PSY 683 Exam 1 Study Guide

Richard Beckhard's open systems planning (strategic change)

- Focus on organization's core mission - How can differences between what the environment demands and how an organization responds be reduced? - We see work as more than an economic arrangement

Compelling visions are made up of:

(1) a core ideology or relatively stable identity that describes the organization's core values and purpose and (2) an envisioned future with bold goals and a vivid description of the desired future state that reflects the specific change under consideration

Planned change effort (organization development)

(As opposed to haphazard change) - Systematic diagnosis of the organization - Development of a strategic plan for improvement - Mobilization of resources to carry out the effort - Adaptive process for planning and implementing change - NOT a blueprint for how things should be done - ALSO → subsequent reinforcement of change - OD moves beyond initial efforts to implement change program - Longer-term concern for sustaining new activities within the organization

The Open Systems Model

- An IPO model for the entire organizational system Environment: - Everything outside of an organization that can (in)directly affect its outputs - Organizations exchange information/resources with their environments Inputs (basic starting components) - Human capital or other resources - Information - Energy - Time Transformations (like P of IPO model) - Processes of converting inputs into outputs - Uses people and things to produce something - Social component - Technological component Outputs - Results of what is transformed by the system and sent to the environment - Finished goods - Services - Ideas Boundaries - We have ways of organizing people into groups within an organization (there are also boundaries outside of an organization) Feedback - Information used to control the future function of the system - The feedback helps adjust the other stages - Our knowledge of how the output turns out feedback to how we adjust our inputs and processes (cyclical model) Alignment - There are all of these different moving parts that we can assess - Are all pieces moving towards the main goal or not (we need a north star)

What makes one organization a winner, whereas another fails to make use of similar opportunities?

- Apple has had many failed products, but they continue to be successful by making new products - They have created a network that is interconnected - Their model is "Think Different" - There is a major benefit in communication

System 1: Exploitative Authority (Likert's management systems)

- Autocratic, top-down leadership - Motivation based mainly on punishment - Downward communication - Decision making and control reside at top

Managed from the top (organization development)

- Have to be supported by the top people in the organization - Top management personally invested in OD program and its outcomes: - Actively participating in managing the effort - Knowledgeable about/committed to the program - Supportive of the methods used - The client needs to have the power to hire you and they need to be on board with the change

System 4: Participative group (Likert's management systems)

- High degrees of member involvement and participation - Work groups are highly involved in setting goals, making decisions, etc. - High levels of productivity, quality, and satisfaction

Normative Approaches (5 stems of OD)

- Human relations approaches represented a "one best way" to manage organizations - Idea is if we do enough research, one way will be the best and can be applied to the situation every time 1. Likert's Management Systems 2. Blake & Mouton's managerial grid model

Design components for the Organizational-level diagnosis model

- If you diagnose at the organizational level, you can look at their strategy alignment Strategy: - The way an organization uses its resources to achieve its goals/gain an competitive advantage in a particular environment Technology: - The way an organization converts inputs into products and services - Technical interdependence: the extent to which different parts of the technological system are related - Technical uncertainty: the amount of information processing and decision making require during task performance Structure: - Basic organizing mode for: - 1. Dividing work into subunits that can assign tasks to groups/individuals - 2. Coordinating these subunits for completion of the overall work - Coordination is related to environmental uncertainty, subunit differentiation, and subunit interdependence Management Processes: - Methods for processing information, making decisions, and controlling the operation of the organization Human Resources Systems: - Mechanisms for selecting, developing, appraising, and rewarding organization members Culture: - Basic assumptions, values, and norms shared by organization members - Serve to guide members' perceptions, thoughts, and actions - Culture can either hinder or facilitate organization change

Establishing the diagnostic relationship

- Important in situations where data will be collected from employees who weren't part of the entering/contracting process (trust is important) - We have to tactful in the first interactions with organization members Answer the following questions to build trust: - Who are you? - Why are you here? - Who do you work for? - What do you want from the organization members? - How will you protect their confidentiality? - Who will have access to their data? - What is in it for you? - Are you trustworthy? Bottom line: - communication builds trust - This is for self-development of the organization

Strategic Change (5 stems of OD)

