Psy Ch. 13, 15, and 16

limitations

- does not address ordinary problems due to specific events (e.g. relationship problems) - sometimes removes responsibility, such as in criminal behavior - cannot cure most psychological problems without patients help (unlike surgery) -stigmatizing -

schizophrenia

- literally, split mind - 1/100 Americans treated for schizophrenia at some point in their lives -choric is long term -acute- short time (around 3-4 days) -poor attention -hallucinations -communication- elaborate private world, neologisms, echolalia, personal symbolism Social relations:few friends, defense vs. overstimulation, -pathological family relations Emotion: Hypersensitivity, apathy, inappropriate -strong genetic factor

Historical view of insanity

demonic possession - prevalent view until 1800s -evil spirits - drive out devil with music, prayers, trephining, make uncomfortable for devil---chain, boil, freeze, starve, flog -witch hunts in the 16th and 17th century -estimated 500,00 witches killed

atypical

deviation from statistical norms, deviation from social norms

consensual validation

explains why people are attracted to others who are similar to them. Our own attitudes and behavior are supported when someone else's attitudes and behavior are familiar—their attitudes and behavior validate ours

instincts on aggression

aggression is an instinct passed down in evolution, animals fight for mates, territory, food, and to establish dominance

elaboration likelihood model

identifies two pathways of persuasion: a central route and a peripheral route

The American Psychiatric Association created

made a manual of psychological diseases

effort justification

means coming up with a rationale for the amount of work we put into getting something, typically by increasing the value associated with things that are difficult to attain.

Current Models of psychological disorders

1. Medical/ biological - symptoms are produced by an underlying cause---- disease or pathology 2. psychodynamic- conflict between conscious mind and unconscious 3. Behavioral- people are only abnormal to the extent that they act abnormally - must identify reinforcement history and modify contingencies 4. Cognitive - examine how people think about themselves and their relationships with others - beliefs in personal control, ability to cope with threatening events, attribution of causes to personal or environmental factors, and mental strategies used to deal with positive and negative experiences

stereotype

A stereotype is a generalization about a group's characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another. Stereotypes are a natural extension of the Page 433limits on human cognitive processing and our reliance on concepts in cognitive processing

media

Although some critics reject the conclusion that TV violence causes aggression (Savage & Yancey, 2008), many scholars insist that TV violence can prompt aggressive or antisocial behavior in children (Brown & Tierney, 2011; Bushman & Huesmann, 2012; Comstock, 2012). Of course, television violence is not the only cause of aggression in children or adults. Like all social behaviors, aggression has multiple determinants (Matos, Ferreira, & Haase, 2012). The link between TV violence and aggression in children is influenced by children's personality traits and attitudes toward violence.

the medium

Another persuasion factor is the medium or technology used to get the message across. Is the message presented in print, on TV, on Twitter, or YouTube? Because it presents live images, television is generally a more powerful medium than print sources for changing attitudes. Of course, the effects of the medium of a message may depend on who is receiving it. When Missouri Senator Claire McCaskill announced her support for same-sex marriage, she did so on Tumblr, perhaps suggesting the age group she was trying to reach.

learning of aggression

Drive theory: Frustration- aggressive drive-aggressive behavior. Frustration is any interference with a goal response.Social learning, aggressive drive is usually not sufficient to predict whether or not a person will respond aggressively, prior learning determines exhibition of aggressive behavior

actor

In attribution theory, the person who produces the behavior to be explained is called the actor

Aggression

In the united states, there are about 15000 murders a year, more than 92000 rapes, and more than 7 million violent acts over.

Internal/external causes:

Internal attributions are causes inside and specific to the person, such as his or her traits and abilities. External attributions are causes outside the person, such as social pressure, aspects of the social situation, the weather, and luck. Did Beth get a D on the test because she didn't study or because the test was too hard?

Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

It takes more mental effort to consider a person's individual characteristics than it does to label him or her as a member of a particular group or category. In this sense, stereotypes are heuristics, those mental shortcuts we reviewed in the chapter "Thinking, Intelligence, and Language". Keep in mind that just as we automatically use many mental shortcuts, so too are stereotypes often automatically part of the way we think about other people

Deindividuation

One process that sheds light on the behavior of individuals in groups is deindividuation, which occurs when being part of a group reduces personal identity and erodes the sense of personal responsibility (Levine, Cassidy, & Jentzsch, 2010; Zimbardo, 2007). An example of the effects of deindividuation is the wild street celebrations that erupt after a team's victory in the World Series or Super Bowl.

person perception

Person perception refers to the processes by which we use social stimuli to form impressions of others

self-serving bias

Self-serving bias refers to the tendency to take credit for our successes and to deny responsibility for our failures when we make attributions about our own behavior.

social cognition

Social cognition is the area of social psychology that explores how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information (Happé & Bird, 2017). Essentially, it is the way in which individuals think in social situations (Hamilton & Carlston, 2013).

the target (audience)

The audience or target of a message can play a role in message persuasiveness. Younger people are more likely to change their attitudes than older ones. And individuals with weak attitudes are more easily persuaded than those with strong ones.

door-in-the-face technique

The door-in-the-face technique involves making the biggest pitch first ("Would you be interested in a full-year subscription?"), which the customer probably will reject, and then Page 441making a smaller, "concessionary" demand ("Okay, then, how about a three-month trial?"). This technique relies on the fact that the customer feels a sense of obligation: You let him off the hook with that big request, maybe he should be nice and take the smaller offer.

the message

The final aspect of persuasion is the message itself. What kind of message is persuasive? Some messages involve strong logical arguments, and others focus on exciting emotions such as fear and anger in the audience. Which is more likely to work and when? The elaboration likelihood model addresses this question.

foot-in-the-door strategy

The foot-in-the-door strategy involves making a smaller request ("Would you be interested in a three-month trial subscription to a magazine?") at the beginning, saving the biggest demand ("How about a full year?") for last. The foot-in-the-door strategy relies on the notion that in agreeing to the smaller offer, the customer has created a relationship with the seller, expressing a level of trust.

Physical Attractiveness and Other Perceptual Cues

These positive expectations for physically attractive individuals have been referred to as the "beautiful is good" stereotype.

Stable/unstable causes:

Whether the cause of behavior is relatively enduring and permanent or temporary influences attributions. Did Taylor honk her car horn because she is a hostile person or because she happens to be in a big hurry that day?

cultures of honor

a man's reputation is thought to be an essential aspect of his economic survival

cognitive dissonance

another concept introduced by Festinger (1957), is the psychological discomfort (dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thoughts. According to the theory, we feel uneasy when we notice an inconsistency between what we believe and what we do.

psychological disorders

any pattern of behavior that causes people significant distress, causes them to harm others, or harms their ability to function in daily life

internal attribution

are causes inside and specific to the person, such as his or her traits and abilities. External attributions are causes outside the person, such as social pressure, aspects of the social situation, the weather, and luck. Did Beth get a D on the test because she didn't study or because the test was too hard?

attitudes

are our opinions and beliefs about people, objects, and ideas—how we feel about the world.

conversion disorder

blindness, deafness

personality disorders

characterized by inflexable and enduring behavior

media influences on aggression

few people see physical aggression on a regular basis.

disturbing

for person or society

bipolar disorder

formerly called manic-depressive disorder. An alternation between depression and mania signals bipolar disorder

Conformity

is a change in a person's behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard.

altruism

means giving to another person with the ultimate goal of benefiting that person, even if it incurs a cost to oneself. Are acts of kindness truly altruistic?

Legal (insanity)

not use by psychologist, it is just a legal term

Social Filiation

occurs when an individual's performance improves because of the presence of others. Robert Zajonc (1965) argued that the presence of other individuals arouses us. The arousal produces energy and facilitates our performance in groups. If our arousal is too high, however, we are unable to learn new or difficult tasks efficiently.

