PSY309 Ch. 7-8 (Exam #2)

Social psychologists (e.g., Knox & Inkster, 1968) have shown that people who gamble are more confident in their choices:

After the bet, because of the effort to reduce post-decisional dissonance We are more confident after we make irrevocable decisions because we can't turn back the clock and make a different decision. Consequently, we mitigate any anxiety associated with the decision by inflating our confidence about that choice. Ch. 7-8

Post-decision dissonance

-After important decisions -We enhance the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devalue the rejected alternative

Consequence of counterattitudinal advocacy with no external justification

Attitude change (self-persuasion) A classic study using an effort justification paradigm: Aronson & Mills (1959) A classic study using an induced compliance paradigm: Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)

Why is it so hard to change strong attitudes?

Because their information base is lopsided It's hard to change strong attitudes because we have encoded and stored so much information to back it up Ch. 7-8

Compared to attitude change based on systematic processing, attitude change based on heuristics will:

Endure for a shorter time Ch. 7-8

Are explicit memory and conscious processing necessary for spreading of alternatives?

Lieberman et al., 2001 - No, even amnesiacs (and those under cog load) enhance chosen alternatives and devalue the others

Basic premise of cognitive dissonance theory:

People have a fundamental need to maintain a stable (and usually positive) sense of self

According to the theory of reasoned action, intentions are directly influenced by:

Social norms and attitudes Social norms and attitudes lead individuals to form an intention to do something, and this intention leads to the actual behavior. Ch. 7-8, pg. 297-299

Decisional dissonance is strongest if:

The alternatives are equally attractive Such decisions are difficult and induce much greater levels of post-decisional dissonance than more discrepant alternatives. Ch. 7-8

What is not a prerequisite for cognitive dissonance to occur?

The behavior must lead to objective loss of face Face-saving is irrelevant Ch. 7-8

Advantage of implicit attitudes:

When used with Explicit attitude -> tells us a lot more informational

What is true about the influence of positive emotions on the way we process information?

When we feel good, we are motivated to keep this feeling and we are less eager to process information that might interfere with it When we're in a good mood, we want to maintain it Ch. 7-8

Factors that influence attitude change and persuasion:

Yale attitude change approach (WHO) Source factors: credibility, expertise, trustworthiness, likeability, attractiveness, similarity (WHAT) Message factors: fear appeal versus logic, one-sided versus two-sided argument, Number of strong or weak arguments, repetition (BY WHAT MEANS) Channel factors: in person, on television or radio, via audiotape, via computer (TO WHOM) Receiver factors: personality, expectations (e.g.: forewarning), initial attitude on issue, strength of preexisting attitudes

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Behavior toward attitude object → Positive reinforcement or punishment → Positive or negative attitudes toward the attitude object Ch. 7-8

Three components of an attitude?

affective, behavioral, cognitive Ch. 7-8

behavioral component of attitude

any behavior directed at the target or behavioral intention, predispositions to act Ex: "i vote for gun-control advocates whenever possible" Ch. 7-8

Attitude inoculation

considering arguments for and against your attitude beforehand, so you are more easily about to withstand persuasive appeals

The processing of information that differs greatly from our attitudes often leads to ______, whereas the processing of information that strongly corresponds to our own attitudes usually leads to ______.

contrast; assimilation Ch. 7-8, pg. 267-268

Reactance theory

defiance when freedom/autonomy threatened Study by Engs & Hanson (1986) on % college of students who drink by age group Study by Pennebaker & Sanders (1976): the power of reactance

cognitive component of attitude

facts, beliefs about the target, ideas Ex: "gun owners end up shooting themselves more often than they shoot thieves" Ch. 7-8

affective component of attitude

how you feel about the attitude target, emotions, feelings Ex: "guns make me sick" Ch. 7-8

Peripheral route (ELM)

is spontaneous and takes little thought Source cues (attractiveness, expertise), emotion, other "heuristics" are persuasive Persuasion based on nonmessage factors such as attractiveness, credibility, emotion → Low elaboration: minimal processing of the information → less durable attitude change

Central Route (ELM)

requires effort and mental resources Argument strength, logic are persuasive Persuasion based on content and logic of the message → High elaboration: careful processing of the info → More durable attitude change

cognitive dissonance

the act of holding two inconsistent cognitions (Festinger, 1957) Typically arises when one's behavior is inconsistent with one's values, beliefs, or positive self-concept Elicits discomfort Motivated to reduce the dissonance

Mr. Nike wants to market a new brand of shoes. To help him, he's hired you, a consultant who knows a lot about social psychology. You know that Mr. Nike can use the foot-in-the-door effect to sell his shoes. (1) What would you tell him to do to utilize this technique? (2) Explain to Mr. Nike why this strategy is so successful.

