulationPoor cognitive development Poor peer relationsAcademic problems Internalizing (e.g., Depression) Externalizing (e.g., Aggression) Substance abuse, delinquency Violent romantic relationships Sexual risk takingSuicidal ideation
Height and weight
Average growth is 2.5 inches and 5 to 10 pounds per year during early childhood.
breast feeding makes infants less likely to
Develop middle ear infection. Become overweight or obese in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Develop type 1 diabetes in childhood or adult type 2. Suffer from SIDS.
Mothers Who Work Outside the Home
More than 1 of every 2 U.S. mothers with a child under the age of 5 is in the workforce. Children of working mothers engage in less gender stereotyping and have more egalitarian views of gender than do children of nonworking mothers.
Changes in child's brain structure
Myelination: nerve cells are covered and insulated with a layer of fat cells Increases speed at which information travels through nervous system Rapid, distinct spurts of growth, especially in the frontal lobes
Which of the following are major cognitive theories of development that address the early childhood years?
Piaget's theory Vygotsky's theory information processing theory
Which of the following theorists developed a temperament classification that emphasized the importance of effortful control?
Rothbart and Bates
Broca's area
SPEECH CONTROL
______ involves parents who take the time to interact with a child in such a way that the child experiences turn-taking and the parents support the child's efforts at any age.
Scaffolding
Correlational Study
Scores on two variables are measured to see whether scores on one index correlate with scores on the other. Does not involve the manipulation of an independent variable.
Types of Play
Sensorimotor: infants derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas Practice: involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned Pretense/symbolic: transforming physical environment into symbols Social: involves interaction with peers Constructive: combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation Games: activities are engaged in for pleasure and have rules
______ is primarily confined to infancy, whereas ______ play can be engaged in throughout life.
Sensorimotor; practice
Proximodistal pattern:
Sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities.
Overweight young children
Serious health problems in early childhood Strongly influenced by caregivers' behavior Categories for obesity, overweight, and at risk for being overweight (assessed via BMI) U.S. has second highest rate of childhood obesity
Gross motor skills
Simple movements at age 3 (hopping, jumping, running) More capable at age 4 (one foot/stair going down stairs) More adventurous at age 5 (hair-raising stunts)
Sleep and Cognitive Development
Sleep may be positively linked to cognitive development. Likely occurs because of sleep's role in brain maturation and memory consolidation. Better memory, language, executive function. Lower quality of sleep linked with distractibility and behavioral problems.
Static vs Dynamic Vision
Stationary vs moving objects
A child calls all winged creatures birds, including bats and butterflies. Her mother teaches her the correct terms for the different animals, and the child does not make the mistake again in the future. What Piagetian concept does this example describe?
accommodation
Teratogen
any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral developmental outcomes Damage/severity depends on: - dose- genetic susceptibility- time of exposure
A child sees a zebra for the first time. She says, "Horse!" What Piagetian concept does this example describe?
assimilation
Ian is able to complete the last few problems of his math homework only with a lot of guidance from his big sister, Briana. Currently, Ian is
at the upper limit of his zone of proximal development.
A young child who says, "Where Daddy is going?" or "What that girl is doing?" has yet to fully understand which of the following?
auxiliary-inversion rule
Theory of mind:
awareness of one's own mental process and the mental processes of others Positively Associated With: Developmental changes: Executive functioning (prefrontal cortex) Age 18 months to 3 years: children begin to undLearsntgaunadgtehrDeevmeleonptmal estnattes (Perceptions, desires, and emotions) Higher SES Age 3 to 5 years: children understand false beliefs Negatively Associated With: Age 5 to 9 years: deepening appreciation of the mind Autism
Culture
behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group passed on from generation to generation
Approximately one week after conception, when differentiation of the cells begins, the zygote is now a group of cells that is more specifically called the
blastocyst
Which of the following is NOT a dominant characteristic?
blonde hair
Preterm infants
born before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation.
Reading and performing music are generally believed to involve ______ of the brain.
both hemispheres
Doula
caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth.