- Improving the alignment of an organization's design, strategy, and environment - Organization's relationship to environment - Fit among its technical, structural, informational, human resource, and cultural components

Step 1: Motivating the change

- Includes creating a readiness for change among organization members and helping them address resistance to change. - Leadership must create an environment in which people accept the need for change and commit physical and psychological energy to it - This involves making people so dissatisfied with the status quo that they are motivated to try new work processes, technologies, or ways of behaving Three methods that generate sufficient dissatisfaction to produce change: - Sensitize organizations to pressures for change - Reveal discrepancies between current and desired states - Convey credible positive expectations for the change

System 3: Consultative (Likert's management systems)

- Increased employees interaction, communication, and decision making - Productivity and satisfaction are good

Step 4: Managing the transition

- It involves creating a plan for managing the change activities as well as planning special management structures for operating the organization during the transition. - They identified three major activities and structures to facilitate organizational transition: activity planning, commitment planning, and change-management structures. A fourth set of activities involves managing the learning process during change - Activity planning involves making a road map for change, citing specific activities and events that must occur if the transition is to be successful - Commitment planning involves identifying key people and groups whose commitment is needed for change to occur and formulating a strategy for gaining their support. - These management structures should include people who have the power to mobilize resources to promote change, the respect of the existing leadership and change advocates, and the interpersonal and political skills to guide the change process.

Survey Feedback (5 stems of OD)

- Key component of most action research - Fed back to client organization - Lewin died in 1947 - His Research Center for Group Dynamics at MIT joined Rensis Likert's Institute for Social Research at the U. of Michigan Likert & Mann - Management and employee attitude survey at Detroit Edison - "Interlocking chain of conferences" - 1. Survey - 2. Systematic feedback - Sent out a survey to the whole company, analyzed the survey, and told the managers the feedback so they could cascade that information to employees (since there was no email) - Based on data - Involves organization members directly - Provides information about what to change and according to which priority - Focuses on change on the larger system - Not on individuals per se - Action research and survey feedback are more contemporary practices

Positive Model

- More of a Positive framing to OD 1. Initiate the Inquiry - Start with a question - What can we improve? - Members identify the organizational issue they have the most energy to address 2. Inquire into Best Practices - Investigate ways in which people out in the world do things best (how can we mimic that?) - Gather information about the "best of what is" in the organization - Stories pulled together to create a pool of information 3. Discover Themes - Look at lots of different organizations who do things well - No theme is too big/small - Represent the basis for moving from "what is" to "what could be" 4. Envision a Preferred Future - How can we make this a reality? - Challenge status quo - Describe a compelling future 5. Design and Deliver Ways to Create the Future - Not going to say intervention - Create plans necessary to bring about vision - Action and assessment

What isn't OD?

- OD is not a micro approach to change - E.g., management development is aimed at changing individual behavior - OD is focused on the macro goal of organization-wide improvement in management style - OD is not any single technique - OD does not include random or ad hoc changes - Systematic diagnosis and planned change - OD is not exclusively aimed at raising morale or attitudes

Step 3: Developing political support

- Organizations are composed of powerful individuals and groups that can either block or promote change, and leaders and change agents need to gain their support to implement changes. - Individuals and groups will be concerned with how the changes affect their own power and influence, and they will act accordingly. - Some groups will become less powerful; others will gain influence. - Those whose power is threatened by the change will act defensively and seek to preserve the status quo There are at least three major strategies for using power to influence others in OD: - playing it straight, using social networks, and going around the formal system

Organizational Development

- Organizations are designed to accomplish some purpose and to continue doing so for as long as possible. - Because of this, they are not necessarily intended to change.

Diagnosis

- Systematic approach to understanding and describing the present state of the organization - Specify exact nature of the problem - Identify underlying causal forces (as opposed to symptoms) - Process is "hypothesis driven" (McKinsey & Co.)

