PSY210 Exam 1
Comparing men to women is always correlational
(you cannot randomly assign a gender)
Like in all correlational designs we must contend with possible directionality and possible 3rd variable issues.
Quasi-Experiment
Since this is not a true experiment, it is a correlational design, so even If the observed difference between the means is significant, we may NOT infer that the _______ CAUSED the difference in height.
Quasi-IV
For the moment, it is clear that, by self-report manipulating appropriateness has had a very strong effect on euphoria
Placebo subjects are less euphoric than either Epi Mis or Epi Ign subjects but somewhat more euphoric than Epi Inf subjects. These differences are not, however, statistically significant.
When we collectively misunderstand what attitudes others hold and believe erroneously that others have different attitudes than ours. No one else is objecting so they must all agree with the decision. (Groupthink and the Bystander effect)
Pluralistic Ignorance Many NFL players were not protesting the flag, the American military or the country by "taking a knee".
Our brains are set up in such a way that once we make a decision we actively filter out/suppress anything that disagrees with us
Postdecisional Dissonance
Every difficult decision involves some attitude discrepant behavior. -resolve this with selective attention
Postdecisional Dissonance "Engage in behavior that disagrees with your attitude"
Piaget: Assimilation and Accommodation Elizabeth Loftus: Memories are reconstructed around existing schemas.
Prejudice in Schemas
A person is described as: Intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, envious. Or as: Envious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious, intelligent. Which person is rated more highly by participants?
Primacy Effect. 1st
A situation that occurs when stimuli or events increase the availability in memory or consciousness of specific types of information held in memory. Unpriming. Effects of schemas persist until expressed, then diminish. ?
Priming (another relevant concept)
________ Cingulate Cortex (large Spindle neurons) associated with _______-awareness in frontal lobe
Anterior Cingulate Cortex with self-awareness
________= finds solutions to social problems (social psych)
Applied Research
Studies on postdecisional dissonance The effects of Severe Initiation to a group Read obscene words and text or mild words College women (preliminary embarrassment test vs. boring discussion) - DV was ratings
Aronson and Mills, 1959
_________ are lasting general evaluations of people (including self), objects, or ideas
Attitudes
Attitudes are ________
Attitudes are Heuristics -They reduce information overload and simplify life (at a price.) -Remember that Heuristics are decision making rules or principles used to make quick/easy conclusions or inferences.
Dual-Processing ______, hot, implicit and emotionally driven
Automatic
emotion based and occurs in the limbic system
Automatic
After sufficient experience with a task or type of information, we reach a stage where we can perform the task or process the information in a seemingly effortless, automatic and non-conscious manner.
Automatic processing
Example: (Bargh et al. 1996) I.V.: Primed for rudeness with scrambled sentences (bold, rude, impolite, bluntly)or politeness(cordially, patiently, polite, courteous) D.V.: did they interrupt experimenter or not. If primed for elderly = walked slower.
Automatic processing
a quick, low-effort and non-conscious way of perceiving things
Automatic thinking
More readily available information carries more weight. Priming increases availability Which is more common in English, words that start with "k" or words with "k" as third letter? 2. Recency effect in performance evaluations. Based on availability
Availability Heuristic
1. Role Playing can change attitudes 2. Saying can become believing (Self Perception Theory, Positive Thinking) 3. Two step compliance (Foot-in-the-door and Low-ball technique) Ch8 4. Cognitive Dissonance, Lie to next subject leads to attitude change. Article by: Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959 5. Brain-Washing & religious cults. 6. Facial Feedback Effect (pencil in mouth)
Behavior often does influence our attitudes (B-A rather than A-B)
Evolutionary Psychology ______ enhance odds of reproductive success Individuals don't evolve, ______ do Adaptive traits persist but can become maladaptive as the environment ______
Behaviors
Suproxin study - Anger
Cat 1 - Agrees Cat 2 - Disagrees Cat 3- Neutral Cat 4 - Initiates Agreement Cat 5- Watches Cat 6- Ignores
Suproxin study - Euphoria
Cat 1 - Joins Cat 2 - Initiates Cat 3/4 - Ignores or watches
A theory describing how we use other's behavior as a basis for inferring their stable dispositions. (You infer, they imply)
Causal Attributions : Theory of Correspondent Inference (Jones & Davis 1965)
the extent to which others react the same way that "he" does to a stimulus.