The ______ pattern of growth is reflected in the fact that infants can see an object before they can control their torso.
cephalocaudal
The rapid development of the brain in infancy can be attributed to the
cephalocaudal principle.
examples of teratogens types
ch 2 slides pg 22
Newborn Assessment Apgar Scale
ch 2 slides pg. 31
Erikson's psychosocial stages (Infancy) "Trust vs Mistrust"
ch 4 p. 2
1st Trimester 1st 3 Months 2nd Trimester Middle 3 Months 3rd Trimester Last 3 Months
ch. 2 slides page 15
Language milestones
ch. 3 slides p. 21
vygotsky vs Piaget chart comparison
ch. 5. slide page 19
Intuitive thought substage
children use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to questions. • Ages 4 to 7 years
Social cognitive theory:
children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of others' words and actions
______ are threadlike structures made up of strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
chromosomes
The threadlike structures found in the nucleus of each human cell and made up of deoxyribonucleic acid are called
chromosomes.
The theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and information processing are major theories of ______ development in early childhood.
cognitive
In early childhood, executive function involves which of the following developmental advances?
cognitive inhibition goal-setting cognitive flexibility
Normative history-graded influences are
common to members of a particular generation.
If a study is "cross-cultural," this means that it
compares multiple cultures.
Cross-Cultural Studies:
comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures to gain information about their developmental similarities
Harlow
contact comfort preferred over food
Umbilical cord
contains two arteries and one vein and connects the baby to the placenta.
Vygotsky's theory stressed the importance of sociocultural influences on children's development, which fits the belief that it is important to evaluate
contextual factors in learning.
Andrew is an 18-month-old boy. His mother has been cleaning the house. Andrew watches her vacuum, wash the windows, and sweep the kitchen floor. The next day his mother watches as Andrew takes his toy vacuum and pretends to vacuum the floor. What cognitive technique is Andrew demonstrating?
deferred imitation
The ______ period refers to a time frame in a person's life that is characterized by certain features.
developmental
Which of the following are cognitive strategies that children might use to control their emotions?
disengagement suppression
Placenta
disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the fetus intertwine but do not join.
According to developmental psychologist David Moore, genetic factors
do not determine phenotypes independently from the contexts in which they develop.
The perspective on motor development that seeks to explain how motor behaviors are assembled for perceiving and acting is referred to as the
dynamic systems
The perspective that does not rigidly believe in any one theoretical perspective but considers multiple theories and selects the best features from each is known as a(n) ______ theoretical orientation.
eclectic
Which theory would be most likely to explore the idea that parenting is influenced by culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status?
ecological theory
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
eggs and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish by experts Zygote or fertilized egg is transferred into the woman's uterus Multiple zygotes are often transferred but can increase health risks
The period that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception is known as the ______ period.
embryonic
The rate of cell differentiation intensifies, the support systems for cells form, and organs appear during which period?
embryonic
According to ______, the presence or absence of certain experiences is especially important during specific time frames called critical periods.
ethologists
Which of the following are characteristic of child-directed speech?
exaggerated intonation simple words higher pitch
Life ___Blank , is the average number of years a person born in a particular year can expect to live.
expectancy
The traditional approach to the study of development emphasizes the
extensive changes that occur from birth to adolescence.
Parental leave
fathers are positively engaged with their children; improved developmental outcomes occur
Attention
focusing of mental resources on select information
Early Head Start serves children
from birth to age 3.
activities that children engage in for pleasure and that have rules. Often they involve competition
games
Which two of the following strategies do parents typically use with infants to direct joint attention?
gaze following pointing
Social role theory:
gender differences result from contrasting roles of women and men
The period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception is known as the ______ period.
germinal
Which of the following are a part of executive functioning?
goal-directed behavior self-control
The match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope is known by the term
goodness of fit.
Socioeconomic Status
grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics
Executive functioning
higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex Children manage thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and self-control.
Phenotype
how an individual's genotype is expressed in observable and measurable physical and psychological characteristics Expression is influenced by environmental factors
By studying life-span development we learn information about ourselves, including which of the following?
how we will age how we came to be this way who we are
In which of the following situations is an infant LEAST likely to experience stranger anxiety?
if the stranger is another child
Between 18 and 24 months of age, children markedly increase their ______ play.
imitative and reciprocal
Autonomous morality
in Piaget's theory, older children (approximately 10 years of age and older) become aware that rules and laws are created by people When judging an action, one should consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences.
Infertility
inability to conceive a child after 12 months of regular intercourse without contraception
Egocentrism
inability to distinguish one's own perspective from someone else's
According to evolutionary psychology, natural selection favors behaviors that
increase reproductive success.
Massage therapy
increased infant weight, reduced stress, and reduced hospital stay.