System-wide (organization development)

- Takes into consideration the entire organization - Changes in strategy, structure, or process of an entire system -- E.g., change in culture/reward systems/total managerial strategy - There may be tactical efforts which work with subparts of the organization - But the system to be changed is a total, relatively autonomous organization - NOT necessarily a total corporation or entire government (could be a few stakeholders) - Refers to a system which is relatively free to determine its own future within very general environmental constraints

Employee involvement

- The growing emphasis on how employees can contribute more to running the organization so it can be flexible, productive, and competitive - QWL led to employee involvement

Step 2: Creating a vision

- The vision provides a purpose and reason for change and describes the desired future state. - Together, they provide the "why" and "what" of planned change. - Generally, a vision describes the core values and purpose that guide the organization as well as an envisioned future toward which change is directed. It provides a valued direction for designing, implementing, and assessing organizational changes.

Organizational-level diagnosis

- Things that are essentially the same for everyone in the organization - Could be subject to individual perception, but it impacts everyone in the same way - Example: culture, climate, norms, policies, procedures, effectiveness, performance

Step 5: Sustaining momentum

- This includes providing resources for implementing the changes, building a support system for change agents, developing new competencies and skills, and reinforcing the new behaviors needed to implement the changes. - Implementing organization change generally requires additional financial and human resources, particularly if the organization continues day-to-day operations while trying to change itself - A support system typically consists of a network of people with whom the change agent has close personal relationships—people who can give emotional support, serve as a sounding board for ideas and problems, and challenge untested assumption - Change agents need to provide multiple learning opportunities, such as traditional training programs, on-the-job counseling and coaching, and experiential simulations, covering both technical and social skills - One of the most effective ways to sustain momentum for change is to reinforce the kinds of behaviors needed to implement the changes - If the organization changes again too quickly or abandons the change before it is fully implemented, the desired results may never materialize

Action research cycle

- This is a cyclical process - We end up where we began and hopefully we have learned something/changed something and continue in this cycle 1. Problem Identification - Executive senses organizational problems - Contacts OD practitioner 2. Consultation - Share assumptions and values 3. Data Gathering - Completed by OD practitioner in conjunction with organization members - Gather information and analyze for underlying causes of problems - Interviews, observations, surveys, and organizational performance data 4. Feedback - Data fed back to client - Helps members determines strengths and weaknesses of organization 5. Joint Diagnosis - Members discuss the feedback and explore with the OD practitioner whether they want to work on identified problems 6. Join Action Planning - OD practitioner and client members agree on further actions to be taken 7. Action - Actual change from one organizational state to another 8. Data Gathering - Determine effects of action - Feed the results back to the organization - May lead to re-diagnosis - Rediagnosis is supposed to see if the intervention worked, so you can replicate it in other companies, and so you can improve for next time

5 Steps of change Management

1. motivating the change 2. creating a vision 3. developing political support 4. managing the transition 5. sustaining momentum

Warning Signs in the OD relationship

1. Commitment to change is minimal. - System dominated by unenthused members 2. Degree of leverage/power to influence change is minimal. - Manager who invites OD practitioner is lower-level - Lacks any real capability to influence system 3. Client attempts to use the practitioner in a manipulative way. - Client may wish to use the practitioner as a weapon against factions/individuals

Points of Caution for Diagnosis (Brown)

1. Confidentiality 2. Overdiagnosis - i.e., "analysis paralysis" 3. Crisis diagnosis - Focus on short-term crises that client sees as immediate/important - Time and energy wasted on fighting symptoms 4. Threatening and overwhelming diagnosis - Client may reject change program 5. Practitioner's favorite diagnosis 6. Diagnosis of symptoms - e.g., turnover rate

Five key values that describe national cultures and influence organizational customs:

1. Context orientation - how information is conveyed and time is valued in a culture 2. Power distance - the way people view authority, status difference, and influence patterns 3. Uncertainty avoidance - a preferences for conservative practices and familiar situations 4. Achievement orientation - the extent to which the culture favors the acquisition of power and resources 5. Individualism - looking out for oneself as opposed to a group or organization

Interventions concerning performance management, including the following change programs:

1. Goal setting. This change program involves setting clear and challenging goals. It attempts to improve organization effectiveness by establishing a better fit between personal and organizational objectives. 2. Performance appraisal. This intervention is a systematic process of jointly assessing work-related achievements, strengths, and weaknesses. It is the primary human resources management intervention for providing performance feedback to individuals and work groups. 3. Reward systems. This intervention involves the design of organizational rewards to improve employee satisfaction and performance. It includes innovative approaches to pay, promotions, and fringe benefits.