(1) To utilize this technique, I would tell Mr. Nike to offer a 50% off sale on all the new brand of shoes, this will lead more customers to buy more of the shoes. If customers buy the discounted shoes, Mr.Nike would offer them to become members of the product by signing up for a membership card--which costs more money. Customers who have already chosen to buy discounted items, will be more likely to buy the membership card afterwards. (2) This strategy is successful because the performance of the initial behavior (buying discounted shoes) triggers self-perception processes, making the new attitude more likely to agree with the second behavior (buying membership card). Ch. 7-8

Common strategies to reduce dissonance:

-Change the behavior -Change the attitude or belief -Change your construal of the behavior -Add cognitions to reduce the discrepancy -Reducing perceived choice

When is the central route (ELM) taken?

More likely to take central route if you have: Motivation (e.g.: personal relevance, Need for Cognition) Need for Cognition: construct Time and cognitive resources (e.g. distraction, depletion)

Role of decision permanence in dissonance

More permanent = less revocable -> more dissonance

Advantages & disadvantages of explicit attitudes:

Advantages: Quick & easy surveys Disadvantages: Social desirability biases Demand characteristics

According to research on fear-arousing communications, which anti-smoking advertisement will be most persuasive?

An ad that shows graphic images of tarred lungs as well as information on how to quit. Such ads will be effective by motivating people to quit smoking while giving them a tool/resource to do so Ch. 7-8, pg. 263

Attitude

An enduring evaluation, positive or negative, of people, objects, or ideas Ex: attitude on gun control Attitudes reflect the info that is currently accessible Ch. 7-8

implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious e.g: self-esteem, racial attitudes

Baron & Banaji (2006)

Development and origin of racial attitudes 3 age groups of White people (6 vs.10 vs. adults) 2 measures (IAT, forced choice preference) Results: asymmetry in the development of implicit and explicit racial attitudes

Suppose people are exposed to a persuasive message that is either self-relevant or not, and the sender of the message is either an expert or not. What effects on attitude change would you expect?

If the message is self-relevant, this will lead to systematic processing, and the expertise of the sender does not matter When a persuasive appeal is self-relevant, we are more likely to process it systematically rather than use heuristics like source expertise. Ch. 7-8

Negativity bias

Negative info is weighed more heavily than positive info (a negativity bias) Negative info: surprising, unusual, etc. Ch. 7-8

Participants in a study by Wells and Petty (1980) were asked to test out some headphones while simulating the movements of jogging (moving their head up or down) or bike riding (moving their head side to side). While engaging in these movements, participants listened to a message that either advocated increasing tuition or decreasing tuition. The results showed that:

Participants who simulated bike riding were more likely to disagree with the message. Ch. 7-8

Positive moods typically promote ____ processing

Peripheral route processing Mackie & Worth 1991

Two motivational factors that can lead to systematic processing of persuasive information are:

Personal involvement and need for cognition Research by Petty, Cacioppo, and others demonstrates that individuals are more likely to engage in systematic processing when persuasive appeals are self-relevant and when the individuals are high in need for cognition Ch. 7-8, pg. 256-259

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; describes two "routes" to persuasion Central Route: requires effort and mental resources Peripheral Route: is spontaneous and takes little thought

"The more you see it, the more you like it" is a phrase that nicely sums up:

The mere exposure effect The more familiar we are with something or someone, the more positive we feel about it/him/her Ch. 7-8, pg. 245-246

The Functionalism Approach to persuasion

To persuade people, address the function served by their behavior or attitude Function-matched arguments are the most effective

explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

Confirmation bias

tendency to seek information that supports our beliefs and ignore inconsistent information

If no external justification for behavior:

we make internal justifications