Sucide

over 38,000 in year 2010

major depressive disorder

overwhelming sadness, despaor, and hopelessness, fatigue, weakness, lack of sleep, begins early

somatoform disorder

physical symptoms with no identifiable physical cause ex. nausea, stomach disorders

medical/ biological

symptoms are produced by an underlying cause---- disease or pathology

frustration-aggression principle

states that frustration always leads to aggression. When people are frustrated in their desires, they will lash out.

neural and genetic influences on aggression

stimulating aggression centers (amygdala) of the brain causes immediate violent reactions, identical twins have higher concordance rates for aggression than fraternal twins

downward social comparison

that is, comparing ourselves with others who are less fortunate—can make us feel better about our own lives (Huang, 2016).

self-esteem

the degree to which we have positive or negative feelings about ourselves

observer

the person who offers a causal explanation of the actor's behavior is called the observer.

prosocial behavior

they all involve helping another person

somatization

vague complaints, medications, unnecessary surgery

upward social comparison

when we compare ourselves to those who are better off than we are—can foster feelings of envy and inadequacy.

central route

works by engaging the audience thoughtfully with a sound, logical argument.

dissociative identity disorder

- multiple personality - nine times more prevalent in woman than in men - usually associated with childhood abuse - personalities are unaware of each other's actions

generalized anxiety disorder

-consistently tense -worried about events -inability to concentrate -can't identify cause

Phobia

-intense and irrational fear of object or situation that has significant impact on life - Avoidance learning

psychological factors

-learned helplessness - ruminate on negative experiences -pessimistic attributional style

obsessive-complusive disorder

-persistent thoughts and wishes invade consciousness -ritualistic acts to ward off thoughts ex. cleaning, counting

Influences on aggression

1. Instincts- aggression is an instinct passed down in evolution, animals fight for mates, territory, food, and to establish dominance 2. neural and genetic influences- stimulating aggression centers (amygdala) of the brain causes immediate violent reactions, identical twins have higher concordance rates for aggression than fraternal twins 3. Biochemical Influences- 1/3 of state prisoners were drinking before committing violent crimes, male sex hormones play major role in some forms of aggressive behavior 4. Learning- Drive theory: Frustration- aggressive drive-aggressive behavior. Frustration is any interference with a goal response.Social learning, aggressive drive is usually not sufficient to predict whether or not a person will respond aggressively, prior learning determines exhibition of aggressive behavior 5. Media Influences- few people see physical aggression on a regular basis. Effects of media violence: more violent TV viewing is correlated with higher incidence of aggressive acts, viewing aggressive behavior can lead to a disinhibition of constraints against aggressive behavior, people who have viewed more violence react with attenuated physiological responses associated with anxiety when watching violence

biochemical influences of aggression

1/3 of stae prisoners were drinking before committing violent crimes, male sex hormones play major role in some forms of aggressive behavior

the communicator (source)

A key factor in persuasion is the person doing the persuading. Is the person delivering the message (or the source of the message) viewed as credible (or believable)? Trustworthiness, expertise, power, attractiveness, likability, and similarity are all credibility characteristics that help a communicator change people's attitudes or convince them to act.

empathy

As we discussed in the chapter "Gender, Sex, and Sexuality", empathy is a person's feeling of oneness with the emotional state of another. When we feel empathy for someone, we feel what that person is feeling. Empathy allows us to put ourselves in another person's shoes. We can feel empathy even for those we do not particularly like, as demonstrated by the playing of "Sweet Caroline" (a tradition of the Boston Red Sox) at Yankee Stadium during the game with their arch rivals following the Boston Marathon bombing in 2013