Consensus
The extent to which "he"reacts in the same way to the same stimulus over time.
Consistency:
reasoning and logical occurs in the prefrontal cortex.
Controlled
_________ : publishes 3rd textbook that moves psych towards controlled experimental methods (1924)
Floyd Alllport
told beforehand that the speaker is trying to persuade you
Forewarning
History of the scientific method : traced back to Sir ____
Francis Bacon
Positive Psychology _______, Creativity, Morality ________ - Learned Helplessness (1970) "no good at math"
Goals, Creativity, Morality Martin Seligman - Learned Helplessness (1970)
Mental Shortcuts
Heuristics
are Mental Shortcut and Potential Sources of Error (they include Fallacies and Biases)
Heuristics
are decision making rules or principles used to make quick/easy conclusions or inferences
Heuristics
Both of these minimize information overload and speed up the decision process. They may be helpful or harmful to objectivity. They are more often right than wrong, but they're often wrong.
Heuristics Fallacies & Biases
Some are learned Indirectly a. Classical Conditioning Subliminal Conditioning b. Operant Conditioning c. Modeling=Observational Learning≈ Social Learning 2. Some are gained by direct experience (still learned)
How Attitudes form
Dual-Processing ______, cold and requires explicit cognitive resources
Deliberate
(Learned Helplessness)
Depression
The extent to which the same person reacts in the same way to different stimuli.
Distinctiveness
English _________ focused on the individual (wrote first social psych textbook with Ross) American ____________ focused on groups/structure of society (1908 textbook)
English William McDougal American Edward Ross
the researcher uses a pre-existing variable to divide the participants into 2 or more groups, then measures a dependent variable and looks for significant differences between or among the groups.
In a quasi-experiment
the researcher randomly divides the participants into 2 or more groups and then treats the groups differently by administering different levels of the Independent Variable (I.V.). The researcher then measures a Dependent Variable (D.V.) and looks for significant differences between or among the group.
In a true experiment
"oh that old legal thing" - weakened prevents accountability
Inoculation
______ : Combined effects of internal person and external situation (Kurt Lewin) Distinction - Stable ______ (internal) stays with you vs. Unstable ______ (external) is temporary part of which concept of the six?
Interactionism Trait State Self
1. Source of information 2. Positive/Negative (there is a powerful negativity bias) 3. Unusual information 4. Primacy effect 5. Schemas or preconceived ideas.
Factors that influence us regarding others
are errors or distortions that crop up in the way people process social information
Fallacies & Biases
___________ and ___________ studied the effect of segregation on the self-concept of black children.
Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark
__________: Jewish refugee from Nazi Germany "no research without action, and no action without research" involved in SPSSI (1936)
Kurt Lewin
Improvement in Schoolchildren's IQ Scores Due to the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Main Point: Far more students labeled as "bloomers" showed an IQ gain than the just the "other" students
is more persuasive if the audience is more initially opposed
Two sided argument (tell both sides)
What is Social Psych?
Understand and explain how your thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the actual, implied, or imagined presence of others.
Many congressmen and women blindly believe in absolutely unregulated Gun access in America because they are heavily funded by the NRA gun lobby.
Vested interest
________ : first school of psych -> argued social psych branched from philosophy (1862)
Wilhelm Wundt
Persuasion (attitude change) _________ : Communication and Persuasion: Psychological Studies in Opinion Change (Hovland, Janis & Kelley, 1953) ________ (source) _________ (target)
Yale group Speaker Audience
Self-fulfilling prophecy
You can make a person behave the way you expect that person to behave. You don't need to know you are doing it. The other person doesn't need to know you are doing it.