Interventions for designing work for individual jobs and interactive groups:

1. Job enrichment. Based on motivational principles, this intervention creates jobs that employees are likely to experience as meaningful with high levels of autonomy and feedback from performing the work. 2. Self-managed work teams. This intervention designs work for teams performing highly interrelated tasks that require real-time decision making. Self-managed work teams are typically responsible for a complete product or service and members are able to make decisions and control their own task behaviors without a lot of external controls.

5 stems of OD practice

1. Laboratory Training 2. Action Research/Survey Feedback 3. Normative Approaches 4. Quality of Work Life 5. Strategic Change

Feeding Back Data: Process

1. Motivation to work with the data - Members perceive a benefit 2. Structure for the meeting - Agenda/outline 3. Appropriate attendance - Proper representation 4. Appropriate power - Power to address change 5. Process help - Assistance in working together as a group

System-wide human process interventions

1. Organization confrontation meeting. This change method mobilizes organization members to identify problems, set action targets, and begin working on problems. It is usually applied when organizations are experiencing stress and when management needs to organize resources for immediate problem solving. 2. Intergroup relations. These interventions are designed to improve interactions among different groups or departments in organizations. The microcosm group intervention involves a small group of people whose backgrounds closely match the organizational problems being addressed. This group addresses the problems and develops means to solve them. 3. Large group interventions. These interventions involve getting a broad variety of stakeholders into a large meeting to clarify important values, to develop new ways of working, to articulate a new vision for the organization, or to solve pressing organizational problems.

Interventions that transform the way the organization relates to its environment or operates internally:

1. Organization design. Organization design interventions address the different elements that comprise the "architecture" of the organization, including structure, work design, human resources practices, and management processes. 2. Integrated strategic change. This comprehensive OD intervention describes how planned change can make a value-added contribution to strategic management. It argues that business strategies and organizational systems must be changed together in response to external and internal disruptions. 3. Culture change. This intervention helps an organization develop a culture (behaviors, values, beliefs, and norms) appropriate to its strategy and competitive environment. It focuses on developing a strong organization culture to keep organization members pulling in the same direction.

Involving employees in decision-making with three interventions:

1. Parallel structures. This intervention involves organization members in resolving ill-defined, complex problems. Parallel structures, such as cooperative union- management projects and quality circles, operate in conjunction with the formal organization and provide members with an alternative setting in which to address problems and propose solutions. 2. Total quality management. This intervention involves organization members in continuously improving quality as part of normal work operations. It includes extensive training in total quality management knowledge and skills and the constant application of that expertise to improve quality at work. 3. High-involvement organizations. This comprehensive intervention designs almost all features of the organization to promote high levels of employee involvement. Changes in structure, work design, information and control systems, and human resource practices jointly support member involvement in relevant decision making throughout the firm.

What is organization development?

1. Planned change effort 2. System-wide 3. Managed from the top 4. Designed to increase organization effectiveness and health 5. Interventions based on behavioral science knowledge

Collecting Data

1. Questionnaires 2. Interviews 3. Observations 4. Unobtrusive measures - Doesn't involve anything where you have an impact on the organization (records) 5. Sociometric approach

Feeding Back Data: Content

1. Relevant: members will find info. meaningful 2. Understandable: easily digestible 3. Descriptive: linked to real work behaviors 4. Verifiable: organization members can verify 5. Timely: quickly as possible 6. Limited: not too much information 7. Significant: can do something about it 8. Comparative: include benchmark for reference 9. Unfinalized: stimulus for action

Broad stages of economic development

1. Subsistence economies. - Their populations consume most of what they produce, and any surplus is used to barter for other needed goods and services. In subsistence economies, OD interventions emphasize global social change and focus on creating conditions for sustainable social and economic progress. 2. Industrialized economies. - Organizations operating in these nations generally focus on efficiency of operations and revenue growth since they are abundant in natural resources. Consequently, OD interventions address strategic, structural, and work design issues. 3. Industrial economies. - Ex: US (highly developed). Because the OD interventions described in this book were developed primarily in industrial economies, they can be expected to have their strongest effects in those contexts. Here, OD interventions will need to fit into economies driven by information and knowledge, where service outpaces manufacturing, and where national and organizational boundaries are more open and flexible.