attribution theory

Attribution theory views people as motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior (Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1973; Weiner, 2006). Attributions vary along three dimensions: Internal/external causes: Internal attributions are causes inside and specific to the person, such as his or her traits and abilities. External attributions are causes outside the person, such as social pressure, aspects of the social situation, the weather, and luck. Did Beth get a D on the test because she didn't study or because the test was too hard? Stable/unstable causes: Whether the cause of behavior is relatively enduring and permanent or temporary influences attributions. Did Taylor honk her car horn because she is a hostile person or because she happens to be in a big hurry that day? Controllable/uncontrollable causes: We perceive that people have power over some causes (for instance, by preparing delicious food for a picnic) but not others (rain on picnic day). So, if a rainstorm spoils Henry's picnic, we would not hold that against him

peripheral route

The peripheral route involves factors such as the source's attractiveness or the emotional power of an appeal. The peripheral route is effective when people are not paying close attention or lack the time or energy to think about the message. As you might guess, television advertisers often use the peripheral route to persuasion on the assumption that during the commercials you are probably not paying full attention to the screen. The central route is more persuasive when people have the ability and the motivation to pay attention

bystander effect

The studies showed that when alone, a person was likely to take action about 75 percent of the time, but when another bystander was present, the figure dropped to 50 percent. These results demonstrate the bystander effect, the tendency for an individual to be less likely to help in an emergency when other people are present.

social psychology

We need other people to survive. Our thoughts and emotions are often about the people we care about. Our goals and motives often include interpersonal relationships. Our behavior is often directed toward (or in response to) another person. It is hard to think of an aspect of our lives that is not in some way connected to other people. This fundamental property of human existence, its social nature, is the focus of social psychology. Social psychology is the study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people Social psychology is sometimes confused with sociology. Sociology is the study of human societies, organizations, and institutions. Although both sociology and social psychology and are interested in human social behavior, sociology focuses on the group level. Social psychology, in contrast, is interested in how individuals influence groups and how groups influence individuals. Unlike sociologists, social psychologists often focus on the immediate social situation to understand what causes people to behave as they do. Social psychologists are interested in studying how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual (or imagined) presence of others.

dissociative disorders

dissociate amnesia and fugue states - caused by extreme stress or physical injury

hypochondriasis

distort small problems ex. medical student syndrome

insanity as mental illness

even during belief in demonic possession, some more rational people believed that abnormal behavior was due to natural causes - unfortunately, this did not necessarily lead to humane treatment - people were removed from society and locked up, including criminals, idlers, old people, epileptics, incurable diseases - in 1814, 96,000 visited Bethlehem hospital in london -french physician, Philippe Pinel - this humane medical model was advanced at the end of the 19th century when the cause of a prevalent psychosis-- general paresis--was found - declining mental function, delusions, hallucinations

investment model

examines the ways that commitment, investment, and the availability of attractive alternative partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships

sexual disfunction

impotence, figidity

paraphilia

inappropriate sexual objects ex. voyeurism, animals, children, sadism, exhibitionism

social anxiety disorder

intense fear of being humiliated or embarrassed in social situations biological factors: genetic disposition, neural circuitry, serotonin psychological factors: over-protective/ rejecting parenting, social experiences

panic disorder

intense fear reaction mimicking a heart attack

Maladaptive

interfere with goals and functioning

self-perception theory

is Daryl Bem's (1967) take on how behavior influences attitudes. According to self-perception theory, individuals make inferences about their attitudes by observing their behavior. That is, behaviors can cause attitudes, because when we are questioned about our attitudes, we think back on our behaviors for information.

sterotype threat

is an individual's fast-acting, self-fulfilling fear of being judged based on a negative stereotype about his or her group. A person who experiences stereotype threat is well aware of stereotypical expectations for him or her as a member of a group. In stereotype-relevant situations, the individual experiences anxiety about living "down" to expectations and consequently underperforms

prejudice

is an unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individual's membership in a particular group.

Discrimination

is an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group.

social exchange theory

is based on the notion of social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits. This theory looks at human relations as an exchange of rewards between actors.