Initially in favor just give
a one sided argument
To boost others' reaction to us. To improve our own mood. Evolution? There may be survival advantages.
Reasons we use impression management
1. Micro-expressions 2. Inter-channel discrepancies 3. Change in characteristics of speech (paralinguistic cues) 4. Change in eye contact 5. More self-correction of grammar
Recognizing Deception
Punishment seems to work better than reward
Regression Fallacy
Make best guess based on similarity to typical patterns or general types. Assumes people fit neatly into a relatively few clear-cut categories. If she looks like a librarian, she is probably quiet, intelligent, serious, and unpopular.
Representative Heuristic
Mental frameworks centering around a specific theme that help us to organize social information.
Schemas
Priming, unpriming, perseverance effect, reasoning by metaphor
Schemas
are Mental Frameworks, which result in both Automatic & Controlled Processing and are Sources of Error in Social Cognition.
Schemas
◆Self-Fulfilling Prophecy ◆Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968 False IQ info for elementary students in San Francisco
Schemas can also distort
Attention (selective attention) Encoding (selective memory) Retrieval (selective recall)
Schemas influence
is a check on human fallibility due to selective attention, memory and ego defensiveness
Science
______ : Social being develops in ______ with others, recognizes self separate from others (18mo - 2 years)
Self interaction
______ : Take credit for success and deny responsibility for failure "love you forever" slightly delusional
Self Serving Bias
-The theory that we can often infer our internal states, such as our attitudes by observing our own behavior. -A challenge to cognitive dissonance theory, which said our behavior sometimes changes our attitudes. -It proposed that we often do not even know our attitudes, but rather infer them by reviewing our behavior.
Self-Perception Theory (Daryl Bem,1965)
"The process by which someone's expectations about a person or group lead to the fulfillment of those expectations." possibly erroneously leading the first person to falsely believe that their prediction was accurate and that they understand the world, when they don't.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Example: "I know I'm going to have a miserable time at this party" or Trump's relationship with the media You can create your reality with your thoughts & feelings Proves that just telling the teacher the student is likely to bloom - provides warmer socioemotional environment - called on them more,etc - helping the kid more
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Individual Differences in Elaboration Likelihood(personality traits) people high in this can readily adjust their social behavior to the situation.
Self-monitoring.
attitudes shape behavior is a
Simple model
Controlled and Automatic processing occur in different parts of the brain.
Social Neuroscience Studies
The process through which we seek to know and understand other persons (also called Person Perception).
Social Perception:
Gordon Allport's Definition:
Social Psychology is the discipline that uses scientific methods in an attempt to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others (Allport, 1985).
Traits are not additive, when 2 or more occur together, they interact
Solomon Asch's theory of impression formation, 1946
Change attitude Change behavior Seek external justification Acquire new information Trivialize The role of free choice was added later
Some tactics that can reduce dissonance
___________ and ___________ (also did obedient study) had influential research programs, searching to explain Nazi atrocities.
Theodor Adorno Stanley Milgram
_________ are never proven -> they gain support or fade away
Theories
(B. Kelley 1972)
Theory of Causal Attributions
Personality influences _______
attitudes
If the observed difference between the means is significant, we may infer that _____ CAUSED the difference in heartrate.
coffee
Leon Festinger developed the theory of _____________ ($1 vs $20)
cognitive dissonance
requires high effort and is deliberate.
controlled thinking
Movements in Contemporary Social Psych: Interest in cross-______ study
cross-cultural
What are they components of the cyclical nature of the theory-hypothesis relationship?
data from a study provides evidence to support or disconfirm the hypothesis. if the hypo. is supported the validity of the theory is also supported, generating new hypothesis to test in future research.