The Emergence of OD (Warren Bennis)

1. The need for new organizational forms. - The current rate of change requires more adaptive forms 2. The focus on cultural change. - The only real way to change is to alter the organizational culture 3. The increase in social awareness. - Autocratic leadership is no longer as effective - Greater social awareness within the organization is required - Boils down to social and cultural awareness to any organizational change

Sociometric Approach

1. What type of diagnostic information does this type of data provide? - Provide insights onto the informal structure of the organization - For instance, informal subgroups/cliques - Give indications of cohesiveness - Aid in pointing out possible operating problems 2. How is this type of data collected? - Psychometric approach: - I trust my team. 1 - Strongly disagree 2 - Disagree 3 - Neutral 4 - Agree 5 - Strongly agree Sociometric approach: Who on this list do you trust? - Sean - Whitney - Linda - Sid - Dana

General Motors Tarrytown Plant (QWL)

1960s and 1970s - High absenteeism and turnover - Operating costs high - Relationship between management and labor characterized by frustration, fear, mistrust 1972 - United Automobile Workers and GM negotiated a national agreement - Established formal mechanisms for dealing with QWL - First explicit mention of QWL in a labor-management agreement - Work is more than an economic arrangement - This is a part one's life and identity (not just a contract)

Kotter's 8 step change model

8 Success factors for change: 1. Create a sense of urgency - do environmental scanning and articulate importance of speed 2. Form a powerful coalition - support from executives, design a group with credibility to power lead change efforts 3. Create vision for change 4. Communicate change vision 5. Empowering action - eliminate obstacles, or structures that undermine new ideas 6. Create quick wins - recognize and reward visible improvements 7. Build on change - hire, promote, and develop people capable of implementing new change vision 8. Integrate new approaches in the culture - encourage new behaviors and leader development - This is a reiteration of Lewin's Change model (more elaborate)

Contingency view (normative approach)

Acknowledges the influence of the external environment, technology, and other forces in determining the appropriate organization design and management practices

Kodak (example of Organizational Inertia)

An example of this is Blockbuster having the chance to buy Netflix, but they didn't and were outperformed later

Strategies for Dealing with Resistance

Empathy and support - Active listening - Encourages people to be less defensive, share concerns/fears Communication - People often resist because they are unsure about the consequences of change - Reduce speculation by informing them Participation and involvement - Have potential resisters take part in planning and implementing change

General Model of Planned Change

Entering and contracting, diagnosing, planning and implementing change, and evaluating and institutionalizing change.

Domestic vs. International

Cultural values that guide OD in the US - Tolerance for ambiguity - Equality among people - Individuality - We need to have a cross-cultural lens

Lewin's Planned Change Model (theories of planned change)

Change = modification of forces that keep a system's behavior stable - A particular set of behaviors is the result of 2 groups of forces: - Those striving to maintain the status quo (resistant) - Those pushing for change (willing to change) Quasi-stationary equilibrium = both sets of forces are about equal; current behaviors are maintained (facing inertia because the amount of people who want to change are equal to the people who are resistant) - Lewin suggested that it is more effective to decrease forces maintaining the status quo than to increase forces of change

Quality of work life (5 stems of OD)

Eric Trist - Joint participation by unions and management in the design of work - Resulted in high levels of employee discretion, task variety, and feedback - Self-managing work teams - Multiskilled workers - Given the autonomy and information to design/manage their own task performances - I/O psych used to be evil (wanting people to work hard for less money) - Over time, it was discovered that if people are happy they will work harder As Quality of Work Life came to America... 1. Defined in terms of people's reaction to work - Particularly individual outcomes related to job satisfaction and mental health 2. Defined as an approach/method Techniques for improving work Can also mean an intervention

Interventions based on behavioral science knowledge (organization development)

Examples of microconcepts: - Leadership - Group dynamics - Work design Examples of macroconcepts: - Strategy - Organization design - Culture change Distinguishes OD from applications such as: - Management consulting - Technological innovation - Operations management These applications emphasize economic/financial/technical aspects of organizations - Neglect personal and social characteristics of a system - OD also distinguished by its intent to transfer behavioral science knowledge and skill - So that organization is capable of independently carrying out future planned change