Obedience

is behavior that complies with the explicit demands of the individual in authority.

romantic love/ passionate love

is love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation, and it often predominates in the early part of a love relationship

normative social influence

is the influence others have on us because we want them to like us.

social comparison

is the process by which we evaluate our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and abilities in relation to others. Social comparison tells us what our distinctive characteristics are and aids us in building an identity.

Ethnocentrism

is the tendency to favor one's own ethnic group over other groups. Ethnocentrism is not simply taking pride in one's group; it involves asserting the group's superiority over other groups. As such, ethnocentrism encourages ingroup/outgroup or we/they thinking (Dovidio, Newheiser, & Leyens, 2012). Consequently, ethnocentrism implies that ethnic outgroups are not just different; they are worse than one's group. Hence, ethnocentrism may underlie prejudice.

affictionate love/ companionate love

is the type of love that occurs when individuals desire to have the other person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person.

false consensus effect

means overestimating the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way we do. Ask yourself: "How many students at your school support the death penalty?" The false consensus effect tells us that your answer is likely to depend on whether you support the death penalty.

Effects of media violence

more violent TV viewing is correlated with higher incidence of aggressive acts, viewing aggressive behavior can lead to a disinhibition of constraints against aggressive behavior, people who have viewed more violence react with attenuated physiological responses associated with anxiety when watching violence

Depression and mood disorders

primary reason for seeking mental health services, 350 people worldwide

sexual identity disorders

problems accepting male or female identity

social loafing

refers to each person's tendency to exert less effort in a group because of reduced accountability for individual effort. The effect of social loafing is lowered group performance. The larger the group, the more likely it is that an individual can loaf without detection. Social loafing can be reduced by making individuals' contributions more identifiable and unique, simplifying the evaluation of these contributions, and making the group's task more attractive (Karau & Williams, 1993).

aggression

refers to social behavior with the objective of harming someone, either physically or verbally. Ethologists note aggression in nonhuman animals (Lorenz, 1965; Tinbergen, 1969). However, in the animal kingdom, most hostile encounters do not escalate to killing or even severe harm. Much of the fighting is ritualistic and involves threat displays—for example, a bear's laid-back ears, lowered head, and bellowing.

Groupthink

refers to the impaired group decision making that occurs when making the right decision is less important than maintaining group harmony. Instead of engaging in an open discussion of all the available information, in groupthink, members of a group place the highest value on conformity and unanimity.

informational social influence

refers to the influence other people have on us because we want to be right. The social group can provide us with information that we do not have or may help us see things in ways that had not occurred to us.

reactance

refers to the motivation to reject attempts to control us (Brehm, 2000). Reactance occurs when a person feels that someone or something is taking away his or her choices.

fundamental attribution error

refers to the tendency of observers to overestimate the importance of internal traits and underestimate the importance of external factors when they explain an actor's behavior Although it is called the fundamental attribution error, this error is not universal. Cross-cultural studies show that Westerners tend to attribute causes of behavior to the person. In contrast, those from collectivistic cultures are more likely to look to the situation to explain the behavior of others

self-objectification

refers to the tendency to see oneself as an object in others' eyes. Self-objectification can interfere with task performance. For example, in a series of studies, men and women were asked first to try on either a sweater or a swimsuit and then to complete a math test. After trying on a swimsuit, women performed much more poorly on the math test.

social identity

refers to the way we define ourselves in terms of our group membership. In contrast to personal identity, which can be highly individualized, social identity assumes some commonalities with others (Richeson & Sommers, 2016). A person's social identity might include identifying with a religious group, a country, a social organization, a political party, and many other groups. These diverse forms of social identity reflect the numerous ways people connect to groups and social categories (Hogg, 2012). Social psychologist Kay Deaux (2001) identified five distinct types of social identity: ethnicity and religion, personal relationships, vocations and avocations, political affiliations, and stigmatized groups (Figure 4).