conformational bias
dismiss outliers and actively select data that validates your point)
1. Easier to persuade ... audience (sometimes). 2. Audience with .... self-esteem more easily persuaded. 3. If audience initially opposed, present .... argument. 4. If initially ...., present one-sided argument. 5. ........The more the audience knows, the more difficult to persuade.
distracted low two-sided in favor Knowledge
The Elaboration Likelihood Model Elaboration = ...... arguments and developing own arguments in same direction. Central route = high elaboration, hence degree of persuasion depends on .....of arguments. Peripheral route = low elaboration, hence ....... allows attitude change with weak arguments and shallow processing.
elaboration: scrutinizing central: quality peripheral:distraction
In an effort to process very large quantities of social information quickly, we have developed cognitive shortcuts that work much of the time, but leave us open to predictable _______
errors in judgment.
Darwin acknowledged this : we quickly forget or dismiss info that _____ to confirm our beliefs science is the Best effort to avoid impact of human nature on understanding nature of reality
fails
The Value-_______ perspective Some think that scientists should not be concerned with how their discoveries are applied. They say that trying to influence social policy is irresponsible.
free
Twin studies Conclude a high % of the variability in personality is due to ________
genetics.
.The Ultimate Attribution Error is the Actor-Observer effect applied to _______
groups
Low incentive -> _____ dissonance (and vice versa) - Linder study
high
Psychology focuses on __________ level variables like thoughts, emotional reactions and behaviors Sociology focuses on __________ level variables like status, norms and social roles'
individual group Psych: Focus on individual in family vs Socio: family as a whole
Basic & applied research can_____ each other
inform
(the ability to learn)
intelligence
(the result of learning))
knowledge
The Value-_____perspective Social science and social action should be connected. Scientists are morally obligated to try to improve society.
laden
More money -> ______ attitude change - Linder study
more
Use of Social Neuroscience Relationship between social and _____ processes Which ________ processes are involved in specific behavior
neural processes cognitive processes
One independent variable has a different effect at the different levels of the _____ Results reveal an ________
other I.V. Interaction
More persuasive if message appears not intended to 2. Message that evokes ...(especially fear) is more persuasive. 3. .......messages (see "the audience" on next slide)
persuade strong emotion 1-sided vs 2-sided
Evolutionary Psychology Individuals don't evolve, ______ do Adaptive traits persist but can become maladaptive as the environment ______
populations changes
Six Basic Steps of Research 1.Select a topic and _____ past research. 2.Develop (or adopt) a theory, generate one or more testable __________, and select a method. 3.Obtain approval from the ____ 4.Collect _____. 5.Analyze the data and reevaluate the theory. Results ____or_____ the theory. 6.Report results (papers, presentation, poster). Includes _____ review (published in scientific journals)
review hypotheses IRB data support or fail peer
Augmenting and discounting are often done in a very _______. It is easier to imagine reasons to discount information we don't like. And it is relatively easy to hunt for a reason to augment a position that we do like.
self-serving way
The Quasi-Independent Variable (Quasi-I.V.) is the _______ of the participants. The ____ is height in inches.
sex D.V.
But, as in all correlational designs, a ______ result may support the possibility of a cause and effect relationship between Quasi-IV and the DV (Necessary but not sufficient).
significant or reliable
While a person might successfully regulate one or two channels to hide their internal state, it is difficult or impossible to regulate all channels ______
simultaneously.