Inputs for Organizational-level diagnosis model

General environment - All external forces that (in)directly affect an organization - Social, technological, economic, ecological, political/regulatory - Ex: cultural norms that are prevalent in the country we live in Task Environment - Industry structure represented by 5 forces: - Supplier power (e.g., unions) - Buyer power - Threat of substitutes - Threats of entry - Rivalry among competitors Enacted Environment - Organization members' perception and representation of the general and task environments - Members must actively observe, register, and make sense of the environment before it can affect their decisions - Thus, only the enacted environment can impact organizational responses (can be harnessed for organizational change) - Can use the general environment and task environment to highlight what isn't known to increase the enacted environment - Rate of change (faster) industries and complex industry

Major trends shaping organizations

Globalization: we are all becoming interconnected because of technology - Now we can talk to people from Japan on the phone rather than having to travel to communicate Information Technology Managerial Innovation - The systems of management that we were so familiar with (having a boss and employees) is a lazy approach - We are changing the way managers work and lead their teams

Design components for Group-level diagnosis model

Goal clarity - How well the group understands its objectives Task Structure - How the group's work is designed - Two dimensions 1. Coordination of members' efforts (i.e., degree to which the group is structured to promote effective interaction) 2. Regulation of members' task behaviors (i.e., degree to which members can control their own task behaviors) Group Composition - Concerns the membership of the group Team functioning - Underlying basis of group life - How members relate to one another Group Norms - Member beliefs about how the group should perform its task and what levels of performance are acceptable

Change Management and Organizational Change

How do these areas differ from OD? Change management - Focuses more narrowly on the values of cost, quality, and schedule - Does not necessarily require transfer of skills (so that the organization is able to manage future change) Organizational change - Broader concept - E.g., organizational decline

Developing a Clontract (Point 2)

How much time will be necessary to complete the project? - What is going to happen if it goes overtime? Who will need to be involved? - What people will make you successful? - Cast a wide net of people you want to interview, survey, or observe How much will the project cost? - Paying for organization members to take time out of their work day to talk to you, a retreat, etc. Peter Block: necessary vs. desirable requirements - There can be a 'bare-bones' package with all of the things necessary, but if you spend more money you can get more desired requirements - More money spent = more sources of data available

Human Resource Management Interventions

Human resources management interventions are rooted in labor relations and in the applied practices of compensation and benefits, employee selection and placement, performance appraisal, career development, and employee diversity and wellness.

Magnitude of Change

Incremental - Limited organizational dimensions/levels - A building block in a certain direction Fundamental - Significantly altering how the organization operates - OD is increasingly concerned with this type

Outputs for Individual-level diagnosis model

Individual Effectiveness - Two dimensions: 1. Performance (e.g., time, cost, quality, etc.) 2. How people experience their jobs (e.g., job satisfaction, absenteeism, personal development)

Question 3 (Entering into an OD relationship)

Is this a good match? - Be clear about your strengths, weaknesses, competencies, values - If it's not a good match, speak up! - You should work on projects that are interesting, where you are working with people you want to work with

Action Research (5 stems of OD)

John Collier - Commissioner of Indian Affairs (1933-1945) - "...the administrator and the layman must themselves participate creatively in the research, impelled as it is from their own area of need." - All changes need to happen while collaborating with others - There needs to be joint intervention and action planning (working together to make sure the changes stick) - Coined the term "action research" in 1945 1940s: Collier, Lewin, Whyte - Research needs to be closely linked to action if organization members are going to use it to manage change - Collaborative effort (from start to finish) between organization members and social scientists 1. Collect data about organization functioning 2. Analyze it for causes of problems 3. Devise/implement solutions 4. Collect data to assess results Results: 1. Members of organizations could use research on themselves to guild action/change 2. Social scientists were able to study that process to derive new knowledge that could be used elsewhere Still the foundation of many OD applications

Laboratory Training (5 stems of OD)

Kurt Lewin, 1946 - Research Center for Group Dynamics @ MIT - Research on training community leaders - Leaders asked to sit in on researchers' private discussions about group dynamics of the workshop T-group - Small, unstructured group - Participants learn from their own interactions with each other and evolving group processes about issues such as: -- Interpersonal relationships -- Personal growth -- Leadership -- Group dynamics Preliminary conclusions: 1. Getting feedback on group interactions can be a rich learning experience 2. Group building behaviors are potentially transferable 1947-1949: the National Training Laboratories were founded 1950's: T-groups expanded - "Organization development" is coined