Which of the following factors influence the accuracy of a young child's memory?
individual differences in susceptibility age differences in susceptibility to suggestion interviewing techniques that produce substantial distortions
Kagan is responsible for a broad temperament category referred to as ______ the unfamiliar.
inhibition to
Which of Erikson's psychosocial stages is most associated with early childhood?
initiative versus guilt
Conscience:
internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves integrating moral thought, feeling, and behavior
During what preoperational thought substage do children seek answers to all sorts of questions? Multiple choice question.
intuitive thought
Postpartum depression
involves a major depressive episode that typically occurs 4 weeks after delivery. Postpartum depression: strong feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair; difficulty coping w/daily tasks in the postpartum period. Peak 3 to 5 days after giving birth (usually last 1-2 weeks) Risk factors: depression and anxiety during pregnancy, low self-esteem, postpartum blues, poor marital relationship, lack of social support,history of depression. Long-term impact: child's emotions and behaviors.
Kangaroo care
involves skin-to-skin contact. Long-term benefits, for example, better respiratory and cardiovascular functioning, sleep patterns, and cognitive functioning from ages 6 months to 10 years. Positive emotional and cognitive effects: present after 20 years, for example, emerging adults had social skills, and reduced school absenteeism, hyperactivity, and aggressiveness.
Vygotsky maintained that development
is inseparable from social and cultural influences.
Which of the following are examples of gross motor skills acquired in childhood?
jumping running climbing
Wenick's area
language comprehension
Which of the following are individual differences that affect theory of mind development in children?
language development executive function
With regard to young children who are learning English as their first language, all children will
learn the prepositions on and in before other prepositions.
Which of the following are components of Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory?
microsystem mesosystem chronosystem macrosystem exosystem
Most children in the United States start school when they are 5 or 6 years of age. This occurrence is an example of a
normative age-graded influence.
Which of the following are criticisms of Vygotsky's theory?
not specific about age-related changes overemphasis on the role of language
Strange situation
observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of Involves a series of Introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in prescribed order over approximately 20 minutes
PERMISSIVE/INDULGENT
parents highly involved, few rules and demands Childhood Low social competencies, self-control Associated with disrespect for others Domineering, egocentric, noncompliant, difficulty in peer relations Adolescence Poor self-control and academic performance; more drug use than adolescents of authoritative or authoritarian parents
The main theme of the ecological approach of Eleanor and James J. Gibson is that ______ and action are coupled.
perception
Genotype
person's genetic material Genetic principles determine how a genotype is expressed to create a particular phenotype.
What is one of the hallmark aspects of the intuitive thought substage in Piaget's preoperational stage?
primitive reasoning
A government's social policy is the course of action taken by the government to
promote the welfare of the country's citizens.
Natural childbirth
reduces mother's pain by decreasing her fear through • Education about childbirth.• Relaxation techniques during delivery
Increased awareness
reflects young children's expanding psychological sophistication.
Self-conscious emotions:
require self-awareness, especially consciousness and a sense of "me" Embarrassment ShameGuiltEnvy Pride
Operations
reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they formerly did physically
The family system includes the subsystems of generation, gender, and Multiple choice question.
role.
Preschool children's control of attention is deficient. They are likely to pay attention to
salient features rather than relevant features.
The zone of proximal development is clearly linked to , another concept from Vygotsky, which is defined as a changing level of support from a more skilled person like a parent or teacher.
scaffolding
The effectiveness of the zone of proximal development is increased by which of the following?
secure attachment compliance emotional regulation
After developing self-awareness, children around the age of 18 months begin experiencing what type of emotions?
self-conscious
The ______ stage is the name of the Piagetian stage that occurs between birth and 2 years of age.
sensorimotor
Research using the memory-span task suggests that ______-term memory increases during early childhood.
short
Insecure avoidant babies
show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver
Insecure disorganized babies
show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented
Children in divorced families
show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in never-divorced families worse cohabitating/marital relationships from 16 to 30. Also influenced by SES and childhood sexual abuse Parental divorce and child maltreatment linked to midlife suicidal ideation
Normative age-graded influences
similar for individuals in a particular age group e.g. starting school, puberty, menopause
Which of the following is essential for the development of a variety of emotions and emotional experiences?
social relationships
What are the three proposed social theories of gender?
social role theory social cognitive theory psychoanalytic theory