Science is the opposite of religion : always begins with assumption of ________-> start with null hypothesis (pretend what is wrong is true and try to disprove it)
skepticism
Cognitive capacity is limited! (Capacity of Short-Term Memory is _____)
small
the suproxin study (schachter & singer)
tested the two factor theory of emotion
our best explanation for a set of observed relationships among 2 or more variables & advances knowledge in a specific area
theory
But attitudes often do predict _______
behavior Attitude specificity 2. Attitude strength. Extremity as in a Vested Interest, Certainty= clarity, correctness and consensus 3. Personal Experience 4. Attitude Accessibility
Sex (______ state) & ______ (psychological state)
biological Gender
It is hard to change attitudes when there is a _____. Having a personal involvement especially one with an expectation of financial gain
vested interest
The ABC Model. Today we say that a true attitude has 3 components:
• Affect (emotion) • Behavior (action) • Cognition (thinking)
Behavior often does influence our attitudes
(B-A rather than A-B)
Need for cognition another personality trait Verbal Intelligence/general intelligence Education level(knowledge)
(Don't confuse intelligence (the ability to learn) with knowledge (the result of learning))
Step 1. Everyone did a very boring task Step 2. Everyone agreed to recruit fellow students by telling them the task was very interesting (a lie). Some were paid $1, others $20 Step 3. Everyone rated how interesting step 1 was"
$1/$20" study Details
Any superstition. Example 1: If I put on a new shirt and then hit my first homerun of the season, the shirt caused the homerun. Example 2. If Sirus is low in the sky at sunset and the rainy season begins the next day, Sirus caused the rain.
"The Cause and Effect illusion"
The Speaker
1. *Experts are more persuasive 2. *Attractive speakers are often more persuasive 3. *Familiarity and liking matter (Humor) 4. *Credibility of speaker matters Sleeper effect with low-credibility source 5. *Rapid speakers can be more persuasive, prevents central route see slide 39 *Con artists use some of this against us Antisocial Personality Disorder (sociopath)
Causal Attributions are often biased
1. Fundamental Attribution Error 2. The Actor-Observer Effect 3. Self-Serving Bias 4. Self attribution 5. Misattribution 6. Attributional style (Learned Optimism).
________ = does not attempt to solve a specific problem in the "real world" Increases knowledge for knowledge's sake
Basic research
Fritz Heider in 1946 introduced his theory of Cognitive Consistency. People are motivated to keep their own explicit (conscious) attitudes organized in a consistent and tension-free manner.
Cognitive Consistency
(Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959) an assigned article "The Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance" The "less is more" study Or the "$1/$20" study
Cognitive Dissonance
Timeline: American Social Psych + Behaviorism + Gestalt -> Then came ____________ (observing behaviors vs analyzing)-> Today Biological or Neuroscience
Cognitive Revolution
______ : take care of group, accept group influence, group goals > individual goals (70% of world)
Collectivism
Bringing alternate outcomes to mind. Also "the ease of counterfactual thinking" varies in different situations.
Counterfactual Thinking
______ Shapes Social Behavior US focuses on need of ______ and uniqueness (capitalism stems from this) ______ : pursue goals, do not like to be influenced, take care of self & immediate family on ______ : take care of group, accept group influence, group goals > individual goals (70% of world)
Culture individual
When we read studies in this course I might ask: was it a true experiment or a correlational study. What were the variables? What was the independent variable? How many levels were there? What was the dependent variable? What was the main finding?
Important for studying from articles
refers to studies of factors that influence our assessment of others
Impression Formation
looks at things we do to present ourselves favorably
Impression Management
The 12 zodiac signs in order are: Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces.
Illusory Correlations
"no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes" If no-one acts, onlookers may believe others believe action is incorrect, and may therefore themselves refrain from acting.
In short, pluralistic ignorance is a bias about a social group, held by the members of that social group.[2]
Linder, Cooper & Jones, 1967 Decision freedom as a determinant of the role of incentive magnitude in attitude change, JPSP All were asked to write an essay in favor of barring controversial individuals from speaking on campus. (An idea most opposed) There were 2 independent variables The Dependent Variable was
Incentive (low and high) $.50 or $2.50 Choice (choice and no choice) about essay attitude change (about barring people from speaking on campus)
The ____Variable is the amount of coffee. The ___ is heartrate in beats per minute.
Independent D.V.