Inputs for Group-level diagnosis model

Organizational Design: - technology - management processes - human resource systems - structure Culture

Inputs for Individual-level diagnosis model

Organizational Design: - technology - management processes - human resource systems - structure Culture Group Design: - Goal clarity - Task structure - Group composition - Team functioning - Group Norms Personal characteristics - e.g., age, education, experience, skills, abilities, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, political affiliation, disability status, socioeconomic status, etc.

Outputs for Organizational-level diagnosis model

Organizational Effectiveness - 1. Financial (e.g., sales, profits, ROI) - 2. Productivity (e.g., sales per employee, error rates, quality) - 3. Stakeholder satisfaction (e.g., customer loyalty, employee engagement, investor satisfaction)

Degree of Organization

Over Organized - Bureaucracies with too much red tape - Trouble avoiding inertia because there are too many rules in place - Aimed at loosening behavioral constraints - OD typically takes place in these contexts Examples of Bureaucracies: - DMV - Government of United States - Private sector is much better at reducing red tape -- Disneyland (or other theme parks) Under-organized - Requires modification of traditional planned change phases 1. Identification - Who needs to be involved? 2. Convention - Bring these people together. 3. Organization - Implement organizing mechanisms. 4. Evaluation

Developing Trust (Brown)

Questions - "How do you see the organization?" Applied expertise - "One possible intervention is team building." Reflection - "It sounds like you would like to see a participative form of leadership." Interpretation - "From your description, interteam conflict could be the problem." Self-disclosure - "I've felt discouraged myself when my ideas were rejected." Silence

4D Appreciative Inquiry Model

Similar to positive model 1. Topic - Ideas are centered around a positive core (language does not deviate away from that) - Affirmative topic choice 2. Discover - Investigation into a problem - Search to understand the best of what is/has been 3. Dream - Group forum about what might be 4. Design - Making choices about what should be; conscious re-invention 5. Destiny - Actions that support ongoing learning and innovation - Self-reflection and improvement

System 2: Benevolent Authoritative (Likert's management systems)

Similar to system 1 except employees are allowed more interaction, communication, and decision making

Comparison of Planned Change Models

Similarities - Change preceded by diagnosis or preparation - Apply behavioral science knowledge - Stress involvement of organization members - Recognize the role of a consultant Differences - General vs. specific activities - Centrality of consultant role - Problem-solving vs. social constructionism - Older models have less empirical support

Design Components for Individual-level diagnosis model

Skill variety - Degree to which a job requires a range of activities and abilities to perform the work Task identity - Degree to which a job requires the completion of a relatively whole, identifiable piece of work Task significance - Degree to which a job has a significant impact on other people's lives Autonomy - Degree to which a job provides freedom and discretion in scheduling the work and determining work methods Feedback about results - Degree to which a job provides employees with direct and clear information about the effectiveness of task performance Enriched jobs = high on all 5 components

Outputs for Group-level diagnosis model

Team effectiveness - Two dimensions: 1. Performance 2. Quality of work life

Types of Resistance to Change

Technical - Habitual following of procedures - Consideration of sunk costs invested in the status quo Political - Change threatens power structure Cultural - Systems and procedures reinforce status quo - Promote conformity to current norms/values/ assumptions about how things should operate

Human Process Interventions

These processes include communication, problem solving, group decision making, and leadership. 1. Process consultation. This intervention focuses on interpersonal relations and social dynamics occurring in work groups. Typically, a process consultant helps group members diagnose group functioning and devise appropriate solutions to process problems, such as dysfunctional conflict, poor communication, and ineffective norms. 2. Third-party intervention. This change method is a form of process consultation aimed at dysfunctional interpersonal relations in organizations. Interpersonal conflict may derive from substantive issues, such as disputes over work methods, or from interpersonal issues, such as miscommunication. The third-party intervener helps people resolve conflicts through such methods as problem solving, bargaining, and conciliation. 3. Team building. This intervention helps work groups become more effective in accomplishing tasks. Like process consultation, team building helps members diagnose group processes and devise solutions to problems.