______ : pursue goals, do not like to be influenced, take care of self & immediate family on
Individualism
Limbic System
Limbic System (automatic)
The effects of Perceived Choice on Cognitive Dissonance. (a 2-way interaction). Cognitive dissonance in free choice, operant conditioning in no choice To experience Cognitive dissonance, people must feel they had a choice.
Linder, Cooper & Jones, 1967
1. Self-enhancement Appearance Achievements Positive qualities (social media) credentials 3. Other-enhancement. Flattery, favors, eye contact, smiling, nodding May backfire if over done. Target may feel manipulated.
Methods of Impression Management(Self-presentation) - may be survival advantages
Facial expression (Darwin & Paul Ekman - lie to me) Eye Contact (pupil dilation, blinking when lying & avoiding eye contact) Body Language (gestures/emblems specific to culture, posture, movement) Touching Others, Scents, Others: clothing, hair, makeup...
Nonverbal Communication :
___________: first social psych experiment in 1895 : Bicycle racers go faster next to a competitor than alone
Norman Triplet
Examples of Allport:
My thoughts are affected by the actual presence of others. All these students are looking at me. I hope I remember what comes next. My feelings are affected by the imagined presence of others. As I think about going out later, I'm embarrassed by what my friends might think of these clothes. -> we imagine people are thinking of us My behavior is affected by the implied presence of others Even if I can't see the TSA agent at the airport, I still don't leave my bag unattended.
Birth order affects personality Only-children are thought to be independent, self-centered, selfish and spoiled.
NOT TRUE
6 contemporary approaches to Psych
Psychoanalytic, Behavioral, Gestalt, Cognitive, Humanistic and Biological.
Resistance to Persuasion 1. ________________ doing the opposite when freedom is threatened. 2. ________________ reduces persuasion 3. ________________ (including Brain washing) 4. ________________ = avoiding info that challenges existing attitudes. 5. ________________ Old dogs resist new tricks. If you don't like the message, blame the source. (it's called "Shooting the messenger"). Old dogs resist new tricks. If you don't like the message, blame the source. (it's called "Shooting the messenger")
Resistance to Persuasion 1. Reactance doing the opposite when freedom is threatened. 2. Forewarning reduces persuasion 3. Inoculation (including Brain washing) 4. Selective Avoidance = avoiding info that challenges existing attitudes. 5. Age and attitude change. Old dogs resist new tricks. If you don't like the message, blame the source. (it's called "Shooting the messenger")
When a factor which might facilitate a behavior and one which might inhibit the same behavior are both present and the behavior occurs, we add weight to the behavior. (Unexpected) (Rep endorses Dem and criticizes Rep)
The Augmenting Principle
The importance of one particular explanation for a given behavior is reduced to the extent that there are other possible explanations for that behavior. Expected. (Dem endorses Dem)
The Discounting Principle
they provide Knowledge b. may help with Identity c. may help with Self-Esteem d. Ego-Defense e. Impression Management
The Function of Attitudes
It says that since we all have our own beliefs and opinions about things, when we hear an unbiased news presentation that fairly presents both sides of an issue, we get angry and feel that the presentation was biased in favor of the other side.
The Hostile Media Phenomenon
Social Cognition:
The manner in which we interpret, analyze, remember and use information about the social world.
In the Epi Mis condition, where the symptoms were inappropriate to the subject's bodily state the self-report score is almost twice that in the Epi Inf condition where the symptoms were completely appropriate to the subject's bodily state. It is reasonable, then, to attribute differences between informed subjects and those in other conditions to differences in manipulated appropriateness rather than to artifacts such as introspectiveness or self-examination.
The means of both the Epi Ign and Epi Mis conditions are considerably greater than the mean of the Epi Inf condition
set of procedures where you gather data, analyze for patterns and interpret information -> leading to dependable generalizations
The scientific method:
"It seems reasonable to suggest that the higher their self-awareness, the more likely they are to respond with careful processing to persuasive messages dealing with issues they find important."
b. Self-awareness (Carver& Scheier, 1981)