Strategic Change Interventions

They are implemented organization-wide and bring about a fit between business strategy, organization design, and the larger environment.

Technostructural Interventions

They include approaches to employee involvement, as well as methods for structuring organizations, groups, and jobs. 1. Structural design. This change process concerns the organization's division of labor—how tasks are subdivided into work units and how those units are coordinated for task completion. Interventions aimed at structural design include moving from more traditional ways of dividing the organization's overall work (such as functional, self-contained unit, and matrix structures) to more integrative and flexible forms (such as process-based, customer-centric, and network-based structures). 2. Downsizing. This intervention reduces costs and bureaucracy by decreasing the size of the organization through personnel layoffs, organization redesign, and outsourcing. 3. Reengineering. This intervention radically redesigns the organization's core work processes to create tighter linkage and coordination among the different tasks. This workflow integration results in faster, more responsive task performance.

Designed to increase organization effectiveness and health (organization development)

Three dimensions (Cummings & Worley, 2015) 1. Self-improvement and independent problem solving - Want to have long lasting change and give them the tools to tell them how to fix changes on their own in the future 2. Financial and technical performance - ROI 3. Engaged, satisfied, and learning workforce - Satisfied and loyal customers and stakeholders

What are effective interventions?

Three major criteria define an effective OD intervention: (1) the extent to which it fits the needs of the organization; (2) the degree to which it is based on causal knowledge of intended outcomes; and (3) the extent to which it transfers change management competence to organization members.

3 steps of Lewin's Change Model

Unfreezing - Ensures that employees are ready for change - Reduce forces maintaining status quo - Psychological disconfirmation → show discrepancies between actual and desired behaviors - Make everyone feel like they are a hypocrite basically Change - Execute the intended change - Intervene in the system - Develop new behaviors, values, and attitudes Refreeze - Ensures that the change becomes permanent - Reinforce new organizational state

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Data Collection (Brown)

Validity - Are we measuring what we intend to measure? Time - How long will it take to gather data? Cost - How much does the data cost? Organizational culture and norms - What is best suited to the organization's culture? Hawthorne effect - Does the very act of observing influence behavior?

Developing a Contract (Point 3)

What are the ground rules? - Point of contact - Requirement of organization members - Confidentiality - Dealing with (inter)personal issues - Ending the relationship Where do we terminate this relationship? - End the first contract with the first organizational diagnosis? - Try to recontract for another 6 months for the next phase - Role of practitioner in relation to manager - Expert recommendations? Help make decisions? - Could be considered the action-resource model - Especially important for internal practitioners

Developing a Contract (Point 1)

What is the client expecting of me? - What specifically is the client expecting? - Outcomes - Working relationships - Personal accomplishments What am I expecting of the client? - Compensation -- Difficult to negotiate -- As a general practice, always try to negotiate - Opportunities to try new interventions - Report results to other clients

Question 1 (Entering into an OD relationship)

What is the presenting problem? - Is this problem just a symptom of a deeper, underlying issue? - Make best attempt at clarifying focus - The question that people are trying to address may not be the actual cause of the problem (ex: turnover = what is causing it? So many things could be causing it) - "Quick-and-dirty" data collection - This is not your moment to formally collect data (mental notes is the most appropriate) Pros and cons of internal consultant: - They already have relationships formed and know about the company, but they also have relationships at stake and may have biases

Question 2 (Entering into an OD relationship)

Which organization members can potentially impact the change issue? - Who are the stakeholders? - Impact = directly influence, vested interest, power to approve/reject change efforts - If the answer is Yes to any of those questions, they need to be involved in the project - I.e., initial perception of power network Why is this critical to do at the very beginning? - You need to make sure you are talking to the right people when you are trying to get project work done - You can do a "network style" map to see who is connected and who are the important players

Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid (normative approach)

focused on the managers tasks and how much of a concern there was for productions versus people

Team-level diagnosis

group norms, roles, cohesion, team effectiveness, team performance

Individual-level diagnosis

how satisfied are you, how motivated are you, how likely are you to leave

Organizational Inertia

organizations are built to do something well and sometimes it is hard for them to shift with new technological advancements (stay current with the times)